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Forest Fragmentation and Its Impact On Species Diversity: An Analysis Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Forest Fragmentation and Its Impact On Species Diversity: An Analysis Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Forest Fragmentation and Its Impact On Species Diversity: An Analysis Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Springer 2005
DOI 10.1007/s10531-004-0695-y
-1
Key words: Forest fragmentation, GIS, Patch, Species area curves, Species diversity and remote
sensing, Vegetation
Abstract. The process of forest fragmentation, a common phenomenon occurring in tropical for-
ests, not only results into continuously forest getting fragmented but also brings about several
physical and biological changes in the environment of forests. Consequently, there is a loss of
biodiversity due to change in habitat conditions. These remnant fragments provide the last hope for
biodiversity conservation. The present study deals with the impact of decreasing patch size of a
fragmented forest on the diversity of the tropical dry deciduous forests in Vindhyan highlands,
India. There is considerable change in the vegetation cover of this region owing to rapid indus-
trialization and urbanization, which has also contributed to forest fragmentation. In the present
study, remotely sensed data has been used to describe the changes brought about in vegetated areas
over a period of 10 years as a result of fragmentation and its impact on biodiversity was assessed.
Further, in order to assess the loss of species with respect to the reduction in patch size, species area
curves for various change areas were analysed. It was observed that the rate of decrease in the
number of species is faster in the case of negative change areas as compared to the positive change
areas of the region. Various diversity indices also support this observation. Such an analysis would
help in formulating appropriate conservation measures for the region.
Introduction
interaction. Roy et al. (2002) have reviewed the application of remote sensing
and GIS for the assessment and monitoring of tropical forest resources.
Studies relating to the tropics have documented the relationship between
patch area and species diversity (Pimm and Raven 2000; Hill and Curran 2001;
Wagner and Edwards 2001). Fuller (2001) analysed patterns of forest frag-
mentation in forests of Virginia, USA, using multitemporal Landsat data and
highlighted that landscape metrices can convey significant information on
biophysical changes associated with forest fragmentation at broad scales.
Other studies have addressed the issue of patch area in relation to the com-
munity structure (Lovejoy et al. 1983, 1986; Bunge and Fitzpatrick 1993;
Colwell and Coddington 1994; Turner and Corlett 1996; Kemper et al. 1999)
emphasizing the overall concern about forest fragmentation and its effect on
plant diversity. Forman (1995) and Lomolino (2001) have discussed that larger
patches have more species than smaller patches and that area is more impor-
tant than isolation, patch age, and many other variables in predicting species
number.
Species area curves help in understanding the relationship between the
number of species occurring and the patch size and at the same time the
probable decrease/loss in species can be assessed in the forest areas with patch
sizes. Methods using a species area curve lead to the rule of thumb calculation
that a loss of 90% habitat leads to 50% loss of species (Heywood and Stuart
1992). A number of estimates of extinction rates in tropical forests have been
made using species area curves (Lovejoy 1980; Simberloff 1986; Raven 1987;
Myers 1988; Reid and Miller 1989; Reid 1992). Area-based extinction models
use the well-known species area relationship (Mac Arthur and Wilson 1967) to
predict loss of species in fragmented habitats (Boeklen and Simberloff 1987). It
is assumed that by reducing the size of a forest, it will lose species according to
some gradient (Hill and Curran 2003). The consequences are that forest is lost,
and so are the sites which are important for species diversity and endemism.
Remote sensors provide a synoptic view of the various land features of the
earth at regular intervals and have been indicated as useful for monitoring the
dynamic resources (Lubchenco et al. 1991; Roughgarden et al. 1991; Stoms and
Estes 1993; Innes and Koch 1998). Satellite remote sensing has played a key
role in generating information about forest cover, vegetation type and land use
changes (Houghton and Woodwell 1981; Botkin et al. 1984; Malingreau 1991;
Roy 1993). Multitemporal satellite data have been used to quantify tropical
deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the spatial context (Skole and
Tucker 1993). Changes in shape and size of forest fragments can be assessed
using satellite data and in a GIS environment.
Objectives
The objectives of the present study were: (i) to analyse the extent of forest
fragmentation in two major plant communities during the past decade
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(1988–1998), (ii) to study the impact of decreasing patch size in various change
categories on the biodiversity of this region, and (iii) to analyse the change in
vegetation cover and its impact on biodiversity.
The Vindhyan highlands are located inbetween the Indo Gangetic plains and
the Narmada valley (Figure 1). The area covers Sonebhadra district of Uttar
Pradesh and Sidhi and Surguja districts of Madhya Pradesh, and the southern
part of Sasaram and Bhabua division of Bihar State.
The study area chosen for detailed analysis lies inbetween 83:00¢:00¢¢E to
83:15¢:00¢¢E longitude and 24:00¢:00¢¢N and 24:30¢:00¢¢N latitude. The ele-
vation above mean sea level ranges between 315 and 485 m. The terrain is
undulating and characterized by hillocks, escarpments and plateau like for-
mations. Mean maximum temperature varies from 23.2 C in January to
40.5 C in May and mean minimum from 13.3 C in January to 30.5 C in
June. The year is divided into three seasons: summer (April to mid-June), rainy
(mid-June to September) and winter (November to February). October and
March constitute the transition months between the rainy season and winter,
and between winter and summer seasons, respectively. Annual average rainfall
Figure 1. (a) The location of the study area; (b) the Indian Remote Sensing-Wide imaging Field
sensor (WiFS): false colour composite, band I–visible (620–680 nm) and band 2–near-infrared
(770–860 nm); and (C) field photographs.
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is 1035 mm, of which 85% is received in the rainy season from the southwest
monsoon. There is an extended dry period of 9 months in the annual cycle.
The soils are nutrient-poor, residual ultisols, sandy loam in texture and
reddish dark gray in colour. In the hilly region, the soils are of poor quality and
gravelly in nature. In depressions, however, the soils are productive, deeper
and greyish brown to black in colour.
The potential natural vegetation of this region is northern tropical dry
deciduous forest (5B/C2) (Champion and Seth 1968). The major dominant
species are Shorea robusta C.F. Gaertn, Hardwickia binnata Roxb., Boswellia
serrata Roxb., Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb., Anogeissus latifolia Wall. ex
Bedd., and Lannea coromandelica (Houtt). Merrill Diospyros melanoxy-
lon(Roxb). The shrubs and climbing shrubs associated with the tree species are
Acacia torta, Gardenia latifolia, Nyctanthes arbor-tris tis, Zizyphus oenoplia and
Ventilago calyculata (Bhattacharya 1964). The scrub layer consists of the fol-
lowing species Zizyphus nummularia, Zizyphus xylopyra, Acacia catechu, Butea
monosperma, Acacia nilotica. Other associate species include herbs and shrubs
such as Coccolus hirsutus, Teramnus labialis, Ipomea pestigridis, Ichnocarpus
fruetacens. The slopes of the plateau are characterized by a large number of
broadleaved species such as Lagerstroemia parviflora, Butea monosperma,
Madhuca indica, Anogeissus pendula and Wrightia tinctoria. The total number
of tree species in the study area is 75, tree density ranges from 20 to 860 stems/
ha and the sapling density ranges from 0 to 1620 saplings/ha (Jha 1990).
The forest is a mosaic of communities, each of which is distributed into non-
contiguous patches. The species flow and confineness in this region are unique
by virtue of their presence in the fragmented forest patches (Jha and Singh
1990) and are an adaptation to moisture stress and fluctuating rainfall in the
annual cycle. The heterogeneity of the environment as well as disturbance are
the prime causes of patch formation (Raghubanshi et al. 1990).
The study region is undergoing change in vegetation cover as a result of
increasing large scale anthropogenic pressure in the form of mining, thermal
power generation, cement industry, etc. (Singh et al. 1991). Besides sporadic
illegal tree felling, widespread lopping and extraction of non-timber forest
resources is also occurring. The forested area is continuously decreasing and
the present-day landscape is highly fragmented with forest patches at different
degradation stages, intergrading with savanna and croplands.
The satellite data for two time periods was acquired from Landsat-TM and
IRS-1D LISS III sensors, as the 1988 LISS III data was not available. The
details of the two sensors are described below. Landsat-TM has a spatial
resolution of 30 m and the spectral wavelengths of four bands analysed in the
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study are as follows: band 2 (green) – 0.52–0.60 lm; band 3 (red) – 0.63–
0.69 lm; and band 4 (near infrared) – 0.76–0.90 lm. The Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite (IRS) carries onboard the sensors LISS III, PAN and WiFS.
The spatial resolution of LISS III is 23.5 m. The spectral resolution of LISS III
sensor is: band 2(green) – 0.52–0.59 lm; band 3 (red) – 0.62–0.68 lm, and
band 4 (near infrared) – 0.77–0.86 lm.
The satellite data pertaining to the study area were obtained for the same
season for the two time periods 06-12-1988 (Landsat-TM), and 05-12-1998
(LISS III). The two datasets were independently rectified to the topobase, with
a root mean square (RMS) error less than one pixel. Each dataset was rectified
to projection Polyconic and spheroid Everest datum (ERDAS Field Guide
1999).
Classification
Change analysis
To assess the change in vegetation cover over the past decade (1988–1998), a
change analysis was conducted. The two datasets were resampled to the
common base 30 m as they belonged to two different sensors. A normalized
difference vegetation index (NDVI) was generated for each dataset. Mean and
standard deviation were analysed. Thresholding values of ‘k’ standard devia-
tion from the mean were interactively selected for the time period t1 and kept
constant ‘k’ for the time period t2 (Tunf Fung and Ellesworth 1988). The
binary images having values 0 and 1 representing non-vegetated and vegetated,
respectively, were generated for both the time periods. To get an unchanged
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area, the ‘AND’ operation of Boolean logic was applied between two binary
images. Unchanged area has been subtracted from both the binary mask of
time t1 and time t2 to get a negative and positive change mask, respectively
(Gharai 1997). Figure 2 shows the methodology for change analysis.
The qualitative change in the forest stand crown cover resulting into the
change in the reflectance pattern was analysed through the change in the digital
numbers in the remotely sensed data. The changes in the digital numbers of the
remotely sensed data showing vegetation change were categorized into positive,
negative and no change. However, the ground-inventoried data pertaining to
these categories were analysed to phytosociologically characterize the men-
tioned categories. In order to quantify the changes in vegetation in terms of
species composition and density, it was required to have reference plots for
comparison with both negative and positive change plots. The paired reference
plots were identified in the no change areas in the vicinity for negative and
positive change areas, respectively for immediate comparison. The ‘no change’
plots in the immediate vicinity of negative change areas were identified as
reference plots for negative change plots and a similar approach was followed
for positive change areas. This reference plot was required in order to balance
the ‘natural growth’ during the change duration in harmony with environ-
Ground inventory
Fragmentation analysis
Spatial data from remote sensing was incorporated in GIS to study the spatial
and temporal patterns of forest loss and the phenomenon of forest fragmen-
tation. This attempt was made in windows of 40 · 40 pixel images around the
five locations, which were chosen along a gradient of increasing anthropogenic
pressure. They are Kota, Bhavanikataria, Hathinala, Majhauli and Khataba-
ran. They are independent of the nine sites as mentioned earlier, which were
selected for the quantification of the vegetation change areas (positive/nega-
tive) along with their paired reference plots. Sal forest and mixed forest were
then divided into four area classes (<1.5, 1.5–2.5, 2.5–5.0, >5.0 ha) based on
the species area curve, as described. In these size classes, the patch parameters
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such as number of patches, patch area and patch perimeter were computed
from the GIS functions provided by ARC/INFO manual (version 7.2.1, 1999).
Patch parameters
A species area curve simply represents the observation that the number of
biological species found in a region is a positive function of the area. The
primary focus of discussion involving species area curves has been about their
use and application in conservation biology, to determine the optimal design of
nature reserves and to predict the expected loss of species richness from a
region undergoing specified levels of area reduction (Higgs 1981).
In order to predict the species loss from species area curves, the following
parameters are needed: original number of species (S), the area reduction
(Areduced/Aoriginal), and the slope of the species area curve (z). Using the formula
S = cAz, substituting Soriginal= c(Aoriginal)z and Sreduced = cA(reduced)z, species
loss in relation to decreasing patch size can be calculated as follows (Connor
and Mc Coy 2001):
z
SðreducedÞ =SðoriginalÞ ¼ ððAðreducedÞ =AðoriginalÞ Þ
Species area curves for ‘Positive reference’, ‘Negative reference’, and ‘Posi-
tive change’ and ‘Negative change’ plots were analysed. Based on the species
area curves, the corresponding patch sizes likely to hold approximately 90, 75,
50 and 25% of the total species were interpolated to assess the possible impact
of patch size reduction on species richness.
Here it is important to explain the slope chosen for calculation. There are
certain parameters that must be taken into consideration. First, the relation-
ship between species and area can be either a linear or a power function. The
slope of the species area curve should be constant between spatial scales over
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The existing vegetation of the study area can be divided into broad categories;
Sal dominated and mixed forest cover types. Phenology plays a major role in
the case of tropical forests. Sal forests constitute mainly evergreen species
which are in ‘leaf on’ conditions throughout the year. Sal dominated cover
types occur on relatively moist sites (Champion and Seth 1968) and are found
on the northern aspect, whereas other species are found on the southern aspect.
Mixed forests constitute dry deciduous species like Lagerstroemia parviflora,
Butea monosperma, Diospyros melanoxylon, Anogesissus latifolia, Acacia cate-
chu, Lannea coromandelica, Boswellia serrata and Zizyphus sps. etc. and are in
‘leaf off ’ conditions during the warmer months of the year, e.g in March and
April. Thus the significant difference in the phenology of the two major
communities facilitates their distinction in spectral reflectance across the sea-
sons and thus gets separated through the classification of remotely sensed data.
The forest patches of these two communities were analysed separately. The
landscape consisted of 14.70% of Sal dominated forest patches and 85.30% of
mixed forest patches of the 166,000 ha total forest area analysed.
Table 1 shows that except for Khatabaran and Hathinala, Kota, Bhava-
nikataria and Majhauli generally had greater MPA in mixed forest compared
to Sal forest. It was also observed that there was a related decrease in MPP in
mixed forests of Khatabaran and Sal forests of Hathinala areas. Kota,
Bhavanikataria and Majhauli showed a trend of higher perimeter in mixed
Table 1. The fragmentation indices in Shorea and mixed forest categories analysis.
Shorea forests
Kota 0 4 0 1.23 0 0.05
Bhavanikataria 12 44 2.5 1.34 0.08 0.05
Hathinala 18 34 8.99 0.99 0.17 0.04
Majhauli 15 13 0.94 0.39 0.04 0.02
Khatabaran 4 13 64.29 20.76 0.67 0.23
Mixed forests
Kota 5 13 11.66 1.23 0.23 0.16
Bhavanikataria 8 25 64.29 10.9 0.58 0.16
Hathinala 12 5 18.56 70.42 0.3 0.45
Majhauli 17 1 0.94 0.39 0.04 2.93
Khatabaran 15 44 8.86 2.65 0.16 0.07
NP – number of patches; MPA – mean patch area; MPP – mean patch perimeter.
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Figure 3. Species area curves showing patch sizes holding different proportions of the total
number of species.
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Figure 4. Portion of satellite data derived map showing various communities of different patch
size class.
communities in various size classes can be seen in Figure 4. In the case of Sal
forest, there is an increase in the number of patches in the size class of <1.5 ha
at Hathinala, Bhavanikataria and Kota (Figure 5). However, there is a de-
crease in the number of patches in the size class of 1.5–2.5 ha and >10 ha
patches at Hathinala. The decrease in the categories 1.5–2.5 ha and >10 ha
may have led to an increase in the <1.5 ha category. In the Hathinala mixed
forest category, there is a decrease in number of patches in the size class of
<1.5 ha, which may have led to an increase in some other size class. The
number of patches of <1.5 ha is larger at Khatabaran site.
The landscape analysis shows that of the total forest area analysed, 67.08%
area is showing increase in crown cover, which we consider as a positive
change. However, 30.55% area is experiencing decrease in crown cover,
which has been considered as a negative change. It was observed during the
fieldwork that a relatively higher protection level exists around positive
change areas. Also, these positive change areas were found to be more
contiguous in terms of forest cover, as evident from the satellite image in
Figure 6. Negative change areas have closer proximity to the habitations, as
shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 5. (a) Fragmentation scenario in Shorea forest; (b) fragmentation scenario in mixed forest
categories.
The community coefficients calculated for positive and negative change areas
with reference to their paired no change plots indicated a differential rate of
change in community composition (Table 2). The similarity coefficients vary
from 13 to 83% in positive change plots and from 4 to 86% in negative change
plots. In case of positive change area, when a positive change plot is least
similar to its reference area, it would mean that the plot has changed to its new
state within a period of 10 years. Plots having very little similarity with the
original (reference) plot, the rate of change is considered to be very rapid. On
the other hand, when a positive change plot is highly similar to its reference
plot, it implies that the rate of change in the 10-year interval was very slow and
the plot has remained largely similar to its original state. At the Murdhawa and
Majhauli areas, it is seen that the rate of change is very slow, whereas at the
Hathinala 2 and Ranitola areas, the rate of change is rapid. The higher simi-
larity value containing plots are concentrated around higher protection
regimes.
In the case of negative change plots and their paired reference plots, it is seen
that high similarity index means that the negative change is little or the rate is
low because the negatively changed plot has remained largely similar to the
original state i.e. negative reference plot. A low similarity index means that the
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Figure 6. False colour composite showing positive change in the study area around Hathinala
forest.
Figure 7. False colour composite showing negative change in the study area around Kakori
village (a) LANDSAT TM (1988); (b) LISS III (1998).
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Table 2. Degree of change during 10 years in comparison with reference plots based on Index of
similarity (ISe) (Ellenberg 1956).
negative change is far advanced from the reference plot, i.e. negative change
has been rapid. At Karkori, Nadhira, Sahgopon, and Khatabaran, it is ob-
served that there has been a rapid change as compared to other areas like
Harhori and Anantia fair. The change in community composition can be
attributed generally to factors such as topography, climate and biotic pressure.
In this area the overall topography is undulating type and does not change
significantly and the entire study area belongs to the same climatic regime.
Therefore, biotic pressure alone appears to be the causative factor for bringing
negative change in the community composition. This observation is supported
by field and satellite data observations.
Figure 8. Reduction in patch size in relation to loss in species number in various categories of
change. PR–positive reference; PC – positive change; NR – negative reference and NC – negative
change.
Table 3. Relationship between reduction in patch size (x) and species loss (y) according to the
linear equation: y = a + bx (where y is dependent and x is independent variable; a = intercept
and b = slope).
Area a b r2 p
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
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