SPE-177159-MS

Recognition of Oil-Water Contact Architecture in Water Drive Reservoirs by

Rock Typing Implementation, Sacha Field of Ecuador
Laura Rodriguez and Jose Leal, Halliburton-SPE; Hernan Sanchez and Gino Hinojosa, Operaciones Rio Napo
CEM

Copyright 2015, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference held in Quito, Ecuador, 18–20 November 2015.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
This paper discusses the successful, fully integrated petrophysical and geological modeling of the Hollin
formation in the Sacha field of Ecuador. The goal of the modeling project was to unravel aquifer
heterogeneities and hydrodynamic effects; it focuses on suitable petrophysical rock typing, supporting
the establishment of a tilted water/oil contact (WOC) that follows a particular architecture across the
field.
Documenting WOC changes is extremely important during reservoir modeling. Changes in fluid
levels can be related to, among other things, structural complexities, rock heterogeneities, and hydraulic
movement effects. However, when dealing with a mature field characterization that has undergone an
accelerated production, flow capacity differences and remaining reserves become critical points to
delineate aquifer heterogeneities. The identification of aquifer heterogeneities and possible
hydrodynamic flow were considered separately to address this problem, using available core data, a log-
derived water saturation (Sw) model, and dynamic performance integrated with a rock typing approach.
Such factors were considered when studying the Cretaceous Lower Hollin formation in the Sacha
field. The Sacha field is a mature field in Oriente basin, Ecuador, and the reservoir is characterized by a
sequence of amalgamated sandstones deposited primarily by a braided stream system. A strong aquifer
underlies this sequence of amalgamated sandstones and maintains a stable pressure. As a result, various
WOCs are displayed at different levels in the wells with a variation of up to 70 ft across the field.
Aquifer heterogeneities were identified as facies changes, faults, and capillarity effects that perhaps
triggered these WOC irregularities. Although these anomalies do not prevent vertical fluid
communication within the reservoir, they represent an important step for proper electrical rock property
interpretation; thus, providing a more realistic reservoir Sw model. The construction of rock-fluid
surfaces helps to identify the aquifer heterogeneities related to steady state WOC depths. The textural
features of the rock in conjunction with an identified water recharge point created an WOC surface that
vary the inclination rates from 2 ft/km northward, 13 ft/km eastward, and southward across the field,
creating a predictable WOC architecture that affected water production.
This improved understanding of key petrophysical aspects and methods arising from work
undertaken to solve various problems related to the tilted WOC have revealed new opportunities to the
field edges. These opportunities have been tested with newly drilled wells with excellent results. The
results obtained from these tests are having a significant effect on future drilling programs.
2 SPE-177159-MS

Introduction
The Sacha Field is one of the largest fields in the central part of the Oriente Basin of Ecuador (Fig. 1). It
has more than 40 years of historical production with cumulative oil production of 852 MMSTB and
remaining reserves in the order of 592 MMSTB. This field has been operated by Operaciones Rio Napo
CEM (ORNCEM) since 2009; currently it has an average oil production of 72,000 STB/D of oil (26.5
°API) from 225 active wells.
A dynamic reservoir simulations project is underway in this field. One of the most difficult input data
has been the definition of the original oil-water contact in the most prolific producing reservoir of the
field, known as the lower Hollin Formation. This reservoir is a highly amalgamated sandstone reservoir.
Notably, the degree of amalgamation is greater towards the base of the reservoir, changing progressively
towards the top to a greater body differentiation (Fig. 1) (Jaillard 1997). Even though such variations do
not prevent vertical fluid communication into the reservoir zone, they do represent an important factor
for the interpretation of Sw and representative Ro to effectively position the WOC levels. In addition,
the strong aquifer influx causes a rapid sweep of oil, which challenges the interpretation of the original
fluid surface position.
This paper attempts to clarify the technical aspects for the calibration of a fluid distribution model by
rock typing integrating the geological setting and production of the field, analyzing the equilibrium of
the original fluid levels that make existing traps. This model establishes a background for dynamic
reservoir simulation and embodies an important input for new drilling targets.

Fig. 1—(a) Sacha Field geographic location; (b) Lower Hollin Formation type-log.

Theory and Definitions

 Rock type: According to Gunter (1997), a rock type can be defined as a rock deposited under
similar conditions, which has experienced similar diagenetic processes resulting in a unique
porosity-permeability relationship, capillary pressure profile, and water saturation for a given
height above free water in a reservoir.
 Original water-oil contact (WOC): This is a bounding surface in a reservoir above which
predominantly oil occurs and below which predominantly water occurs. Although oil and water
are immiscible, the contact between oil and water is commonly a transition zone, and there is
usually irreducible water adsorbed by the grains in the rock and immovable oil that cannot be
produced. The WOC is not always a flat horizontal surface but instead might be irregular or
tilted because of hydrodynamics fluid conditions.
 Oil down to surface (ODT): This is defined in a fully oil-bearing reservoir interval, meaning the
reservoir is fully oil-bearing throughout the well section up to the deepest porous sandstone
SPE-177159-MS 3

deposit. The deeper ODT represents the P90 probability that the WOC can be found under this
depth.
 Water up to surface (WUT): This is defined if a well is drilled into a water zone below the WOC.
It is established as the top of the water-filled sandstone. Shallower WUT represents the P10 of
WOC location.

If a WOC is not evidenced in drilled wellbores over a field, the deepest ODT and/or the shallowest
WUT for the likely WOC depth can be estimated (Rodriguez et al. 2012).

Discussion and Results

During reservoir characterization, information from distinct sources and different measurement scales
were gathered. Depending on the scale at which a property has been measured, some variations can be
shown in reservoir heterogeneity (Kelkar et al. 2002).
Reservoir heterogeneities can be roughly divided into four levels: microscopic in which a property
has been measured at pore-level scale (e.g., pore geometry, grain size); macroscopic related to core-plug
level scale; megascopic represented by measurements at the reservoir simulation gridblocks scale and
wireline logs; and gigascopic which accounts for regional scale such as well-test data.
In general, a property measured at a microscopic scale will exhibit significant variation in magnitude.
As the measured volume increases, some heterogeneity could be lost because of averaging of property
values; as a consequence it will show less variability.
The assessment of original WOC definition requires an understanding of all the measurement scales
listed above in terms of their effect on the property, interpretation, and integration. These are discussed
in the following sections.

Microscopic and Macroscopic Scales: Lithofacies and Petrofacies

Recognition
Possible aquifer heterogeneities, which can cause reservoir compartmentalization and uneven WOC
levels, include rock quality changes, barrier or baffles layering, and faults. The capillary pressure
understanding can help in evaluating the complexity of pore throat network.
Texturally, the lower Hollin Formation consists of quartz-rich, consolidated cross-bedded sandstones,
in part friable, generally coarse grained, subrounded to subangular, well sorted with occasional clay
matrix and local coal, displaying an aggrading pattern. The depositional environment for lower Hollin
Formation varies from a braided system at the base to an estuarine system towards the top (White et al.
1995).
Sedimentary facies were classified according to best qualities of texture and grain sizes. A total of 20
sedimentological facies types for both upper and lower Hollin Formation were recognized whose
reservoir quality decreases as it increases in number (Fig. 2) (Gaibor 2013). According to this analysis,
the lower Hollin Formation presents a predominance of AM and AX facies (related to bars and channels
deposits) compared to ALF, ALC, and H facies in which ALF and ALC facies are related to sandflat
while H facies is related to mudflat deposits (Gaibor 2013). X-ray diffraction (XRD) information shows
quartz is the most predominant mineral and the kaolinite is the prevailing clay mineral (Fig. 2).
4 SPE-177159-MS

Fig. 2—Sedimentological features, lower Hollin (after Gaibor 2013).

A combination of capillary pressure (Cp) data by centrifuge and High Pressure Mercury Injection
(HPMI) methods were analyzed. In general terms, the HPMI provides a good idea of pore throat radii
governing the flow, but it is the centrifuge Cp that really exerts the rock wettability condition and as a
consequence predicts a more reliable Swirr.
The kair from available Cp plugs ranges between 0.29 md to 2924 md as summarized in Fig. 3. After
a corresponding transformation from laboratory-system conditions to oil-brine reservoir conditions for
such rock qualities, a height above free water level (FWL) of 5 ft in average with a transition zone of 32
ft is observed.

Fig. 3—Capillary pressure data, lower Hollin, Sacha Field.

Based on flow zone indicator (FZI) values (Amaefule et al. 1993) and the Winland r35 Plot (Fig. 4),
five petrophysical rock types are identified from all depositional facies. This analysis shows at least five
rock types that govern the flow. Pore throat radii range from 2 μm to 45 μm according to this approach.
Associating the Cp data with isolines rock quality helped in identifying the rock types. A 3D facies
model has been verified, demonstrating that on the basis of previously mentioned rock types, rock types
1 and 2 are the most prevailing reservoir rock qualities for the lower Hollin Formation.
SPE-177159-MS 5

Fig. 4—Petrophysical rock typing based on FZI and Winland plots, lower Hollin.

Previous to applying this rock typing definition to log scale, statistical analysis for all core data was
carried out. Because of differences in the sampling pattern and perhaps missing maximum rock quality
development in a particular core’s drilling location, core distribution between wells was compared
through a QQ plot technique.
An example of such analysis is shown in Fig. 5 (left) for log-core permeability distribution of well S-
170 in which it can be seen that above 500 md of permeability, both populations show essentially the
same distribution. Below this value, the core data shows permeabilities greater than those exhibited by
the log data. This can be considered a local bias. Cored-wells located in the south of the field show
constantly higher core permeability values than in the northern part, which could be attributed to shalier
geobodies in the northern area.

Fig. 5—QQ plot analysis of lower Hollin: Log-core permeability distribution of S-170 (left); north-south global permeability
distribution (right).

Poorer rock qualities do exist; however, they represent a lower percentage of frequency associated
with facies that are fully or partially eroded by overlying channels. Such layers considered as baffles are
not continuous across the reservoir. Those are corroborated with the Stratigraphic Modified Lorenz
(SML) plot with core and log data (Fig. 6, left). In this example, lower Hollin shows 16 flow units in
both core and log data because this well contains enough sample plugs to allow a good interpretation of
the flow units based on the core data. Flow units 8, 11, and 13 will dominate the primary depletion
because they represent the best producing zones.
6 SPE-177159-MS

Benchmarking this approach with sedimentological description resulted in representation of paleosoil

development in sand channels and high content of carbonaceous material, causing a significant reduction
in porosity and especially permeability.
The Kv/Kh relationship was also analyzed for the lower Hollin Formation using the core SA-170V.
Each core plug was described in terms of its respective sedimentary facies to link the Kv/Kh relationship
to its paleo depositional environment (Rodriguez 2014). This tendency gives a Kv/Kh ratio of 0.84,
indicating a high coalescence level for this formation at this level of heterogeneities (Fig. 6, right).

Fig. 6—Stratigraphic modified Lorenz plot (left); Kv/Kh ratio for lower Hollin Sacha-170 (right).

It is recognized that lower Hollin exhibits micro baffles at the sand geobodies level. Organic material
affects the resistivity responses, increasing their values, while cemented mud drape structures cause high
acoustic velocity. Once all the possible heterogeneities from core were considered, the log upscaling
propagation was successfully achieved (Fig. 7).
SPE-177159-MS 7

Fig. 7—Petrophysical rock typing interpretation, Sacha-170.

Megascopic Scale: Structural Configuration and Fluid Analysis

Structurally, the Sacha field consists of an anticlinal fold of north-south orientation, 30 km long and 7
km wide on average. It is bounded to the west by a high angle reverse fault. Some strike slip faults
(transpressive dextral) with NW-SE direction have been inferred based on reservoir behavior.
To display the lower Hollin WOC levels, several structural section interpretations are taken into
account. Only those that possess relevant aspects are discussed in this paper. At this level, the fluid-fluid
surfaces (WOC) and fluid-rock surfaces (ODT, WUT) are interpreted using petrophysical criteria based
on rock type, Ro, and Vsh. Afterwards, several maps were generated evidencing the trends in levels of
WOC, ODT, and WUT of the lower Hollin Formation.
To observe a possible oil-water contact movement to its original position, the exploitation pattern of
the field and the starting in-fill wells drilling were analyzed. It was decided to choose for this study the
wells drilled between 1969 and 1990: a total of 118 wells. Toward the periphery of the field, some wells
were drilled after 2005; therefore, 12 recent wells were taken for geological control only. Wells from
neighboring Mauro Dávalos Cordero (MDC) field were also included (MDC-1, MDC-2, and MDC-3).
Structural section 1 (Fig. 8, left) evidences that S-2 located at the southern part of the field has a
deeper WOC level compared to well S-1 located in the central region (-9,052 and -9,028 ft TVDSS,
respectively) with a difference of 24 ft TVDSS over a distance of 7.8 km. Among the S-1 well (center-
west) and the S-4 well (northern part), there is a WOC difference of 14 ft TVDSS over a distance of 12.9
km. This section observes how the WOC slope is gentler to the north and steeper southward. Structural
section 2 (Fig. 8, right) is focused on wells located in the northern part of the field. Here, well S-38
8 SPE-177159-MS

shows a WOC of -9030 ft TVDSS. Wells S-71 and S-69 are structurally deeper, which have consistently
shown WUT levels of -9052 and -9075 ft, respectively.

Fig. 8—Structural section 1 (left); structural section 2 (right).

By contrasting the WOC and WUT maps (Fig. 9A), it is evident that lower Hollin Formation to the
north of well S-38 is located below the WOC, a structurally deeper area fully water-filled. This is a
structural oil entrapment whose "spill-point" is located at a depth of -9040 ft TVDSS (Fig. 9A).
Structural section 3 relates the wells from the central-eastern part of the Sacha field with the wells of
the MDC neighbor field (Fig. 9B). It is observed the WOC level continues dipping southward toward
wells MDC-3, MDC-1, and MDC-2. When comparing with structural section 4, it shows a general WOC
dipping eastward from -9050 ft TVDSS (reference well: S-2) to -9146 ft (reference well: MDC-1) over a
distance of 8.8 km. This WOC plane matches the singular WOC exhibited by the blind-test well S-310V
at -9072 ft TVDSS located right in the middle of the section (Fig. 9C).
The WOC surface interpreted does not follow the structural reservoir top; therefore, any moniclinal
or flexure bed suppositions were disregarded.
An important outcome has arisen from this structural analysis. The WOCs displayed from west to
east of the field have variations of up to 100 ft across the field. If this is compared with capillary
pressure scale, which exhibit WOCs with no more than 32 ft of transition zone above FWL for the
poorest rock quality, then an essential conclusion that there is additional energy tilting the original WOC
is evident. This pattern can constitute a major evidence of hydrodynamic conditions because of constant
fluid contact dip angles and directions over the field despite any facies changes.
SPE-177159-MS 9

Fig. 9—(A) WOC and WUT maps; (B) structural section 3; (C) structural section 4.

Gigascopic Scale: Pressure-Production Analysis for Water Drive Reservoir

At the gigascopic scale, pressure profile through reservoir tests enables determination of fluid contacts
within a well. However, there are limitations in the accuracy of this information as it usually needs
significant corrections, leading to use of only corrected shut-in pressures unaffected by nearby
production for the evaluation.
To understand the behavior of pressure at the lower Hollin Formation, the information analyzed by
Hernandez (2013) was used based on 479 buildup tests and three repeat formation tester (RFT) tests in
the studied reservoir. This study indicates that pressure decline is low and/or non-existent according to
the small variation between the initial reservoir pressure of 4,378 psi and the current pressure of 4,307
psi (by December 2012), demonstrating the support provided by the underlying infinite aquifer (both at
datum of -8,992 ft TVDSS).
Because of this fact, some considerations were taken into account for demonstrating subtle changes in
pressure variations upon the first drilled wells without affecting nearby producer wells. By analyzing the
first four drilled wells depicted in Fig. 10, small changes in pressure from 4,024 psi at the S-2 well
located in the southern part of the field can be seen, reaching the highest pressure value of 4,342 psi at
the S-1 well located in the central zone and slightly decreasing to 4,327 psi in the northern well S-4. It
closely relates the WOC seemed on log responses and slightly suggests pressure support at the central
part of the field that might be positioning shallower WOC levels. (All pressures are referred to the datum
of -8,992 ft TVDSS.) From west to east, subtle differences are seen showing higher pressure near to the
fault plane and decreasing progressively to the west (Fig. 10, left).
There are also significant changes in salinity as defined by the electrical response for those 100%
water saturated sandstones (Ro). This is a striking difference between the northern part of the field,
which exhibits a range of Ro varying between 10 and 60 Ω m, and the central and southern zones of the
field with a Ro range between 80 and 300 Ω m, (Fig. 10, right). Such decrease in the salinity of water
formation can be associated with water recharge of meteoric fresh water. Changes in water salinity
10 SPE-177159-MS

coincide closely to the dipping inclination angle of the field. As the water salinity decreases, the
inclination dip increases, which can be attributed to water recharge point.

Fig. 10—Pressure analysis (left); Ro map, lower Hollin Reservoir (right).

Additionally, drilled wells can be produced by natural flow from bottom to surface facility, strongly
suggesting the presence of a confined aquifer with flowing artesian wells. This fact, in conjunction with
geological and petrophysical analysis previously discussed, provides the framework for the conceptual
model described in this paper (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11—Conceptual tilted WOC model.

Detailed pressure analysis and geological-petrophysical framework have allowed the interpretation of
possible strike-slip faults at the central-western flank of the Sacha field (Fig. 12) to be providing the
fairway for a possible "recharge point" and, therefore, the tilting of WOC, suggesting major aquifer
pressures at points with shallower WOC levels. The greater the distance from the "recharge point", the
lower the pressure exerted by the aquifer; consequently, WOC levels tend to be deeper. This fact creates
inclination rates throughout the field that vary according to the distance from the suggested "recharge
point”, as mentioned before from 2 ft/km to the north, 13 ft/km in the central part (west-east orientation),
to 11 to 14 ft/km towards the south of the field. Establishing equilibrium regions for reservoir
SPE-177159-MS 11

simulations taking into account the WOC dipping, enabling a good full-field history match (Fig. 12)
(Sandoval 2013).

Fig. 12—Tilted WOC surface, lower Hollin Reservoir, Sacha Field.

Blind Test: New Pad Confirmation

This model constitutes an important input for new drilling targets across the entire field, but mainly in
the structural edge zones. With the drilling of the new pad at the south of the field (Pad-390) (Fig. 13),
the uncertainty of this model was successfully tested. This pad represents a blind test for this model.
In an area where the lower Hollin reservoir was not originally conceived to find oil because of its
structural position, the tilted WOC surface pinpointed a chance to find lower Hollin with oil-filled
sandstone. Once wells S-391, S-392, and S-395 were drilled to the south of the pad, oil was successfully
found with WOC levels very close to the predicted values (98% accuracy). Wells S-391 and S-392
produced from lower Hollin and accumulated 262 MBOE. The rest of the wells, even though they
exhibited an oil-filled lower Hollin reservoir, are producing from other reservoirs with more
prospectivity such as Napo U. An important feature is noticed: all wells in Pad-390 also reflect water
fingering caused by production drainage (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13—Structural section W-E orientation S-395/S-391/S-392 of Pad-390 (left); WOC structural map, benchmarking Pad-390 WOC
level prediction (right).
12 SPE-177159-MS

Conclusions
 The reservoir heterogeneity scaling approach enables appropriately discretizing the variation
range of fluid movement into a water drive reservoir such as lower Hollin.
 Rock typing processes for methodologies Winland r35 and Amaefule, correlated with statistical
QQ plot analysis, honor the rock quality upscaling from core to logs.
 The Sacha Field evidences variation in its original WOC, showing inclination towards the east,
north, and south of the field.
 The shallower level corresponds to the Midwest zone of the field whose WOC area is located
between -8,990 ft and -9,010 ft TVDSS. This reaches maximum values of -9,040 ft TVDSS to
the north (reference well S-38) and -9,075 ft TVDSS towards the east of the field.
 The merge of strike-slip faults located in the central-west axis of the field exerts dynamic control
as a water carrier to position the WOC at the shallower level (-8,990 ft TVDSS).
 WOCs vary their inclination angle from 2 ft/km to the north, 13 ft/km in the central part (west-
east orientation), to 11–14 ft/km towards the south of the field.
 On the basis of the first drilled wells, the observed transition zones range from 0 to 20 ft,
depending on rock quality changes and their frequency of occurrence. According to available
capillary pressure data, the most representative WOC is located at 5 ft above FWL with a
transition zone no higher than 32 ft above FWL.
 Lower Hollin Formation has pore throat radii from 2 μm to 45 μm, according to Winland r35
rock-type classification. There are a total of five rock types for the lower Hollin Formation (four
reservoir rocks and one nonreservoir rocks).
 The Kv/Kh ratio is 0.84, which, in conjunction with coalescence analysis, evidences a high
vertical transmissibility.
 The lower Hollin Formation has a confined aquifer with a flowing artesian well pattern.
 Based on this model, there are chances to find oil-filled sandstone in the lower Hollin reservoir at
the structural edges of the field beyond the traditional producing areas.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Operaciones Rio Napo CEM (ORNCEM) for permitting publication of
this paper. We thank all the engineers who made this publication possible through their technical
contribution.

References
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Nomenclature
°API = API gravity
ALC = sandstone with crinkle laminations
ALF = sandstone with flaser laminations
AM = massive sandstone
AX = cross-bedded sandstone
BSW = basic sediment and water
CEC = cation exchange capacity
Cp = capillary pressure
cPs = centipoises (viscosity unit)
E = east
Fm = formation
ft = Feet
FWL = free water level
GR = gamma ray
H = heterolithic facies
Kair = air permeability
Kh = horizontal permeability
Kv = vertical permeability
Kv/Kh = vertical/horizontal permeability ratio
N/D = neutron/density
N/S = neutron/sonic
NE = northeast
Np = cumulative production
NW = northwest
ODT = oil down to
Pi = initial pressure
Psia = pound square inch absolute
Pr = reservoir pressure
RD = deep resistivity
Ro = 100% water saturated sandstones
RT 1,2,3 = rock type 1, 2, 3…
SE = south-east
So = oil saturation
STB = stock tank barrel (volume unit)
STB/D = stock tank barrel per day (daily production rate)
SW = southwest
Sw = water saturation
Swirr = irreducible water saturation
TVD = true vertical depth
TVDSS = subsea true vertical depth
Vsh = Shale volume
W = west
WOC = Water-oil contact
XRD = X-ray diffraction
Ωm= ohm meter