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Multimedia Unit 1
Multimedia Unit 1
UNIT – 1:
MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS: Introduction, multimedia information representation,
multimedia networks, multimedia applications, media types, communication modes, network
types, multipoint conferencing, network QoS application QoS. 6 Hours
TEXT BOOK:
REFERENCE BOOKS:
Introduction:
Definition2: Multimedia is any combination of text, art, sound, animation, and video. It
is delivered to the user by electronic or digitally manipulated means. A multimedia
project development requires creative, technical, organizational, and business skills.
1. Person-to-Person communications or
2. Person-to-System communications
Applications involving text and images - comprise blocks of digital data units.
Text data - typical unit is block of characters with each character represented by,
fixed number of Binary digits (bits) or Codeword.
Digitized image data - comprises a 2-D block of pixels (picture elements) with
each pixel represented by a fixed number of bits.
Applications involving text and images: comprise the short request for a file.
Ex.: file contents being returned, the duration of the overall transaction is relatively
short.
Applications involving Audio and Video Signals: Vary continuously with time as
the amplitude of the speech, audio, or video signal varies.
Ex.: Typical telephone conversation can last for several minutes and Movie
(comprising audio and video) can last for a number of hours.
Applications involves of single type of media: Basic form of representation of the
particular media type is often used.
Applications involving either text-and-images or audio-and-video: Their Basic
form is often used since the two media types in these applications have the same
form of representation.
Applications involving of different media types: We integrated together in some
way as it's necessary to represent all 4 media types in a digital form.
For text and images: This (digital) is their standard form of representation.
For audio and video: since, their basic forms of representations are analog signals
- these must be converted into a corresponding digital form - before they can be
integrated with the two other media types.
Digitization of an audio signal: produces a digital signal with amplitude of the
signal varies continuously with time and is of relatively high bit rate, is measured
by bps (bits per second) and for speech signal a typical bit rate of 64 kbps.
Applications involving audio can be of a long duration: this bit rate must be
sustained for an equally long time period.
Digitization of video signal: the same applies as that of audio signals but, except
that the much higher bit rates and longer time durations are involved.
In general, the communication networks that are used to support applications that
involve audio and video cannot support the very high bit rates that are required for
representing these media types in a digital form hence we go for compression.
Compression: It's a technique first applied to the digitized signals in order to
reduce the resulting bit rate to a level which can support be supported by various
networks.
Compression to text and images: To reduce the time delay between a requests
being made for some information and the information becoming available on the
screen of a computers or over others.
Multimedia Networks:
Five basic types of communication networks are used to provide multimedia
communication services:
1. Telephone networks.
2. Data networks.
3. Broadcast television networks.
4. Integrated services digital networks.
5. Broadband multiservice networks.
1,2, and 3 networks are initially designed to provide just a single type of service as listed
as below:
1. Telephone networks: telephony
2. Data networks: data communications
3. Broadcast television networks: broadcast television
Telephone networks:
Public Switched Telephone network (PSTNs) has been in existence for many years and
have gone through many changes over the time.
Designed to provide a basic switched telephone service which, with the advent of the
other network types has become known as POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service).
'Switched': term is used to indicate that the subscriber can make a call to any other
telephone that is connected to the total network.
Initially such networks spanned just a single country later, telephone networks of different
countries were interconnected so, that they now provide an international switched service.
Main components of the network are shown in the Fig below.
Local Exchange/End Office: telephones located in the home or in a small business are
connected directly to their nearest LEs/Eos.
Private Branch Exchange (PBX):
i. Telephones located in the medium or large office/site are connected to a PBX or
Private switching Office.
ii. Provides a (free) switched service between any two telephones - that are connected
to it.
iii. Connected to its nearest LE (public), which enables the telephone that are
connected to the PBX also to make calls through a PSTN.
Cellular Phone Networks: Been introduced which provide the similar service to the
mobile subscribes by means of the handsets that are linked to the cellular phone network
infrastructure by radio.
MSC (Mobile Switching Center): it's the switch used in the cellular phone network Like
the PBXs also, connected to a switching office in a PSTN which, enables both sets of
subscribers to make calls to one another.
IGE (International Gateway Exchange): route and switch the international calls.
General scheme of modem is shown in the Fig below.
Speech signal: is an analog signal varies continuously with time according, to the
amplitude and frequency variations of the sound resulting from the speech.
Microphone: used to convert this into an analog electrical signal. Telephone networks
operate in circuit mode which means, for each call a separate circuit is set up through the
network of the necessary capacity for the duration of the call.
Access circuits: link the telephone handsets to a PSTN or PBX were designed to carry the
2-way analog signals associated with a call.
Hence, within the PSTN all the switches and the transmission circuits that interconnect
them operate in digital mode to carry a digital signal a stream of binary 1s and 0s over the
analog access circuits require the device modem.
Modem:
i. At the sending side: modem converts the digital signal output by the source digital
device into an analog signal which is, compatible with a normal speech signal it is
routed through the network in the same way as a speech signal.
ii. At the receiving side: modem converts the analog signal back again into its digital
form before, relaying this to the destination digital device.
Have the necessary circuits to set up and terminate the call.
Using a pair of modems: at each subscriber access point a PSTN can also be used to
provide a switched digital service.
Early modems: supported only a very low bit rate service of 300bps.
Modems now support, bit rates of up to 56kbps as the result of advances in digital signal
processing circuits and is sufficient, to support various applications comprising of text and
images integrated together and also services that comprise speech and low resolution video
modems are now available to use with same access circuits that provide a high bit rate
channel which is in addition to the speech channel used for telephony the bit rate of this
second channel, typically is such that it can support high resolution audio and video hence,
they are used to provide access to servers that support a range of entertainment related
applications.
Figure below shows the general scheme of this, and such applications need bit rates in
excess of 1.5 Mbps.
Technological advances in modems area have been made PSTNs can now support speech
applications and also a wide range of other multimedia communication applications.
Data networks:
Designed to provide basic data communication services such as e-mail and general file
transfers.
User equipments - connected to data networks: are the computers such as a PC, a
workstation, or an e-mail/file server.
Two widely deployed types of data networks:
1. X.25 network and
2. Internet.
X.25 network: operational mode is restricted to relatively low bit rate data applications.
Hence, unsuitable for most multimedia applications.
Internet: Made up of a vast collection of interconnected networks all of which operate
using the same set of communication protocols.
Communication protocol: an agreed set of rules that are adhered to by all communicating
parties for the exchange of information.
Rules define the sequence of messages that are exchanged between the communication
parties and the syntax of these messages.
By using, the same set of communication protocols: all the computers that are connected to
the Internet can communicate freely with each other irrespective of their type or
manufacturer this is the origin of the term "open systems interconnection".
Figure below shows a selection of the different types of interconnected network.
User at home or in a small business access to Internet is through an intermediate: ISP
(Internet Service Provider) network normally, this type of user wants access to the
Internet intermittently the user devices are connected to the ISP network either through a
PSTN with modems or through an ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network which
provide access at a higher bit rate).
Business user - obtain access through a site/campus network if, the business comprises
only a single site or obtain access through an enterprise-wide private network if, it
comprises multiple sites.
Colleges and Universities In the case of a single site/campus: network is known as a
(private) LAN (Local Area Network), In the case of sites that are interconnected together
using an inter-site backbone network to provide a set of enterprise-wide communication
services network is known as an enterprise-wide private network Providing
communication protocols used by all the computers connected to the network are the same
as those defined for use with Internet.
Enterprise network (Intranet): all internal services are provided by using the same set of
communication protocols, as those defined for the Internet.
IBN (Internet Backbone Network): different types of network are all connected to it
through an interworking unit called gateways.
Gateways (Router): an interworking unit connects IBN and the different types of network
responsible for routing and relaying all messages to and from the connected network
hence, also called as a router.
Packet mode: all data networks operate in this mode.
Packet: container for a block of data and has head in which, address of the intended
recipient computer (which is used to route the packet through the network).
This mode of operation is chosen since, the format of the data associated with data
applications is normally in the form of discrete blocks of text or binary data with varying
time intervals between each block.
Multimedia PCs: have become available that support a range of other applications.
Ex.: with the addition of microphone and a pair of speakers with sound card and
associated software to digitize the speech PCs now are used to support telephony and other
speech-related applications with the addition of video camera and associated hardware and
software a range of other applications involving video can be supported.
Due to those availability above of higher bit rate transmission circuits and routing nodes
have become available, and also more efficient algorithms to represent speech, audio and
video in a digital form.
Packet-mode networks and the Internet in particular: support general data
communication applications and also a range of other multimedia communication
applications involving speech, audio, and video currently.
Multimedia Applications:
Many and varied applications involving of multiple media types present.
Major categories of multimedia applications:
1. Interpersonal communications.
2. Interactive applications over the Internet.
3. Entertainment applications.
In many instances networks used to support applications were initially designed to provide
the service which involves just the single type of medium and with advances in
technology, made multimedia applications support possible along with initial designed of
basic services being from those possible and in some applications basic designed
applications become - still more enhanced form is of possible.
Speech Only:
Traditionally, involves – speech, telephony.
Service is provided using telephones which are connected either to PSTN/ISDN/Cellular
network or PBX.
Figure below shows the general scheme
Multimedia PC with microphone and speakers, if using user can make telephone calls
through PC.
This requires the telephone interface card and associated software called CTI (Computer
Telephony Integration).
The advantages of using PC, instead of conventional telephone for calls are:
1. User can create his or her own private directory of numbers and initiate a call
simply by selecting the desired number on the PC screen.
2. Circuit’s bandwidth is more (providing access circuits to the network has sufficient
capacity).
3. Integration of telephony with all the other networked services are possible by PC.
4. In addition to Telephony many public and private networks support additional
services.
Ex.: Voice-mail and Teleconferencing
Voice-mail: Used when the called party being unavailable Spoken message is then be left
in the voice mail box of the called party Voice mail server, located in the central
repository had voice mail boxes, Message can be read by owner of the mailbox the next
time he, or she contact the server.
Teleconferencing: Calls involve multiple interconnected telephones/PCs. Person can hear
and talk to all of the others involved in the call called the conference call/teleconference
call since, it involves a telephone network or audio conference call which require an
audio bridge - a central unit which supports to set up a conference call automatically.
Internet was used to support telephony. Initially, designed to support computer-to-
computer communications Just (multimedia) PC-to-PC telephony was supported
subsequently, extended so that a standard telephone could be used.
Figure below shows telephone over the Internet below
PC-to-PC telephone call: Standard addresses are used to identify individual computers
connected to the internet are used same way as for a data transfer application.
Internet: operates in the packet mode Both PCs must have the necessary hardware and
software to convert the speech signal from the microphone into packets on input and back
again prior to output to the speakers.
Thus Telephony over the Internet is known as Packet voice as the network protocol
associated with the internet is called the Internet Protocol (IP), Voice over IP (VoIP).
Telephony gateway: It’s a Interworking unit to connect the PC connected to the Internet
and a telephone connected to the PSTN/ISDN - since both operate in the circuit mode PC
user sends a request to make a telephone call to a preallocated telephony gateway using the
latter’s internet Address Gateway requests from the source PC the telephone number of the
called party assuming user is registered for this service. Source gateway on receipt of
above initiates the session (call) with the telephony gateway nearest to the called party
using the Internet address of the gateway. Called party then, initiates a call to the recipient
telephone using its telephone number and the standard call procedure of the PSTN/ISDN.
Assuming the called party answers called gateway signals back to the PC user through the
source gateway that the call can commence. Similar procedure followed to clear the call on
completion.
Image Only:
Exchange of electronic images of documents is an alternate form of interpersonal
communications over PSTN/ISDN known as Facsimile (Simply, fax).
Figure below illustrates facsimile
Communication involves use of the pair of fax machines one at each network termination
point.
Document sending: caller keys in the telephone number of the intended recipient, a circuit
is set up through the network in the same way as for a telephone call Two fax machines
communicate with each other to establish operational parameters after, which the sending
machine starts to scan and digitize each page of the document in turn both fax machines
have an integral modem within them and as, each page is scanned it’s digitized image is
simultaneously transmitted over the network and as this is received at the called side a
printed version of the document is produced after the last page of the document has been
sent and received connection through the network is cleared by the calling machine in the
normal ways.
PC fax:
PC can be used instead of the normal fax machine to send an electronic version of
document stored directly within the PCs memory. Digital image of each page of the
document is sent in the same way as the scanned image produced by a conventional fax
machine.
With Telephony this requires a telephone interface card and associated software, latter
operates in the same way as like the fax machine so, and terminal at the called side can be
either a fax machine /another similar PC.
It Is Possible to send (by using LAN interface card and associated software) the digitized
document over other network types such as an enterprise network particularly, this mode
of operation useful when working with paper-based documents, such as invoices.
Text only:
Ex.: E-mail (Electronic mail).
User terminal is normally are normally a PC or a workstation.
Figure below shows various operational scenarios
User at home access to the Internet through the PSTN/ISDN, and through an intermediate
ISP network.
Business users obtain access either through an enterprise network/site or campus network.
Email servers: One or more associated with each network Collectively contain a mailbox
for each user connected to that network User can both create and deposit mail his/her
mailbox read mail from it. Standard Internet communication protocol used by e-mail
servers and internetwork gateway.
Figure Below. shows the format of the text-only e-mail message
At the head: unique Internet-wide name of both the sender and recipient of the mail, In
addition present mail copy can be sent to multiple recipients each of whom is listed in the
cc part of the mail header „cc‟ acronym for the carbon copy the original means of making
(paper) copies of documents Text only mails content: comprise unformatted text typically,
strings of ASCII characters.
Typically distributed group of people each in the place of work are all working on the same
project.
User terminal is either a PC or a workstation.
Shared whiteboard: Window on each person’s display is used as the shared workspace,
display comprises integrated text and images.
Software associates comprises of whiteboard program, a central program and a linked set
of support programs, one in each PC/workstation.
Linked set of supported programs made up of change-notification part and update-control
part.
Change-notification part: Sends details of the changes in the whiteboard program
whenever, a member of the group updates the contents of whiteboard.
Update-control part: Present in each of the other PCs/workstations obtain above change
information in turn, proceed to update the contents of their copy of the whiteboard.
Ex.: for this case transmission of a live lecture or seminar, typically information stream,
transferred from the lecturer to the remove class would be integrated speech-and video
together with electronic copies of transparencies, and other documents used in the lecture
In reverse direction information may comprise just speech for questions or integrated
speech-and-video to enable the lecturer to both see and hear the members of the class at
the remote location.
Communication requirements in terms, these are similar to those for a two-party
videophone call. If the lecturer is relayed to multiple locations a separate communication
channel is required to each remote site or MCU is used at the lecturer’s site.
Relatively high BW that is involved network is either an ISDN (supports of multiple
64kbps channels) or a broadband multiservice network if one is available.
In Figure above there is a group of people at each location. This type is in use from many
years was the first example of videoconferencing. Normally, a group of people are present
at each location.
Videoconferencing studios: Specially equipped rooms are used – which contain all the
necessary audio and video equipment, comprising of one or more video cameras, a large-
screen display, and associated audio equipment, all of which are connected to a unit called
videoconferencing system.
Conference can involve just 2 locations or more usually, multiple locations (in this latter
case an MCU is normally, used to minimize the BW demands on the access circuits to the
network) as Figure in MCU is shown. as the central facility within the network and hence,
only a single 2-way communications channel is required for each access circuit of the
network. Ex.: this type of arrangement, with a telecommunications-provider conference.
If a private network alternately used MCU is normally located at one of the sites
Communication requirements, are then more demanding since, it must support multiple
input channels one for each of the other sites and a single output channel, the stream from
which must be broadcast to all of the other sites.
Multimedia:
Assumption: The information content of each e-mail message consisted of text only used
in the earlier discussed.
Ex.: In addition an mail containing, other media types such as images, audio, and video are
also used like voice-mail, video-mail, and multimedia mail.
Voice-mail: Similar in principle to earlier discussed telephone networks. Internet-based
voice-mail there is a voice-mail server associated with each network, in addition to e-mail
server.
Figure below Shows this
User first enters the voice message addressed to the intended recipient local voice-mail
server then, relays this to the server associated with the intended recipient’s network stored
voice message is then, played out the next time the recipient accesses voice-mailbox.
Same mode of operation is used for video-mail except, the mail message comprises an
integrated speech-and video sequence.
Multimedia mail: An extension of text-only mail in as much as the basic content of the
mail comprises textual information.
Textual information is annotated with a digitized image, a speech message, or a video
message, as in Figure.
Speech-and-video case in the annotations can be sent either directly to the mailbox of the
intended recipient together with the original textual message and, hence stored and played
out in the normal way or they may have to be requested specifically by the recipient when
the textual message is being read.
Recipient can always receive the basic text-only message but, the multimedia annotations
can be received only if the terminal being use by the recipient supports voice and/or video.
Each document comprises a linked set of pages and linkages between the pages are known
as hyperlinks.
Hyperlinks are pointers also known as references to other pages of the same document or
to any other document within the total web so, a reader of the document has the option at
well-defined points throughout the pages that make up a document to jump either to a
different page of the same document or, to a different document. Also, to return
subsequently to a specific point on a page at a later time.
Optional linkage points within documents are defined by the creator of the document and
are known as anchors for which the necessary linkage information is attached.
Hypertext are documents comprising only texts and are created using hypertext.
Hypermedia are documents comprising multimedia information and are created using
hypermedia.
Figure below Shows general structure of this type of document.
There is no central authority for the introduction of new documents into the web. On side
in anyone create a new document providing the server has been allocated an Internet
address, and make hyperlink references from it to any other document on the web.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a Document’s unique address which identifies both
location of the server on the Internet, where the first page of the document is stored and
also the file reference on the server.
Home page is the First page of the document all the hyperlinks on this and other pages
have similar URLs associated with them physical location of a page is transparent, to the
user and in theory can be located anywhere on the web.
A Standard format is used for writing documents is known as HTML (Hyper Text
Markup Language) and is also used for writing client software to explore the total
contents of the web, i.e., the contents of the linked information on all the web servers.
A Browser is a Client function and there are number of user-friendly browsers available
to explore visited servers and to open up a dialog with a particular server at the click of the
mouse. Once the desired document has been located, the user simply clicks on an anchor
point within a page of the document to activate the linkage information stored at that point
Possible to return to the previous anchor at any time.
With the hypertext document: Anchor is usually, an underlined word or phrase.
With the hypermedia document: Anchor is usually, an icon of an appropriate shape.
Ex.: Loudspeaker for a sound annotation for a video camera for a video clip.
In Some applications client simply wishes to browse through the information stored at a
particular site. Ex.: Browsing through sales literature, product information, application
notes periodicals, newspapers, and so on. In general, no charge for accessing this
information however, access to books, journals, and similar documents may be by
subscriptions only.
Teleshopping (home shopping)/ Telebanking (home banking) applications: A client
may wish not only to browse through the information at a site but also to initiate an
additional transaction Server must provide additional transaction processing support for,
say, ordering and purchasing since, this will also often involve financial transaction, more
rigorous security procedures are required for access and authentication purposes.
Entertainment Applications:
Entertainment applications can be of 2 types:
1. Movie/video-on-demand
2. Interactive television
Movie/Video-On-Demand:
The video and audio associated with entertainment applications must be of a much higher
quality/resolution. Since, wide-screen televisions and stereophonic sound are often used.
Digitized movie/video with sound requires a minimum channel bit rate (bandwidth) of
1.5Mbps. Hence, network used to support this application, must be either a PSTN with a
high bit rate modem or a cable network of this type.
For PSTN: high bit rate channel provided by the modem used only over the access circuit
and provides additional services to the other switched services that the PSTN supports.
Figure below. Shows – the general operating scheme in both the cases.
Information stored on the server: collection of digitized movies/videos. Normally,
subscriber terminal comprises a conventional television with device for interaction
purposes. User interactions are relayed through the server through a set-top box which also
contains the high bit rate modem.
MOD (Movie-On-Demand)/VOD (Video-On-Demand): From suitable menu subscriber
is able to browse through the set of movies/videos available and initiate the showing of a
selected movie. Subscriber can control the showing of the movie by using similar controls
to those used on a conventional VCR (Video Cassette Recorder) i.e., pause, fast-forward,
and so on.
Key feature of MOD: a subscriber can initiate showing of a movie selected from a large
library of movies at any time of the day or night.
From Figure below, the server must be capable of playing out simultaneously a large
number of video streams equal to the number of subscribers currently watching a movie
requires the information flow from the server to be extremely high since, it must support
not just the transmission of a possibly large number of different movies, but also multiple
copies of each movie it is very challenging and costly since, the cost of the server is
directly related to the aggregate information flow rate from it.
Server: if, supporting a large number of subscribers it is common for several subscribers
to request the same movie within a relatively short time interval between each request.
Alternative mode in which requests for a particular movie are not played out immediately
but instead are queued until the start of the next play out time of that movie as shown in
Figure below.
N-MOD (Near Movie-On-Demand): in this mode of operation all request for the same
movie which are made during the period up to the next play out time are satisfied
simultaneously by the server outputting a single video stream clearly, the viewer is unable
to control the play out of the movies.
Similar applications as above been made use in Business environment except, the stored
information in the server is typically, training and general educational material, company
news, and so on and, thus the number of stored videos is normally much less as is the
number of simultaneous users so, video servers required are less sophisticated than those
used in public MOD/N-MOD systems.
Stored video streams/programs are often in a different format is as that of CD-ROMs since,
the received video stream can then be displayed directly on the screen of a multimedia PC
or workstation.
Communication requirements of the private networks are the same as those identified for
use with a public networks.
Interactive Television:
Broadcast television networks: include cable, satellite, and terrestrial networks.
Basic service of this network is diffusion of both analog and digital television (and radio)
programs.
STB (Set-Top Box): associated with these networks has a modem within it.
For cable networks as in Figure below. , STB provides both a low bit rate connection to
the PSTN and a high bit rate connection to the Internet.
By connecting appropriate TE to the STB a keyboard, telephone, and so on subscriber is
able to gain access to all the services provided through the PSTN and the Internet. Through
the connection to the PSTN subscriber is able to actively respond to the information being
broadcast it’s the origin of the term interaction television.
Typical uses of the return channel are for voting, participation in games, home shopping,
and so on.
As in Figure a similar set of services are available through satellite and terrestrial
broadcast networks except, that the STB associated with these networks requires a high-
speed modem to provide the connections to the PSTN and the Internet.
Media types:
Figure below shows a selection of the terms used with multimedia.
Information flow associated with the different applications can be either continuous or
block mode.
Continuous media case:
1. Information stream is generated by the source continuously in a time dependent
way.
2. Continuous media is passed directly to the destination as it is generated, and at the
destination, the information stream is played out directly as it is received operation
mode of which is called streaming.
3. Continuous media generated in a time-dependent way is called Real-time media.
4. Continuous media with the bit rate of the communication channel that is used must
be compatible with the rate the source media is being generated.
5. Ex.: Media types that guarantee continuous streams of information in real time are
audio and video.
6. Bit rate of source information stream can be either CBR (Constant Bit Rate)/
VBR (Variable Bit Rate).
7. Audio: Ex.: Digitized audio stream is generated at a constant bit rate which is
determined by the frequency. The audio waveform is sampled and the number of
bits that are used to digitize each sample.
8. Video: Ex.: Individual pictures/frames that make up the video are generated at a
constant rate after compression amount of information associated with each frame
varies in general, information stream associated with compressed video is
generated at fixed time intervals but the resulting bit rate is variable.
Block mode media:
1. Source information comprises single block of information that is created in a time
independent way.
2. Ex.: block of text representing an e-mail or computer program a 2-D matrix of
pixel values that represents an image and so on.
3. Block mode media created in a time-independent way often stored at the source in
say, a file Downloading when it is requested block of information is transferred
across the network to the destination where it is again stored and subsequently
output/displayed at a time determined by the requesting application program.
4. Bit rate of the communications channel need not be constant but, such that, when a
block is requested.
RTD (Round-Trip Delay): delay between the request being made and the contents of the
block being output at the destination is within an acceptable time interval - RTD – for HCI
(Human-Computer Interface): can be no more than a few seconds.
Communication Modes:
Transfer of information streams associated with an application can be in 5 modes:
1. Simplex
2. Half-duplex (Two-way alternate)
3. Duplex (Two-way simultaneous)
4. Broadcast
5. Multicast
Simplex:
Broadcast:
Information output by a single source node is received by all the other nodes, computers,
and others which are connected to the same network.
Ex.: broadcast of a television program over a cable network as all the television receivers
that are connected to the network receive the same set of programs.
Multicast:
Similar to broadcast except, information output by the source is received by only a specific
subset of the nodes that are connected to the network (multicast group).
Ex.: video conferencing involving a predefined group of terminals/computers connected to
a network exchanging integrated speech and video streams.
In half-duplex and duplex communications the bit rate associated with the flow of
information in each direction can be same or different.
1. Rate associated, with the flow of information in each direction is equal then is
called as Symmetric.
2. Rate associated, with the flow of information in each direction is unequal then is
called as Asymmetric.
Ex.: Video telephone call: involves exchange of integrated digitized speech and video
stream both direction simultaneously so, symmetric duplex communications channel is
required.
Application involving browser (program) and a web server:
1. Low bit rate channel from the browser to the web server is required for
request and control purposes.
2. High bit rate channel from the server to the subscriber for the transfer of,
say, and requested file so, asymmetric half-duplex communications channel is
required.
Network Types:
Types of information stream associated with the different media types are:
1. Continuous mode
2. Block mode
There are TWO types of communications channel associated with the various network
types they are:
1. Circuit-mode: operates in a time-dependent way, also called as Synchronous
communications channel as it provides a constant bit rate service at a specified
rate.
2. Packet-mode: operates in a time-varying way, also called as Asynchronous
communications channel provides a variable bit rate service - actual rate is
determined by the variable transfer rate of packets across the network.
Circuit-mode:
Figure below shows – the circuit mode network
Connection-Oriented(CO):
Figure below shows principle of operation of a CO network.
VC Set up:
Source terminal/computer sends a call request control packet to its local PSE which
contains address of the source and destination terminal/computer and a Virtual Circuit
Identifier (VCI) a short identifier.
Each PSE maintains a table which specifies the outgoing link that should be use dot reach
each network address. On receipt of the call request packet PSE uses the destination
address within the packet to determine the outgoing link to be used.
Next free identifier (VCI) for this link is then selected and two entries are made in a
routing table.
1. First entry: Specifies incoming link/VCI and the corresponding outgoing
link/VCI.
2. Second entry: To route packets in the reverse direction (the inverse of these as we
show in the example in the Figure).
Call request packet is then forwarded on the selected outgoing link. Same procedure is
followed at each PSE along the route until the destination terminal/computer is reached
VCIs used on the various links form the VC.
At the destination assuming the cal is accepted: A call accepted packet is returned to the
source over the same route/VC.
Information transfer phase can start but, since a VC is now in place only the VCI is needed
in the packet header instead of the full network-wide address.
Each PSE first uses the incoming link/VCI to determine the outgoing link/VCI from the
routing table Existing VCI in the packet header is replaced with that obtained from the
routing table Packet is forwarded on the identified outgoing link.
Same procedure is followed to return information in the reverse direction. When all
information is transferred/exchanged VC is cleared. Appropriate VCIs are released by
passing a call clear packet along the VC.
Connectionless:
In connectionless network: Establishment of connection is not required. Two
communicating terminals/computers can communicate and exchange information as and
when they wish.
Figure below shows each packet must carry the full source and destination addresses in its
header in order for each PSE to route the packet onto the appropriate outgoing link.
Router is used, rather than packet switching exchange.
In Both network types (CO and CL): Each packet is received by PSE/router on an
incoming link. It is stored in it’s entirely in a memory buffer. A check is made to determine
if any, transmission/bit errors are present in the packet header i.e., the signal that is used to
represent a binary 0 is corrupted and is interpreted by the receiver as a binary 1 and vice
versa.
Service offered by the packet-switched network is Best-effort service.
If no errors are detected the addresses/VCIs carried in the packet header are read to
determine the outgoing link that should be used.
Packet is placed in a queue ready for forwarding on the selected outgoing link. All packets
are transmitted at the maximum link bit rate.
With this mode of operation it is possible for a sequence of packets to be received on a
number of incoming links all of which need forwarding on the same outgoing link. Hence,
a packet may experience an additional delay while it is in the output queue for a link
waiting to be transmitted.
This delay variable because it depends on the number of packets that are currently present
in the queue when a new packet arrives for forwarding this mode of operation is known as
packet store-and-forward.
There is a packet store-and-forward delay in each PSE/router. Sum of the store-and-
forward delays in each PSE/router contributes to the overall transfer delay of the packet
across the network.
Mean of the above delay is called Mean packet transfer delay and variation about the
mean is known as Delay variation (jitter).
Ex.:
1. Internet (Ex.: for packet-switched network – that operates in the CL mode).
2. International X.25 packet-switching network and ATM (Ex.: for networks that
operate in the CO mode).
Multipoint Conferencing:
Features in many interpersonal applications including audio and video conferencing, data
sharing, and computer supported cooperative working.
These involve exchange of information between 3 or more terminals/computers.
Multipoint conferencing is implemented in one of following ways:
1. Centralized mode
2. Decentralized mode
3. Hybrid mode
Centralized mode:
Used with circuit-switched networks such as PSTN/ISDN.
Decentralized mode:
Used with packet-switched networks that support multicast communications.
Ex.: LANs, intranets, and the Internet.
Figure above. Shows output of each terminal/computer is received by all the other
members of the conference/multicast group.
Conference server is not normally used, and instead each terminal/computer manages
the information streams that it receives from the other members.
Hybrid mode:
Used when the various terminals/computers that makes up the conference are attached
to different network types.
Figure above. Shows Ex.: conference comprises 4 terminals/computers 2 attached to a
circuit-switched network and 2 to a packet switched network that supports
multicasting.
Like in the centralized mode conference server is used output of each
terminal/computer is sent to the server either over individual circuits terminals A and B
or using multicasting terminals C and D Server that determines output stream(s) to be
sent to each terminal.
Types of conferencing based on media Type:
1. Data conferencing
2. Audio conferencing
3. Videoconferencing
4. Multimedia conferencing
Data conferencing: Involves data only. Ex.: include data sharing and computer-supported
cooperative working.
Audio conferencing: Involves audio (speech) only.
Videoconferencing: Involves speech and video synchronized and integrated together.
Multimedia conferencing: Involves speech, video, and data integrated together.
Data conferencing:
Information flow between the various parties is relatively infrequent; Conference
server is a general-purpose computer with the conference function implemented in
software.
With the other 3 types of conferencing the information flows demand the use of special
purpose units.
Audio conferencing:
Audio bridge is the unit.
Typical units supporting 6 through 48 conference participants.
Audio bridge:
When using a audio bridge, a call is scheduled for a particular date, time, and duration.
Everyone who is to take part in the call is assigned a user ID and password. At
appropriate time all participants call in and after verified, they can hear and speak to
the other participants.
In the same way MCU when using a call is scheduled as for an audio bridge.
Once the conference starts each participant can hear, see, and share data with the other
participants MCU with
1. Dial-in mode: The participants calling in.
2. Dial-out mode: MCU calls the participants provides better security.
Circuit-Switched Network:
QoS parameters associated with a constant bit rate channel that is set up through a
Circuit-switched network are
1. Bit rate
2. Mean bit error rate
3. Transmission delay
Bit rate:
In digital telecommunication, the bit rate is the number of bits that pass a given point in a
telecommunication network in a given amount of time, usually a second.
A bit rate is usually measured in some multiple of bits per second.
The term bit rate is a synonym for data transfer rate (or simply data rate).
Transmission delay:
Associated with the channel is determined by:
1. Bit rate used
2. Delays occur in the terminal/computer network interfaces (codec delays) + propagation
delay of the digital, as they pass from source to destination, across the network.
The above is determined by physical separation of 2 communicating devices and velocit y
of propagation of a signal, across the transmission medium (free space: 3*108 m/s and a
fraction of this in physical media, a typical value 2*108 m/s).
Propagation delay: in each case is independent of the bit rate of the communication
channel. Assuming codec delay remains constant; propagation delay remains same
whether bit rate is 1kpbs, 1Mbps, or 1Gbps.
PROBLEM
Drive the maximum block size that should be used over a channel which has a mean BER
probability of 10-4 if the probability of a block containing an error –and hence being discarded –
is to be 10-1.
ANSWER:
PB=1-(1-P)N
Hence 0.1=1-(1-10-4)N and N=950bits
Alternatively, PB=N x P
Hence 0.1=Nx10-4 and N=1000bits
Packet-switched network:
QoS parameters – associated with a packet-switched network include
1. Maximum packet size
2. Mean packet transfer rate
3. Mean packet error rate
4. Mean packet transfer delay
5. Worst-case jitter
6. Transmission delay
Packet-switched network: rate of packets transfer across the network influenced strongly
by bit rate of the interconnecting links due to, variable store-and-forward delays in each
PSE/router. Actual rate of transfer of packets across the network is also variable.
Mean packet transfer rate: Measure of the average number of packets transferred across
the network/second coupling with packet size being used determines equivalent mean bit
rate of the channel.
Mean PER (Mean Packet Error Rate): Probability of a received packet containing one
or more bit errors. It is same as block error rate, associated with a circuit-switched
network. Thus related to both maximum packet size and worst-case BER of the
transmission links which interconnects PSEs/routers that make up the network.
Mean packet transfer delay: Summation of the mean store-and-forward delay that a
packet experiences in each PSE/router which, it encounters along a rout.
Jitter: Worst-case variation in the mean packet transfer delay.
Transmission delay: Same for network operates in the packet mode or a circuit mode
Includes: Codec delay, in each of the two-communicating computers and Signal
propagation delay.
PROBLEM:
Determine the propagation delay associated with the following communication channels:
Assume that the velocity of propagation of a signal in the case of (1) and (2) is 2x108 ms-1 and in
the case of (3) 3x108ms-1
ANSWER:
Physical separation
Propagation delay Tp = velocity of propagation
10 3
1. 𝑇𝑝 = = 5𝑥10−6 𝑠
2𝑥10 8
200𝑥10 3
2. 𝑇𝑝 = = 10−3 𝑠
2𝑥10 8
5𝑥10 7
3. 𝑇𝑝 = = 1.67𝑥10−1 𝑠
3𝑥10 8
Application QoS
Network QoS parameters define what the particular network being used provides rather what
application requires. Application has its own QoS parameters requirement associated with it:
Application involving images: Ex.: parameters may include minimum image resolution and size.
Application involving video: Ex.: parameters may include digitization format and refresh rate.
(1) 64kbps
(2) 256kbps
(3) 1.5Mbps
ANSWER:
(1) At 64kbps, 10ms=640bits
Hence chose a packet size of, say, 800 bits with a FIFO buffer of 1600 bits -2 packet –and start
play out of the bitstream after the first packet has been received.