Irrigation and Drainage

Introduction
assoc. prof. Laima Taparauskienė
Institute of Water Resources Engineering
Outline - Water in the soil
 Introduction and definitions
 Water storage in the soil
 Soil water characteristics
 Measurement of soil moisture
Introduction and definitions
 Soil moisture content
 The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water
present in the soil.
 It is commonly expressed as the amount of water (in mm
of water depth) present in a depth of one metre of soil.
 For example: when an amount of water (in mm of water
depth) of 150 mm is present in a depth of one metre of soil,
the soil moisture content is 150 mm/m
 Soil water: Subsurface water in the unsaturated zone
(also called vadose(Latin: shallow)) between the ground
surface and the water table.
 The groundwater zone is also called saturated zone (also
called phreatic (greek:well)) (water completely fills all the
soil or rock pores). The top of this zone is called the
water table.
 The unsaturated zone functions as reservoir for soil
water and provides pathways for the water down to
recharge the groundwater or upwards the ground surface
and atmosphere.
 Understanding the processes of infiltrations and
redistribution is essential for many aspects of water
resource management, e.g.:
 Developing strategies for crop production,
 Understanding chemical processes in soils (natural weathering
and movement of natural nutrients, fertilisers, and pesticides),
 Estimating the timing and amounts of groundwater recharge,
 Understanding runoff generation.
 Infiltration: movement of water from the soil surface into
the soil
 Redistribution: subsequent movement of infiltrated water
in the unsaturated zone of a soil
 Redistribution involves:
 Capillary rise: movement from the saturated zone upward into
the unsaturated zone due to surface tension
 Evaporation: water evaporating from the soil surface
 Transpiration: uptake by plant roots
 Exfiltration: water leaving the soil
 Recharge: movement of percolating water from the
unsaturated zone to the saturated zone
Water storage in the soil
 Soil consists of grains and voids (pores). The pores
can be filled by water and air. Some hydrological
properties of porous:
Vt – total volume usually in [cm3) Attenti
Vs – volume of solids “
• Dat
Vp – volume of pores “
to t
Va – airfilled volume
Vg – volume grav.wat.
• Kno
Vc – volume cap.+ads.wat. the
Air Va
Mx – equivalent masses, usually in [g] from
therefore
Gravity water Vp, mW Vt=Vs + Vp
Vg , mg Vp = Vc+Vg+Va
Vt , m t and
Capillarity water Vc , m c
Porosity (n) [-] = Vp/Vt
Plus adsorbed water Vol.water content (0) [vol.%] = (Vg+Vc)/Vt
(Degree of )saturation (S) [%] = (Vg+Vc)/Vp
Solids Field capacity (FC) [vol.%] = Vc/Vt (approx.)
Rock, sand, etc. Vs, ms. Density of solids = ms/Vs (about 2,65 g/cm2)
Bulk density = ms / Vt
Gravimetric water content [% by weight] =
(mg+mc)/mt

Hydrological properties
of porous media
 After rainfall the water in the soil slowly drains
downward under the effect of gravity. After a few days the
drainage ceases, even there is still a considerable amount
of water remaining in the soil. The reason is that within
the soil matrix (tiny pore spaces)water is affected by
forces that counteract gravity. The main force involved is
known as the matric force and it is due to two processes:
(1) adhesion – soil particles attract water molecules to
their surface while (2) cohesion – the water molecules
are also attracted to each other. Together these effects
retain water in the soil.
 The matric force can be thought of as negative pressure,
drawing or sucking water upwards into the soil (soil suction or
soil tension). Due to matric force, the soil remains wet for a
long period after rainfall. The water forms thin films around
the soil particles. This water cannot move under the effect of
gravity, but through the effect of the matric force itself.
Differences in the matric force arise as the soil dries, either by
evaporation or because plants withdraw moisture from the
pores. The water films become thinner and the matric force
operating on the outside of the film increases. Water migrates
from wet areas of the soil (with thick water films) to the drier
areas. Movement is known as capillary movement. Not all the
water retained in soil is able to move this way. That which is
very close to the particles is almost totally immobile.
 Three basic types or forms of soil water:
 All these forms start as free water that is added to the soil by
rain or snow.
 Their final forms depend on the moisture conditions of the
soil.
 Each type is controlled by a different force and behaves
differently in the soil.
 Physical Classification:
 Gravitational water --- -1/3 bar
 Capillary water --- -1/3 to -31 bars
 Hygroscopic water --- -10,000 bars
 Gravitational water: free water that moves through the
soil due to the force of gravity.

 Gravitational water is found in the macropores. It moves

rapidly out of well drained soil and is not considered to be
available to plants.
 It can cause upland plants to wilt and die because gravitational
water occupies air space, which is necessary to supply oxygen
to the roots.
 Drains out of the soil in 2-3 days
 Capillary water: Water in the micropores, the soil
solution.
 Most, but not all, of this water is available for plant growth
 Capillary water is held in the soil.against the pull of gravity
 Forces Acting on Capillary Water micropores exert more force
on water than do macropores.
 Capillary water is held by cohesion (attraction of water
molecules to each other) and adhesion (attraction of water
molecule to the soil particle).
 The amount of water held is a function of the pore size (cross-
sectional diameter) and pore space (total volume of all pores).
This means that the tension (measured in bars) is increasing as
the soil dries out.
 Hygroscopic water: This water forms very thin films
around soil particles and is not available to the plant. The
water is held so tightly by the soil that it can not be taken
up by roots.
 not held in the pores, but on the particle surface. This means
clay will contain much more of this type of water than sands
because of surface area differences.
 Hygroscopic water is held very tightly, by forces of adhesion.
this water is not available to the plant.
 Gravity is always acting to pull water down through the soil
profile. However, the force of gravity is counteracted by forces
of attraction between water molecules and soil particles and
by the attraction of water molecules to each other.
 For water movement in soil, the water table is used as a convenient
reference because below the water table the total porosity of the soil is
saturated, and above the water table, the soil porosity is unsaturated (the
soil water content is less than the total porosity).
 The water table is defined as the upper surface of groundwater (saturated
zone) or that level in the ground below the soil surface where the water
is at (and in equilibrium with) atmospheric pressure. At the water table
reference, the pressure potential is set equal to zero.
 Thus, below the water table, the pressure potential becomes positive, and
above the water table the pressure potential becomes negative. This
negative pressure in unsaturated soil is termed matric, tension or suction
pressure potential so as not to confuse it with positive pressures.
 Water potential is defined as the amount of work that a
unit quantity of water in an equilibrium soil-water (or
plant-water) system is capable of doing, when it moves to
a pool of water in the reference state at the same
temperature.
 First law of soil water flow : water flows from high to low
potential
 The total soil water potential can be defined as:

 ψT= ψp + ψz + ψs + ψa (N/m2)

 where ψp , ψz , ψs , and ψa are pressure, gravitational, solute

(osmotic) and air pressure potentials, respectively.

 Most of our discussion will only include ψ p and ψ z

 so ψT = ψp + ψz

 http://lawr.ucdavis.edu/classes/ssc107/SSC107Syllabus/chapter2-00.pdf
Soil water characteristic
 With decrease in soil moisture, the matric potential is
increasing in a nonlinear manner, water is held in the soil with
greater force. Water content and matric potential are strongly
related to soil texture through the effects of pore size and
shape.
 The size of the pores through is approx. equal to the grain size.
Therefore the pore size distribution is determined to a large
extent by the grain size distribution. Most soils are a mixture
of grain sizes. Such grain sizes are classified into three main
categories:
 Clay <0,002 mm
 Silt 0,002-0,063 mm
 Sand 0,063-2,0 mm
 The particle size distribution is characterised by soil texture,
which is determined by the weight of clay, silt and sand.
 Soil water charecteristic curve- graph showing potential ψm versus content
Θ.

 A soil is at F.C. (field capacity) or has a pF-value of 2, some 2 to 3 days the

soil has been saturated by rainfall or irrigation.
When the soil becomes dry and plants cannot take up water anymore the
soil is at W.P (wilting point) or has a pF=4.2.
The amount of water held by a soil in the root zone between F.C. and W.P.
and which can be used by plants is described as available water. (F.C.- W.P.=
available water). For sand, loam and clay the values are 6, 20 and 17 volume
percent respectively. (Note that 1 vol.% per 10 cm depth corresponds to 1
mm of rainfall).
 In a root zone of 50 cm in sand, loam and clay has
respectively 30, 100 and 85 mm of available water. It is an
assumption that 50% of the available water (readily
available water) can be used by the plants, before growth
reduction starts. This means that well irrigated crops with
a water use of 5 mm a day, have to be irrigated every 6,
20 or 17 days for respectively sand, loam and clay. Some
examples of available water are given.
 Gravitational water drains approx. within 2 days. The soil
is at field capacity. At the field capacity the matric forces
just exceeds the force of gravity. Afterward, if there is no
more rainfall the capillary water is slowly redistributed
and drawn towards the surface where it is removed by
plants and by evaporation. Eventually, almost all the
capillary water is lost, the soil is at the wilting point
(plants cannot obtain the remaining moisture and wilt). At
this point the soil water is hold by tensions around
15*104 Pa. Most of the water left is referred to
hydroscopic water.
 Available water storage capacity (AWSC)
 AWSC is considered to be the water retained in soils
between field capacity and permanent wilting point (i.e.,
between -10 to -30 and -1500 kPa):
 AWSC = FC- PWP
 Once infiltration has ceased, water in the largest soil pores
will drain downward quite rapidly. After one to three days,
this rapid downward movement becomes negligible and
matric forces begin to play a greater role in water
movement. The soil is then at field capacity. In this
condition, water has moved out of macropores and air has
moved in. Micropores are still filled with water and continue
to supply plants. Drainage continues but is much slower.
Field capacity often corresponds to a matric potential of -1
to -3 m (or -10 to -30 kPa), assuming drainage into a less-
moist zone of similar porosity.
 Permanent wilting point (PWP) - Once an unvegetated soil has drained to
field capacity, further drying is quite slow, especially if the soil surface is
covered to reduce evaporation. However, if vegetation is present plants
will continue to remove water. Water is first removed from the largest
pores where water potential is relatively high. As these pores are emptied,
roots will draw from progressively smaller pores in which matric water
potential is lower and the forces attracting water to soil surfaces are
greater. Therefore it will become more and more difficult for plants to
remove water from the soil at a rate sufficient to meet their needs.
 As the soil dries, the rate of plant water removal may fail to keep up with
plant needs, and plants may begin to wilt during the daytime to conserve
moisture. At first the plants will regain their turgor at night when water is
not being lost through the leaves and the roots can catch up with plant's
demand. Ultimately, the plant will remain wilted even at night when roots
cannot generate water potentials low enough to coax the remaining water
from the soil. Although not yet dead, plants below PWP cannot recover
even if water is provided.
 For many herbaceous plants PWP corresponds to the water content
retained by the soil when the matric potential is about -150 m (or -1.5 MPa
or -1500 kPa)
 Hygroscopic water
 Although plant roots do not generally dry the soil beyond
permanent wilting point, if the soil is exposed to air, water will
continue to be lost by evaporation. When soil water is
lowered below PWP, the water molecules that remain are very
tightly held, adsorbed ontocolloidal surfaces. This state occurs
approximately when the atmosphere above a soil is essentially
saturated with water vapor (98% relative humidity) and
equilibrium is established at a water potential of about -3100
kPa. The water is thought to be in films of 4-5 molecules thick
and is held so rigidly that much of it is considered nonliquid
and can move only in the vapor phase. Soil water content at
this point is termed hygroscopic water. Soils high in colloidal
materials will hold more water under these conditions than
will coarse-textured soils.
Field capacity Wilting point
Measurement of soil moisture
 Soil water content can be determined by direct or
indirect methods. The gravimetric method is a direct
method and the standard method to which all other
methods are compared. By indirect methods the soil
water content is deduced from the measurement of a soil
property or property of an object, which is placed into
the soil and is affected by the soil water content.
 Direct method
 - by the gravimetric method samples of the soil are
collected in a cylinder driven into the soil. The sampler is
weighted, dried in an oven (at 105oC, usually for 24
hours), and weighted again to evaluate the weight and
therefore the volume of soil water it contained.
 Direct measurement
 1. If soil cores of known volume are used
 qv = volume of water/volume of core
 where volume of water is equal to difference in mass between wet
and ovendry soil sample
 2. Determine dry bulk density of soil first, independently
 - Extract soil core with known bulk volume and oven-dry
 rb = mass dry soil / volume soil core
 - Extract subsequent soil samples of unknown volume and
determine wet mass (mass wet soil), and then oven dry (oven dry
mass) the soil sample
 qg = mass of water / mass of dry soil
 qv = rb x qg
 Porosity (f) = 1 - rb /rm
 Indirect methods
 To monitor changes in water storage in the soil profile,
indirect methods to measure moisture content without
disturbing the surrounding soil are applied:
 Tensiometer:
 Neutron-scattering method;
 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR);
 Ect.
 Indirect soil moisture measurements
 Neutron probe
 Based on emission of neutrons (1n) by a radioactive source
 These so-called fast neutrons (about 5 MeV) collide with atoms in
surrounding soil
 Since hydrogen has mass equal to a neutron, loss of energy of neutron
is most effective by elastic collision with hydrogen atoms of water
molecules
 Detector is sensitive to measurement of low-energy neutrons
(thermal neutrons)

 http://lawr.ucdavis.edu/classes/ssc107/SSC107Syllabus/chapter1-00.pdf
 Indirect soil moisture measurements
 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
 Electromagnetic (EM) waves are launched in air (RADAR) or along
conductors (cable tester), and amplitude of their reflection (voltage
signal) is measured. Measurement of propagation velocity of EM waves
and their amplitude yields information on position of object (RADAR)
or break in cable (Cable tester - Tektronix).
 The dielectric constant is the extend to which charges present in a
material are polarized by the application of an externally imposed
electro-magnetic (EM) field (Coulomb’s law). As a consequence of the
polarization, the imposed electric field is reduced.
 The minimum value of the dielectric constant (Ka) is 1 (as in vacuum),
and is about 80 for water (high polarizability).
 In TDR, the Electro-Magnetic field is generated by voltage signal, which
is guided by conductors of a transmission line wave guides).
Questions ???