Enclosure Fire Dynamics

Enclosure Fire Dynamics:

A collection of equations,
tables and figures
Pool fire .............................................................................................................................2
Fire Plumes and Flame Heights .........................................................................................2
The Zukoski Plume ....................................................................................................2
The Heskestad Plume ................................................................................................2
The Thomas Plume ....................................................................................................2
Line Source Plume.....................................................................................................2
Ceiling Jet ..................................................................................................................3
Flame Extensions Under Ceilings .............................................................................3
Pressure Profiles and Vent Flows, Well-Ventilated Enclosures ........................................3
The Well-Mixed Case................................................................................................3
Taking into Account the Mass Produced in the Room ..............................................4
The Stratified Case ....................................................................................................4
Mass Flow out through a Ceiling Vent ......................................................................4
Gas Temperatures in Ventilated Enclosure Fires ..............................................................4
Predicting time to Flashover ......................................................................................4
The Energy and Mass Balance...................................................................................5
Conservation Equations and Smoke Filling ......................................................................5
The Conservation of Energy ......................................................................................5
Smoke filling of an Enclosure with Leaks .................................................................5
Estimating Gas Temperature for the Floor Leak Case ..............................................6
Smoke Control in Large Places .................................................................................6
Natural Ventilation from Upper Layer ......................................................................6
Lower layer Pressurization by Mechanical Ventilation .............................................7
Combustion Products.........................................................................................................7

BK,061015 / HA, 071023

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Equations, tables and figures

Pool fire
Energy release rate: Q   H c
 = A f m" (3.5)

   m
Mass loss rate: m 
   1  e
-kD
 (3.6)

Fire Plumes and Flame Heights

 2 / 5  1.02D
Flame height: L  0.235Q (4.3)
d 2
Continuity equation: (b u )2u b (4.10)
dz
.

Momentum-boyancy equation:
d 2 2
dz
b u 
Qg

 u c p T  
 (4.13)

The Zukoski Plume

 2 g  . 1 / 3
1/ 3
.
Mass flow equation: m p  0.21   Q z5 / 3 (4.21)
c p T 

The Heskestad Plume

 2 / 5  1.02D
Virtual origin: z 0  0.083Q (4.23)

Plume radius: b 0.12T0 / T  z  z0 

1/ 2
(4.24)

 T  .
1/ 3

Centerline temperature: T0  9.1 2 2  Q c2 / 3 z  z 0 

5 / 3
(4.25)
gc p  
1/ 3
 g 
Centerline velocity: u 0  3.4   1 / 3 z  z 1 / 3
Q (4.26)
 c p T   
c 0

Plume mass flow rates:

m p 0.071Qc z  z 0 
. . .
 1.85 10 3  Qc
1/ 3 5/ 3
For z > L: (4.27)
. . z
For z < L: m p 0.0056Qc (4.28)
L

The Thomas Plume

 p  0.188  P  z 3 / 2
Mass flow rate: m (4.31)

Line Source Plume

2/3
Q
Flame height: L  0.035   (4.34)
 B

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

Q 2 / 3
 p  0.21    z
Mass flow rate: m (4.35)
 B

Ceiling Jet
 2/3
16.9  Q
For r/H < 0.18: Tmax  T  (4.36)
H5/ 3

For r/H > 0.18: Tmax  T 

 r
5.38  Q   2/3

(4.37)
H
 1 / 3
Q
For r/H < 0.15: u max  0.96    (4.38)
H
 1 / 3  H1 / 2
0.195  Q
For r/H > 0.15: u max  (4.39)
r5/ 6

Flame Extensions Under Ceilings

L  H
0.96
r
Radial flame extension: f  0.5 (4.40)
D  D 

Pressure Profiles and Vent Flows, Well-Ventilated Enclosures

1 2 1 2
The Bernoulli equation: P1  v1 1  h1 1 g  P2  v2 2  h 2 2 g (5.2)
2 2
353 353
T and   (5.9)
 T
2h u  a   g g
 g  Cd A u g
Mass flow through thin top vent: m (5.11)
g
2h l  a   g g
 a  Cd A l a
Mass flow through thin lower vent: m (5.12)
a

The Well-Mixed Case

  C d  vdA
Non-constant velocity: m
A

2 2 a   g g 3 / 2
g 
Mass flow rate through upper vent: m C d W g hu (5.18)
3 g

2 2 a   g g 3 / 2
a 
Mass flow rate through lower vent: m C d W a hl (5.19)
3 a

 a  0.5 A H o
Mass flow into tall opening: m (5.24)

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Equations, tables and figures

Taking into Account the Mass Produced in the Room

2.1  A H o
a 
Mass flow rate of ambient air: m (5.29)
1  1.6  1  m b
 a 2 / 3
m 
3/ 2

The Stratified Case

2 a   g g
g 
Mass flow rate out: m
2
C d W g H o  H N 3 / 2 (5.31)
3 g

2 a   g g
a 
Mass flow rate in: m
2
Cd  W  a  H N  H D 1/ 2  H N  1 H D  (5.36)
3 a  2 

Mass Flow out through a Ceiling Vent

C d A c  a 2gH  H D Tg  Ta Ta
c 
Mass flow: m (5.44)
Tg Tg  A c2 Ta A l2 

Gas Temperatures in Ventilated Enclosure Fires

1/ 3
 .2 
 Q 
Temperature difference: T 6.85  (6.11)
 Ao Ho h k AT 
 

2

Thermal penetration time: t p  (6.14)

4
kc
For t < tp hk  (6.15)
t
k
For t  tp hk  (6.16)

A W ,C kcW,C AF kcF
For t < tp hk   (6.17)
AT t AT t
AW, C k W,C AF k F
For t  tp hk   (6.18)
AT  W,C AT  F
1
For composite layers: h k  n
(6.19)
1

i 1 h k ,i

Predicting time to Flashover

 
. 1/ 2
Necessary energy release rate: Q FO 610 h K A T A o H o (6.20)

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

0.72 0.36
Tg  Q    h K AT 
Mechanically ventilated area: 0.63    (6.21)
m   m 
Ta   c p Ta    cp 

The Energy and Mass Balance

 q q q q
Total energy balance: Q (6.26)
L W R B

 0.09A H H
Maximum energy release rate: Q (6.27)
o o eff , wood

Hot gases leaving: q L m

 g cd (Tg Ta ) 0.5A o H o c p (Tg Ta ) (6.28)

kc
Through walls: q W  A t  A o   Tg  Ta 
1
 (6.29)
 t

Radiation through opening: q R A o  f  Tg4 Ta4  (6.30)

Conservation Equations and Smoke Filling

d
dt 
Gauss’ formula:  dV   vn dS  0 (8.3)
CV CS

Universal gas law: P =  R T (8.12)

The Conservation of Energy

d
dt 
With work:   u  dV     u  v n  dS  Q
 W
 (8.14)
CV CS

d
dt 
With enthalpy: udV   h v n dS  Q
 (8.21)
CV CS

.
P - Pa Qt
Sealed pressure rise: = (8.24)
Pa V  a c v Ta
c v V dP . .
Leaky pressure rise: + me c p Te  Q (8.30)
R dt
. .
When leakage is stabilized: m e c p Te  Q (8.31)


2

.
1 Q
Leaky pressure difference: P    (8.32)
2 e c p Te A e Cd 

Smoke filling of an Enclosure with Leaks

z
Dimensionless height: y = (8.36)
H

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Equations, tables and figures

*= Q
Dimensionless heat release rate: Q (8.37)
 a c p Ta g H 5 / 2

g H2
Dimensionless time:  = t (8.38)
H S
dy  *  * )1/3 y 5/3 = 0
Dimensionless equation:  Q + 0.21 (Q (8.39)
d
3 / 2
 2  0.21  *
Solution for y: y  1  Q   1/ 3 
 (8.41)
 3 

Estimating Gas Temperature for the Floor Leak Case

Energy room size relation: Qt = SH(1 - y)c p Ta a g 

.
(8.45)

 *  (1 - y) 1 - g 
Dimensionless equation: Q (8.46)
  
 a 

Smoke Control in Large Places

1/ 3
0.21   a2 g 

Control constant: k = (8.50)
 g  c p Ta 

3 / 2
 1 / 3 2t 1 n / 3  1 
Interface layer height: z  k  2 / 3  (8.52)
 S n3 H 

 t n 1 
Upper layer density:  g   a 1   (8.55)
 n  1H  z Sc 353 
 p 
kc
Heat transfer: h  (8.61)
t

Q
Gas temperature: Tg  Ta  (8.62)
 e  hA w
cp m

Natural Ventilation from Upper Layer

2
m
Pressure difference: Pl = (8.64)
2a Cd A D 
2


 e = Cd A E 2 g - Pl + a - g  g H E - z 
Upper opening mass flow rate: m  (8.67)

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

Lower layer Pressurization by Mechanical Ventilation

Pressure difference: Pl =

m 0
 p 2
m
(8.71)
2a C d A D 
2


 e = Cd A E 2 g Pl + a - g  g H E - z 
Upper opening mass flow rate: m  (8.72)

Combustion Products
mi
Yield of species: y i  (9.1)
mf
mi
Mass fraction of species: i = (9.2)
m
m f m ox
Equivalence ratio:  = (9.5)
r
f
m
Fuel mixture fraction: f =
m

Fuel mixture fraction based on equivalence ratio: f = 1 (9.8)
+
r

 j  Yi , j - Yi  = y i m
N
dYi
Control volume formulation: m + m  f -m
 i, loss (9.20)
dt j=1
net out

mf
Steady state mass fraction: Yi ( t )  y i  yi  f (9.25)
 f m
m p

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Equations, tables and figures

Q (MW)

20

4.8 m
15

3.0 m
10

2.4 m
5
1.7 m
0.9 m
0
0 300 600 900 Time (s)
Figure 3.1 Energy release rate measured when burning 1.2 m by 1.2 m wood pallets,
stacked to different heights.
Q (kW)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 300 600 900 Time (s)
Figure 3.6 Typical Energy Release Rate from a wood pallet stack.

Figure 3.7 Dependence of pallet stack height on peak energy release rate (from
Babrauskas [3.1]).

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

Table 3.2 Burning rate per unit area and complete heat of combustion for various materials (from Tewarson [3.4]).
Material (values in brackets indicate pool diameters tested)  " (kg/m2s)
m Hc (MJ/kg)
Aliphatic Carbon-Hydrogen Atoms:
Polyethylene 0.026 43.6
Polypropylene 0.024 43.4
Heavy fuel oil (2.6 - 23 m) 0.036
Kerosene (30 - 80 m) 0.065 44.1
Crude oil (6.5 - 31 m) 0.056
n-Dodecane (0.94 m) 0.036 44.2
Gasoline (1.5 - 223 m) 0.062
JP-4 (1 - 5.3 m) 0.067
JP-5 (0.6 - 1.7 m) 0.055
n-Heptane (1.2 - 10 m) 0.075 44.6
n-Hexane (0.75 - 10 m) 0.077 44.8
Transformer fluids (2.37 m) 0.025 - 0.030
Aromatic Carbon-Hydrogen Atoms:
Polystyrene (0.93 m) 0.034 39.2
Xylene (1.22 m) 0.067 39.4
Benzene (0.75 - 6.0 m) 0.081 40.1
Aliphatic Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen Atoms:
Polyoxymethylene 0.016 15.4
Polymethylmethacrylate, PMMA (2.37 m) 0.030 25.2
Methanol (1.2 - 2.4 m) 0.025 20
Acetone (1.52 m) 0.038 29.7
Aliphatic Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen-Nitrogen Atoms:
Flexible polyurethane foams 0.021 - 0.027 23.2 - 27.2
Rigid polyurethane foams 0.022 - 0.025 25.0 - 28.0
Aliphatic Carbon-Hydrogen-Halogen Atoms:
Polyvinylchloride 0.016 16.4
Tefzel (ETFE) 0.014 12.6
Teflon (FEP) 0.007 4.8

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Equations, tables and figures

Table 3.3: Data for large pool (D > 0.2 m) burning rate estimates (from Babrauskas [3.1])
Material Density(kg/m3)   (kg/m2s) Hc (MJ/kg)
m " k (m-1)

Cryogenics:
Liquid H2 70 0.017 120.0 6.1
LNG (mostly CH4) 415 0.078 50.0 1.1
LPG (mostly C3H8) 585 0.099 46.0 1.4
Alcohols:
methanol (CH3OH) 796 0.017 20.0 *

ethanol (C2H5OH) 794 0.015 26.8 *

Simple organic fuels:

butane (C4H10) 573 0.078 45.7 2.7
benzene (C6H6) 874 0.085 40.1 2.7
hexane (C6H14) 650 0.074 44.7 1.9
heptane (C7H16) 675 0.101 44.6 1.1
xylene (C8H10) 870 0.09 40.8 1.4
acetone (C3H6O) 791 0.041 25.8 1.9
dioxane (C4H8O2) 1035 0.018’’ 26.2 5.4**
diethyl ether (C4H10O) 714 0.085 34.2 0.7
Petroleum products:
benzine 740 0.048 44.7 3.6
gasoline 740 0.055 43.7 2.1
kerosine 820 0.039 43.2 3.5
JP-4 760 0.051 43.5 3.6
JP-5 810 0.054 43.0 1.6
transformer oil, hydrocarbon 760 0.039** 46.4 0.7**
fuel oil, heavy 940 - 1000 0.035 39.7 1.7
crude oil 830 - 880 0.022-0.045 42.5 - 42.7 2.8
Solids:
polymethylmethacrylate (C5H8O2)n 1184 0.020 24.9 3.3
polypropylene (C3H6)n 905 0.018 43.2
polystyrene (C8H8)n 1050 0.034 39.7
* Value independent of diameter in turbulent regime. ** Estimate uncertain since only two points available

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

Figure 3.8 Typical upholstered furniture energy release rates (from Babrauskas [3.1]).

1200
Hospital bed
1000 Improved bed
800
HHR (kW)

600

400

200

0
0 300 600 900 1200
Time (s)

Figure 3.9 Typical mattress energy release rate (from Särdqvist [3.2]).

400
4.1 kg
300 3.51 kg
HRR (kW)

2.34 kg
200
1.17 kg
100

0
0 120 240 360 480 600
Time (s)

Figure 3.10 Energy release rates for trash bags (adopted from Babrauskas [3.1]).

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Equations, tables and figures

300

HRR (kW)
200

100

0
0 300 600 900 1200
Time (s)

Figure 3.11 Energy release rates from two experiments with television sets (adopted
from Babrauskas [3.1])

800
Test 16
600
HRR (kW)

Test 17
400 Test 18

200

0
0 120 240 360 480 600
Time (s)

Figure 3.12 Energy release rates from three experiments with Christmas trees (adopted
from Babrauskas [3.1]).
Table 3.4: Conversion to Equivalent Fire Load Density and Equivalent Opening Factor

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

5000

4000
HRR (kW)

3000
ultra fast
2000 fast
1000 medium
slow
0
0 300 600 900
Time (s)

Figure 3.14 Energy release rates for different growth rates.

Table 3.5 Values of  for different growth rates according to NFPA 204M [3.6].
Growth rate  kW/s2 Time (s) to reach 1055 kW
ultra fast 0.19 75
fast 0.047 150
medium 0.012 300
slow 0.003 600

Table 3.7 Typical growth rates recommended for various types of occupancies.
Type of occupancy Growth rate 
Dwellings, etc. medium
Hotels, Nursing homes, etc. fast
Shopping centers, entertainment centers ultra fast
Schools, offices fast
Hazardous industries Not specified

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Equations, tables and figures

Table 3.6 Energy release rate data from Nelson [3.7]

Description Growth rate kW/m2 of
floor area
fire retarded treated mattress (including normal bedding) S 17
light weight type C upholstered furniture** M 170*
moderate weight type C upholstered furniture** S 400*
mail bags (full) stored 5 feet high F 400
cotton/polyester innerspring mattress (including bedding) M 565*
light weight type B upholstered furniture** M 680*
medium weight type C upholstered furniture** S 680*
methyl alcohol pool fire UF 740
heavy weight type C upholstered furniture** S 795*
polyurethane innerspring mattress (including bedding) F 910*
moderate weight type B upholstered furniture** M 1020*
wooden pallets 1 - 1/2 feet high M 1420
medium weight type B upholstered furniture** M 1645*
light weight type A upholstered furniture** F 1700*
empty cartons 15 feet high F 1700
diesel oil pool fire (>about 3 Ft. dia.) F 1985
cartons containing polyethylene bottles 15 feet high UF 1985
moderate weight type A upholstered furniture** F 2500*
particle board wardrobe/chest of drawers F 2550*
gasoline pool fire ( >about 3 Ft. dia.) UF 3290
thin plywood wardrobe with fire retardant paint on all surfaces UF 3855*
wooden pallets 5 feet high F 3970
medium weight type A upholstered furniture** F 4080*
heavy weight type A upholstered furniture** F 5100*
thin plywood wardrobe (50in. X 24in. X 72in. high) UF 6800*
wooden pallets 10 foot high F 6800
wooden pallets 16 foot high F 10200
Notes:
* Peak rates of energy release were of short duration. These fuels typically showed a rapid rise to the peak and a
corresponding rapid decline. In each case the fuel package tested consisted of a single item.
** The classification system used to describe upholstered furniture is as follows:
LIGHT WEIGHT = Less than about 5 lbs/ft2 of floor area. A typical 6-foot long couch would weigh under 75 lbs.
MODERATE WEIGHT = About 5-10 lbs/ft2 of floor area. A 6-foot long couch would weigh between 75 and 150 lbs.
MEDIUM WEIGHT = About 10-15 lbs/ft2 of floor area. A 6-foot long couch would weigh between 150 and 300 lbs.
HEAVY WEIGHT = More than about 15 lbs/ft2 of floor area. A typical 6-foot long couch would weigh over 300 lbs.
Type A = Furniture with untreated or lightly treated foam plastic padding and nylon or other melting fabric.
Type B = Furniture with lightly- or un-treated foam plastic padding or nylon or other melting fabric but not both.
Type C = Furniture with cotton or treated foam plastic padding, having cotton or other fabric that resists melting. qq

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

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Equations, tables and figures

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 Enclosure Fire Dynamics

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Equations, tables and figures

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