Diodes and Applications

Semiconductor Diode - Ideal versus Practical

Semiconductor Diode

In n-type semiconductors, free electrons are the majority charge carriers whereas in p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carriers. When the n-type semiconductor is joined with
the p-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. The p-n junction, which is formed when the p-type
and n-type semiconductors are joined, is called as p-n junction diode. The p n junction diode is also
known as a Semiconductor Diode. It is also known as crystal diode as it is made of a crystal-like Silicon or
Germanium. The symbol of the semiconductor diode is shown below.

Inside a PN junction at equilibrium (zero applied voltage), there is built-in voltage with N region being
positive and P-region negative.

The built-in voltage (also called potential barrier) prevents electrons and holes to give rise to current.

Junction diodes

The junction diodes are the normal PN junction diodes but differ in construction. There are three types
of junction diodes, as shown in the following figure.
Biasing of PN junction semiconductor diode

The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called biasing.
External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods: forward biasing or
reverse biasing.

If the p-n junction diode is forward biased, It lowers the built-in potential and allows the electric current
to flow. Under forward biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal
of battery whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery.

If the p-n junction diode is reverse biased, it lowers the built in potential and blocks the electric current
to flow. Under reverse biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal
of battery whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery.

Under no voltage or unbiased condition, the p-n junction diode does not allow the electric current.

Characteristics of a Semiconductor Diode

It is basically a graphical representation of the operation of the diode. Normally it is called the V-I
characteristics or the volt-ampere characteristics of the semiconductor diode. It is a curve between the
voltage across the junction and the circuit current. The circuit arrangement is shown below
The resistor R is connected in series with the p n junction which limits the diode forward current from
exceeding the prescribed limit value. The characteristics are studied under three heads i.e. Zero external
voltage, Forward biasing and Reverse biasing.

Zero External Voltage When no external voltage is applied that is the circuit is open, no current flows
through the circuit. It is indicated by point 0 on the graph shown below.

Forward Biasing

The pn junction is forward biased when p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal and
n-type to the negative terminal of the supply. Now when the supply voltage is increased by changing the
variable resistor Rh . The circuit current increases very slowly and the curve is non-linear shown in the
above characteristic graph as OA.

The slow rise in the current in this region is because the external applied voltage is used to overcome
the potential barrier of 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 for Si. of the p n junction. However, once the potential
barrier is eliminated and the external supply voltage is increased further. The p n junction behaves like
an ordinary conductor and the circuit current rises very sharply represented by the region AB. At this
instant, the current is limited by the series resistance R and a small value of the junction forward
resistance Rf. The curve is almost linear.

Knee Voltage

The forward voltage (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si diodes) at which the current through the diode or p n
junction starts rising abruptly is known as Knee Voltage.

Reverse Biasing
When the p n junction is reverse biased as p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal
and n type to the positive terminal of the supply. Under this condition, the potential barrier at the
junction is increased. Therefore, the junction resistance Rr becomes very high and practically no current
flows through the circuit.

However, in actual practice A very small current of the order of micro ampere flow in the circuit. This
current is known as Reverse Current and is due to minority carriers available at the room temperature.

The reverse current increases slightly when the increase in reverse bias supply voltage. If the reverse
voltage is increased continuously, a stage reaches when the kinetic energy of electrons (minority
carriers) becomes so high that they knock out electrons from the semiconductor bonds. At the point C
the breakdown of the junction occurs and the resistance of the barrier region Rr falls suddenly.

Consequently, the reverse current rises tremendously to a large value. This may destroy the junction
permanently. The reverse voltage at which p n junction breaks is known as Breakdown Voltage.

Conclusion:

 At zero external voltage, no current flows through the circuit or diode.

 At forward bias, the current increases slightly till the barrier potential is wiped off.
  After Knee voltage, the forward current rises drastically.

 The forward current is limited by the series resistance R and a small value of junction resistance
Rf.

 The diode gets destroyed as the forward current increases beyond the rated value of the diode.

 The reverse current increases slightly with the increase in voltage because of the minority
carriers. The maximum value of reverse current for Si diode is as low as 1 micro ampere. For Ge,
it is about 100 micro ampere.

 The reverse voltage at which junction breaks is known as breakdown voltage.

 At reverse voltage, when the junction breaks the diode may be destroyed.

Ideal Diode

A diode is said to be an Ideal Diode when it is forward biased and acts like a perfect conductor, with
zero voltage across it. Similarly, when the diode is reversed biased, it acts as a perfect insulator with
zero current through it. Thus the ideal diode or perfect diode completely allows the electric current
without any loss under forward bias and completely blocks the electric current with infinite loss
under reverse bias .

When the ideal diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch, The symbol of forward
biased ideal diode is shown in the below figure.

When the ideal diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch ,The symbol of reverse
biased ideal diode is shown in the below figure.
Under forward biased condition, ideal diode acts as a perfect conductor with zero resistance whereas
under reverse biased condition, it acts as a perfect insulator with infinite resistance. In other words,
ideal diodes acts as closed circuit or short circuit under forward biased condition and acts as an open
circuit or open switch under reverse biased condition.

The V-I characteristics of the Ideal diode are shown in the figure below.

If the forward voltage or positive voltage (VF) (p terminal connected to p-side and n terminal connected
to n-side) applied on the diode is equal to zero or greater than zero, the forward electric current (IF) in
the ideal diode increases infinitely.

V-I Characteristics of Ideal diode

On the other hand, if the reverse voltage or negative voltage (VR) (p terminal connected to n-side and n-
terminal connected to p-side) applied on the diode is less than zero, no forward electric current (IF) and
reverse electric current (IR) flows in the ideal diode.

When a reverse bias voltage is applied the current through the diode is zero. When the current becomes
greater than zero the voltage drop across the diode is zero.
Practical/Real Diode

Ideal diode starts allowing the electric current, once the forward voltage is applied. However, the real
diode behaves differently.

The real diodes do not allow the electric current, if the forward voltage is less than the cut-in voltage.
However, if the forward voltage applied on the real diode reaches the cut-in voltage, it starts allowing
the electric current.

When the practical diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with the equivalent
barrier potential voltage and the small forward dynamic resistance.

When the practical diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel with the large internal
reverse resistance

The V-I characteristic of the Practical/Real diode is shown below.

In forward biased real diode, the majority charge carriers carry most of the electric current. The positive
charge carriers from p-side to n-side carry the conventional electric current. However, the free electrons
from n-side to p-side carry the actual electric current.

When the forward voltage is applied on the real diode, it does not allow the electric current up to a
certain voltage because the depletion region present at the p-n junction block the electric current.

However, once it reaches that voltage , real diode starts allowing the electric current. In other words, if
the voltage applied on the real diode reaches 0.7 for silicon and 0.3 for germanium, the electric current
rises suddenly. The voltage at which real diodes starts allowing the electric current is called cut-in
voltage.

This cut-in voltage is different for silicon and germanium diodes. For silicon diode, the knee voltage or
cut-in voltage is approximately 0.7 volts whereas for germanium diode, the knee voltage or cut-in
voltage is approximately 0.3 volts.

Under reverse bias, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and
the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor.

When the reverse voltage is applied on the real diode, the free electrons at the n-side moves away from
the p-n junction and attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery. Similarly, the holes at the p-
side moves away from the p-n junction and attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery. As a
result, the width of the depletion region increases.

This depletion region blocks the majority carrier current (free electrons at n-side and holes at p-side).
However, it allows the minority charge carrier current (free electrons at p-side and holes at n-side). This
minority charge carrier current in the reverse biased real diode is called reverse saturation current.

In the reverse biased real diode, the width of the depletion region increases with the increase in voltage
up to a certain point. If it reaches that point, junction breaks down and reverse current increases rapidly.
The voltage at which the junction breaks down is called the breakdown voltage.
Breakdown

The diode is a semiconductor device constructed from silicon or Ge elements from column IV of the
periodic table. These materials like Si and Ge are poor conductors of electricity. By doping Si with small
amounts of an element from column III (eg. Boron – B) or column V (e.g. phosphorous – P) the
conductivity greatly increases. The change in conductivity is associated with the freedom of electrons to
move through the material.

The electrons in Si are tightly bound because of the crystal lattice structure. Adding for example
phosphorous (from column V) adds another electron to the crystal structure. This “extra” electron is not
required to maintain the crystal structure and thus it has considerable freedom to move from site to site
within the material.

Materials doped with elements in column V are known as “n type semiconductors” indicating the freely
moving negative charge – the electron. If Si is now doped with elements from column III (Ba, Al, Ga) the
crystal structure has a deficit of one electron. This deficit of electrons looks like a net positive charge and
it is called a “hole”. Electrons within the material can easily move to fill this “hole” leaving behind new
holes at the places where they started from. The creation and thus the motion of these holes looks like a
flow of a net positive charge. Therefore, materials doped with elements from column III are known as “p
type semiconductors” indicating a net positive charge – the hole. A diode is constructed by fabricating p
and n regions in Si or Ge.
Difference between Ideal diodes and Practical diodes

Ideal diodes Practical diodes

Ideal diodes act as perfect Practical diodes cannot act as

conductor and perfect perfect conductor and perfect
insulator. insulator.

Practical diode draws very

Ideal diode draws no current low current when reverse
when reverse biased. biased.

Ideal diode offers infinite Practical diode offers very

resistance when reverse high resistance when reverse
biased. biased.

It cannot be manufactured. It can be manufactured.

It has zero cut-in voltage. It has very low cut-in voltage.

Ideal diode has zero voltage It has very low voltage drop
drops across its junction when across it, when forward
forward biased. biased.

Resistance of a Diode

A p-n junction diode allows electric current in one direction and blocks electric current in another
direction. It allows electric current when it is forward biased and blocks electric current when it is
reverse biased. However, no diode allows electric current completely even in forward biased condition.

The depletion region present in a diode acts like barrier to electric current. Hence, it offers resistance to
the electric current. Also, the atoms present in the diode provide some resistance to the electric current.

When charge carriers (free electrons and holes) flowing through the diode collides with atoms, they
lose energy in the form of heat. Thus, depletion region and atoms offer resistance to the electric
current.

When the diode is forward biased, the width of depletion region decreases. However, the depletion
region cannot be completely vanished. There exists a thin depletion region or depletion layer in
the forward biased diode. Therefore, a thin depletion region and atoms in the diode offer some
resistance to electric current. This resistance is called forward resistance.

When the diode is reverse biased, the width of depletion region increases. As a result, a large number of
charge carriers (free electrons and holes) flowing through the diode will be blocked by the depletion
region.

In a reverse biased diode, only a small amount of electric current flows. The minority carriers present in
the diode carry this electric current. Thus, reverse biased diode offer large resistance to the electric
current. This resistance is called reverse resistance.

The two types of resistance takes place in the p-n junction diode are:

 Forward resistance

 Reverse resistance

Forward resistance

Forward resistance is a resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is forward biased.

In a forward biased p-n junction diode, two type of resistance takes place based on the voltage applied.

The two types of resistance takes place in forward biased diode are

 Static resistance or DC resistance

 Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

Static resistance or DC resistance

When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to a DC circuit, a DC or direct
current flows through the diode. Direct current or electric current is nothing but the flow of charge
carriers (free electrons or holes) through a conductor. In DC circuit, the charge carriers flow steadily in
single direction or forward direction.

The resistance offered by a p-n junction diode when it is connected to a DC circuit is called static
resistance.

Static resistance is also defined as the ratio of DC voltage applied across diode to the DC current or
direct current flowing through the diode.

The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode under forward biased condition is denoted as Rf.
Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when AC voltage is applied.

When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to AC circuit, an AC or alternating
current flows though the diode.

In AC circuit, charge carriers or electric current does not flow in single direction. It flows in both forward
and reverse direction.

Dynamic resistance is also defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the change in current. It is
denoted as rf.

Forward dynamic resistance, rF = (delta)VF / (delta)IF

Reverse resistance

Reverse resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is reverse biased.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width of depletion region
increases. This depletion region acts as barrier to the electric current. Hence, a large amount of electric
current is blocked by the depletion region. Thus, reverse biased diode offer large resistance to the
electric current.

The resistance offered by the reverse biased p-n junction diode is very large compared to the forward
biased diode. The reverse resistance is in the range of mega ohms (MΩ).

The forward characteristic of a diode is shown below

It is clear from the graph that for the operating point P, the forward voltage is OA and the corresponding
forward current is OB. Therefore, the static forward resistance of the diode is given as

it is also clear that for an operating point P the AC forward resistance is determined by varying the
forward voltage (CE) on both the sides of the operating point equally and measuring the corresponding
forward current (DF).

The Dynamic or AC Forward Resistance is represented as shown below.

The value of the forward resistance of a ordinary diode is very small, ranging from 1 to 25 Ohms.
Reverse Resistance (RR)

Under the Reverse biasing condition, the opposition offered by the diode to the reverse current is
known as Reverse Resistance. Ideally, the reverse resistance of a diode is considered to be infinite.
However, in actual practice the reverse resistance is not infinite because diode conducts a small leakage
current (due to minority carriers) when reverse biased.

The value of reverse resistance is very large as compared to forward resistance. The ratio of reverse to
forward resistance is 1 00 000 : 1 for silicon diodes, whereas it is 40 000 : 1 for germanium diode.

Load Line Analysis of Diode: Graphical Method

In graphical analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits, a load line is a line drawn on the characteristic
curve, a graph of the current vs the voltage in a nonlinear device like a diode . From load line we can find
exact values of diode current and voltages. The intersection of the load line and I-V characteristic curve
will define the Operating/bias/Q point of circuit and it gives the value of the current through the diode
and the voltage across the diode. By changing the value of load we can move the Q point up and down
along the y-axis, so we called it the load line. If the load changes, the slope of the load line changes,

At point A the current is maximum and the voltage is zero. This point is called 'Saturation'.

At point B the voltage is maximum and current is zero. This point is called 'Cut off'.
  APPLICATION OF DIODE

 - used as a rectifier in DC power supply.
 - used as a voltage doublers, Tripler, quadrupler in voltage multiplier circuits.
 - used as switch in logic circuits.
 - used for wave shaping In clipping and clapping circuits.
 - used as signal diode in communication circuits.
 - used as a detector In demodulation circuits
 - used as zener diode in voltage stabilizing circuits.

Diode as a rectifier

In a large number of electronic circuits, we require DC voltage for operation. We can easily convert the
AC voltage or AC current into DC voltage or DC current by using a device called P-N junction diode .

One of the most important applications of a P-N junction diode is the rectification of Alternating Current
(AC) into Direct Current (DC). A P-N junction diode allows electric current in only forward bias condition
and blocks electric current in reverse bias condition. In simple words, a diode allows electric current in
one direction. This unique property of the diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.

Rectifier definition

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts an Alternating Current (AC) into a Direct Current (DC) by
using one or more P-N junction diodes through a process called rectification.

The P-N junction diode acts like a rectifier by converting the AC current into DC current.
However, the DC current produced by basic rectifier is not a pure DC current. It is a pulsating DC
current.

Types of rectifiers

Half wave rectifier

As the name suggests, the half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts half of the AC input
signal (positive half cycle) into pulsating DC output signal and the remaining half signal (negative half
cycle) is blocked or lost. In half wave rectifier circuit, we use only a single diode.
-During positive half- cycle of the input voltage, the polarity of the voltage across the secondary coil
make the diode forward biased leading the diode in conduction state ( i.e. maximum current flow, no
voltage drop take place). In positive half cycle, all the voltage drop take place across the load resistor.
Hence, getting approximately the same output voltage as the given input

-During negative half- cycle of the input voltage, the polarity of the voltage across the secondary coil
make the diode reverse biased leading the diode in non-conduction state ( i.e. maximum voltage drop
take place, no current flows). Therefore no voltage drop take place across the load resistor. As all the
input voltage drop take place across the diode itself, no output voltage is obtained.

The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage is:

Vdc=Vpeak / π =0.318 Vpeak =0.45 Vrms

The no-load output AC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage is:

Vrms =Vpeak /2

Where:

Vdc, Vav - DC or average output voltage,

Vpeak,Vmax - Peak value of the phase input voltages,

Vrms – the root-mean-square value of output voltage.

Full wave rectifier

The full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the full AC input signal (positive half cycle and
negative half cycle) to pulsating DC output signal. Unlike the half wave rectifier, the input signal is not
wasted in full wave rectifier. The efficiency of full wave rectifier is high as compared to the half wave
rectifier.

Centre-tap rectifier
-During positive half-cycle of voltage across the secondary coil of the transformer, the diode D1 is
forward biased (conducting) and D2 is reverse biased (non-conducting). The current flows through the
diode D1and load resistor RL
-During negative half-cycle of voltage across the secondary coil of the transformer, the diode D1 is
reverse biased (non-conducting) and D2 is forward biased(conducting). The current flows through the
diode D2 and load resistor RL

The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal full wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage is:

The no-load output AC voltage of an ideal full wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage is:

Vrms =0.707Vpeak

Bridge rectifier
-During positive half cycle of voltage across the secondary coil of the transformer, the diode D2 and D4
are forward biased (conducting) and the diode D1 and D3 are reverse biased (non- conducting).
Therefore, current flow through diode D2, load resistor RL and diode D4

-During negative half cycle of voltage across the secondary coil of the transformer, the diode D1 and D3
are forward biased (conducting) and the diode D2 and D4 are reverse biased (non- conducting).
Therefore, current flow through diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D3

The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal full wave bridge rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage is:

The no-load output AC voltage of an ideal full wave bridge rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage is:

Vrms =0.707Vpeak

Ripple: Rectifiers are used to convert AC to DC, but not a pure DC. There would be considerable AC
component in their output, called ‘ripple’, in addition to the desired d.c. component.

Ripple Factor (r): It is the ratio of root mean square (rms) value of AC component to the DC component
in the output and is given by

R.F(r) = VAC (rms) / VDC

Filter circuit : A filter circuit is used to remove the A.C components of the rectified output, but allows the
D.C components to reach the load. so a filter convert the pulsating D.C into pure D.C . Reactive elements
like capacitor and inductors are used to do this work.We already know that

-An inductor allows dc and blocks ac.

-A capacitor allows ac and blocks dc.

Most commonly used filter types are:

- Shunt Capacitor filter

- Series Inductor filter

- LC filter

- CLC or π-filter

- RC π-filter or RC filter

Series Inductive Filter : As an inductor allows dc and blocks ac, a filter called Series Inductor Filter can be
constructed by connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier and the load.

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the inductor blocks the ac components that are
present in the signal, in order to provide a pure dc.

Shunt Capacitor Filter As the capacitor allows AC through it and blocks DC, so the capacitor can be
connected in parallel to the power supply so that the AC is filtered out and DC will reach the load.

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the AC components present in the signal are
grounded through the capacitor which allows AC components. The remaining DC components present in
the signal are collected at the output.

LC Filter : A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and capacitor in order to obtain a better
output where the efficiencies of both inductor and capacitor can be used.
The rectified output when given to this circuit, the inductor allows DC components to pass through it,
blocking the AC components in the signal. Now, from that signal, few more AC components if any
present are grounded so that we get a pure DC output. This filter is also called as a Choke Input Filter as
the input signal first enters the inductor.

CLC or π filter ( Pi Filter ) : Here, two capacitors and one inductor are connected in the form of π shaped
network. A capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in series, followed by another capacitor in parallel
makes this circuit. It has capacitor at its input and hence it is also called as a Capacitor Input Filter.

Working of a Pi filter

Capacitor C1 − This filter capacitor offers high reactance to DC and low reactance to AC signal. After
grounding the AC components present in the signal, the signal passes to the inductor for further
filtration.

Inductor L − This inductor offers low reactance to DC components, while blocking the AC components if
any got managed to pass, through the capacitor C1.

Capacitor C2 − Now the signal is further smoothened using this capacitor so that it allows any AC
component present in the signal, which the inductor has failed to block.

Thus we, get the desired pure DC output at the load.

RC π-Filter The RC filter consists of an input filter capacitor (C1), a series resistor (R), and an output filter
capacitor (C2). Here, two capacitors and one resistor are connected in the form of π shaped network. A
capacitor in parallel, then a resistor in series, followed by another capacitor in parallel makes this circuit.

C1 performs exactly the same functions as in single Capacitor Filter described above. Resistance R, load
resistance RL and reactance X2 of the capacitor C2 represent a voltage divider. Since the resistance of R
is higher than X2, most of the ripple voltage drops across R. Any remaining ripple voltage is shunted by
X2 to ground. The RC filter has some disadvantages, however. First, the voltage drop across R lowers the
output voltage of the power supply ie poor voltage regulation. Second, power is wasted in R and is
dissipated in the form of heat. Thus R-C filter is suitable only for light loads (small load current or large
load resistance).

Zener diodes - A zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in forward direction like a
normal diode and also allows electric current in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage is
greater than the zener voltage.

A diode specially designed to operate in reverse bias and in ‘breakdown’ region

The symbol of the Zener diode is shown below. Zener diode consists of two terminals: cathode and
anode. In zener diode, electric current flows from both anode to cathode and cathode to anode.

Working principle of Zener Diode/Breakdown Mechanism:

When forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works like a normal diode. However,
when reverse biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works in different manner.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage
current until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When reverse biased voltage applied to the zener
diode reaches zener voltage, it starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this point, a small
increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric current. Because of this sudden rise in
electric current, breakdown occurs called zener breakdown.
The zener breakdown voltage of the zener diode is dependent on the amount of doping . If the diode is
heavily doped, zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other hand, if the diode is lightly
doped, the zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages. Zener diodes are available with zener
voltages in the range of 1.8V to 400V. The zener voltage of diode can be adjusted during manufacturing
with the help of required and proper doping.

Zener diode applications

The main applications of Zener diode are as voltage regulator, Over voltage protector, as voltage
reference.

1. Zener Diode as a voltage Regulator: In a DC circuit, Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator.
The main use of zener diode lies in the fact that the voltage across a Zener diode remains constant for a
larger change in current. This makes it possible to use a Zener diode as a constant voltage device or a
voltage regulator.

In DC power supply circuit , a regulator is used to provide a constant output (load) voltage irrespective
of variation in input voltage or variation in load current. The variation in input voltage is called line
regulation, whereas the variation in load current is called load regulation.

The above diagram is of a shunt regulators because the regulating element is parallel to the load. The
Zener diode produce a stable reference voltage across the load which fulfills the criteria of regulator.

2. Zener Diode as a voltage reference :

In power supplies and many other circuits, Zener diode finds its application as a constant voltage provider or a
voltage reference. The only conditions are that the input voltage should be greater than zener voltage and the series
resistor should have a minimum value such that the maximum current flows through the device.
3. Zener Diode as a voltage clamper :

The diode can be used to limit the peak of the output voltage to zener voltage at one side and to about 0V at other
side of the sinusoidal waveform.

In the above circuit, during positive half cycle, once the input voltage is such that the zener diode is
reverse biased, the output voltage is constant for a certain amount of time till the voltage starts
decreasing.

Now during the negative half cycle, the zener diode is in forward biased connection. As the negative
voltage increases till forward threshold voltage, the diode starts conducting and the negative side of the
output voltage is limited to the threshold voltage.

Light emitting diodes (LED) - The pn junction diode, which is specially doped and made of special type of
semiconductor, emits light when forward biased is called light emitting diode. Light emitting diodes emit
either visible light or invisible (infrared) light when forward biased. A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an
optical semiconductor device that emits light when voltage is applied. In other words, LED is an optical
semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into light energy. Like the normal p-n junction
diodes, LEDs also operates only in forward bias condition. The construction of LED is similar to the
normal p-n junction diode except that gallium, phosphorus and arsenic materials are used for
construction instead of silicon or germanium materials. LEDs are available in different colors. The most
common colors of LEDs are orange, yellow, green and red.
Light emitting diode (LED) symbol

The symbol of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that it contains arrows pointing
away from the diode indicating that light is being emitted by the diode.

Working principle of light emitting diode

According to quantum theory, when an electron comes down from its higher energy level to lower
energy level, it emits energy in form of a photon or light. Light is made up of many small particles called
photons. Photons have energy and momentum but no mass. The energy of this photon is equal to the
energy gap between these two energy levels. When LED is forward-biased, current flows through the
LED. This current flow is because of both flow of free electrons in opposite direction of current and flow
of holes in the direction of current i.e. electrons cross the PN junction from the n-type material and
recombine with holes in the p-type material. Recombination mean electrons in condition band jump
down to the valence band. Thus with respect to the holes, the free electrons are at higher energy level.
When a free electron recombines with hole, the energy level related with it changes from higher value
to the lower value and it falls from the conduction band to the valance band. There is an energy release
due to the electron travel. In normal diodes, this energy released is in the form of heat. But in LED the
energy release in the form of photons which emit the light energy. The entire process is called
electroluminescence and the diodes are called the light emitting diode. Light color depends on the
energy gap of the semiconductor used. The light output (both intensity and color) is also dependent on
temperature. Light intensity goes down with higher temperature. The colour and wavelength of the
emitted light can be controlled by doping with various impurities. LEDs are available for either infrared
or visible light. In light emitting diodes, light is produced due to recombination process. Recombination
of charge carriers takes place only under forward bias condition. Hence, LEDs operate only in forward
bias condition. When light emitting diode is reverse biased , the free electrons (majority carriers) from n-
side and holes (majority carriers) from p-side moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of
depletion region increases and no recombination of charge carriers occur. Thus, no light is produced.

The LED use mixtures of Gallium (Ga), Arsenic (As) and Phosphorous (P). The colour of the LED decided
by the wavelength depends on forbidden energy gap. Hence different mixtures give the different
colours.

The materials and the colors they produce are shown in the following table:

Wavelength
Color Voltage (V) Semiconductor Material
(nm)

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared λ > 760 V< 1.9
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 - 2.03 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 - 2.10 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 - 2.18 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride

(GaN)
Green 500 < λ < 570 2.18 - 4.0 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 - 3.7 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate

Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 - 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor, or

Purple Many tipes 2.48 - 3.7
white with purple plastic

diamond (C)
Aluminium nitride (AlN)
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3.1 - 4.4
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)

White Broad spectrum 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

Application of LED

The application of LED is huge.

 1. Indicators and Signs:- LEDs are mainly used in traffic signals, exit signs, light weight message,
displaying box etc

2. Lighting:- LED lamps have become highly popular and as the energy consumption is very low for
them, they are also being made by LED s. In television and computer/laptop displaying, LEDs are
used.

3. Non Visual Application:- Communication, sensor are the main area of non visual application of
LEDs.

Photodiodes - A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current. It is
also sometimes referred as photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light detector. The current is generated
when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.

Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition. Reverse bias means that the p-
side of the photodiode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-side is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery.

In a normal p-n junction diode, voltage is used as the energy source to generate electric current whereas
in photodiodes, both voltage and light are used as energy source to generate electric current.
The different types of photodiodes are

 PN junction photodiode or photodiode

 PIN photodiode

 Avalanche photodiode

Among all the three photodiodes, PN junction and PIN photodiodes are most widely used.

It produces photocurrent by generating electron-hole pairs, due to the absorption of light in the intrinsic
or depletion region. The photocurrent thus generated is proportional to the absorbed light intensity.
The electrons and holes are generated as light strikes across the p-n junction causing the current to flow.
The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows light to strike the PN junction. When its PN
junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the light intensity. When there is no
incident light the reverse current, is almost negligible and is called the dark current. The sum of
photocurrents and dark currents, which flow with or without light, is the total current passing through
the photodiode. The sensitivity of the device can be increased by minimizing the dark current. These
diodes can work as photo detector and are used to generate electricity.

Applications

Photodiodes find application in the following:

 Cameras

 Medical devices

 Safety equipment

 Optical communication devices

 Position sensors

 Bar code scanners

 Automotive devices

 Surveying instruments

-Silicon controlled rectifier - Silicon-controlled rectifier is a type of three-terminal thyristor that conducts
current when triggered on by a voltage at the single gate terminal and remains on until the anode
current falls below a specified value. As the name implies this diode can be controlled or triggered to the
ON condition due to the application of small voltage. They belong to the family of thyristors and is used
in various fields of DC motor control, generator field regulation, lighting system control and variable
frequency drive . This is three terminal device with anode, cathode and third controled lead or gate.