Running head: WHAT CAUSES RACISM?

What Causes Racism?

Safeer Ashfaq (11386)

Iqra University

Author Note

This draft is for the academic purpose only and is submitted to Sir Muhammad Yasir Khan
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 2

Abstract

This chapter has two main objectives: to review influential ideas and findings in the

literature and to outline the organization and content of the volume. The chapter defines and

distinguishes the key concept of Racism, highlighting how bias can occur at individual and

institutional and cultural levels.

The author has also reviewed different theoretical perspectives on this phenomenon,

including individual differences, social cognition functional relations between groups and identity

concerns. The author also offers a broad overview of the field, charting how this area has developed

over the decades and identify emerging trends and future directions, it also explains the

organizations of the content and presents a brief synopsis of the chapter in volume.
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 3

What Causes Racism?

Introduction

Racism is that the belief within the superiority of one race over another, which leads to

discrimination and prejudice towards people and their race or quality. The term "racism" does not

simply constitute one definition. The ideology underlying racism typically includes the thought

that humans will be divided into distinct teams that is entirely different because of their social

behavior and their innate capacities as well because of the concept that they'll be stratified as

inferior or superior.

Historical examples of institutional racism include the Holocaust, the apartheid regime in South

Africa, slavery and segregation in the United States, and slavery in Latin America. Racism was

conjointly a side of social organization of many colonial states and empires. It can be revealed

through people’s actions as well as their attitudes. It can also be reflected in systems and

institutions. But sometimes it may not be revealed at all. Not all racism is obvious. For instance,

someone might check a listing of job candidates and choose to not interview individuals with

certain surnames. Racism is simply words, beliefs and actions. It includes all the barriers that stop

individuals from relishing dignity and equality because of their race.

Research Question

 Why are people racist and why racism is a problem?

People are not born with racist ideas or attitudes. Racism is something that is learned. There

remain a small minority of people who believe that some races are superior to others. While most

people in Pakistan today accept the diversity of society, some also believe racial groups should not

mix. A belief in racial superiority or purity can lead to racial hatred. However, not all racism comes
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 4

from hatred. Some of it can come from fear and anxiety. Racism causes damage to those who are

on the receiving end, it harms individuals, communities and societies at a large scale. It can also

wound the freedom and dignity of an individual.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this document is to discourse about causes of racism and how it can reflect

the minds of people on their own comfort level when talking about race. It will benefit the reader

in distinguishing between intent and impact racism and reflect on what it means in the context and

also benefits in establishing norms and learn strategies for having open and honest conversations

about the content.

Literature Review

Since 1971 United Nations resolutions have referred to racism without distinguishing it

from racial discrimination. Racism is presented as historically and geographically specific, and as

pathological, whereas discrimination is universal and normal. The concept of racism has been of

great rhetorical power in mobilizing international action for political change in Southern Africa. It

has helped induce more than three-quarters of UN member states to become parties to the

`International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'.

In recent years, racism has become a particular problem online. Whether it is offensive

comments on social media, inflammatory memes or hateful videos shared online, cyber-racism has

had a significant impact on the growth of racist attitudes. Those spreading racist messages can

often do so with the benefit of anonymity.

WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 5

(Yahaya, A., Ing, T. C., Lee, G. M., Yahaya, N., Boon, Y., Hashim, S. and Taat, S. 2012).

The impact of office bullying on work. Archives Des Sciences, (p.65)

In this study, a quantitative approach surveyed the problem of office bullying from a

theoretical viewpoint. This study reviewed the connection between office intimidation and

employees’ work performance. The Negative Acts Questionnaire (NAQ) consisted of 22-item of

the damaging actions, with variances related to bullying and work-related nuisance. Data was

accumulated from 217 workers from an ASEAN region. This study found that organizational

cultures make the worse problem when the leaders either do not perceive office bullying or dismiss

it as solid management. The study concluded that a systems approach to designing a training

program that discusses the causes, involves all individuals from all levels, and yields skills for

dealing with this phenomenon can make a short-term pleasant working environment.

(Garcia, D. and Abascal, M. 2015). Colored perceptions: Racially distinctive names and

assessments of skin color. American Behavioral Scientist, (p.60)

This study explores whether individual of other skin colors are affected by a subtle racial

cue or a name. The research questions addressed the following questions: 1) how do racial cues

shape assessments of skin color? 2) Racially ambiguous faces receive a different skin color rating

when it is specified a distinctively Hispanic name versus a distinctively non-Hispanic name? 3)

Gender differences in the perception of skin color? The randomization and vivid methodology

were based on an inventive experiment. The study was distributed to an online convenience sample

through an Amazon Mechanical Turk website. Overall, 560 different subjects participated in the

study; the sample was limited to adults living in the United States.
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 6

Results indicate that racial cues influence seemingly objective assessments of phenotypic

traits, like skin color. Results show that skin color ratings are affected by the presence of a racially

distinctive name. A notable share of people will rank the same features darker when that face is

designated a distinctively Hispanic surname as opposed to a non-Hispanic name. Also, ratings of

masculine aspects are more delicate to racially distinguished names. The present study lies in our

failure to separate the effects of apparent race from those of class and immigrant status. The

conclusions discovered appreciated lessons for the understanding of the social structure of race

and its role in creating differences.

Discussion

Beyond the nature of race itself, researchers and educators discussed the very nature of

racism. Some contend that racism is an intolerance based on the construction of race that is

perpetrated and held by the support of the dominant system. For example, (Malott, K. M., and

Schaefle, S. 2015). Addressing clients’ experiences of racism: A model for clinical practice.

Journal of Counseling and Development, (p.361) define racism as “a system of oppression,

whereby persons of a dominant racial group (whites in the United States) exercise power or

privilege over those in non-dominant groups”. According to this argument, only whites can be

racist in a white-dominated system (whether that dominance is by numbers or in political and

social power).

Others contend that racism is a system of beliefs that treats members of a group that is

different on supposedly biological grounds as “biologically different as the one’s own” Herbst, P.

H. 1997). The color of words: An encyclopedic dictionary of ethnic bias in the United States.
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 7

Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. (p.193). By this definition, anyone who sees another race

group as inferior would be racist.

Jennifer Richeson, a Yale University social psychologist. Define the causes of racism as

“In some ways, it’s super simple. People learn to be whatever their society and culture teaches

them. We often assume that it takes parents actively teaching their kids, for them to be racist. The

truth is that unless parents actively teach kids not to be racists, they will be,”

Pakistan has been classified as one of the minimum racist countries in the world, according

to a report in the Washington Post. The surveyors asked respondents in more than 80 different

countries to identify the sorts of people they would not wish to have as neighbors. Some replied,

“People of a different race.” It was concluded that this question could serve as an accurate indicator

of racial tolerance in different countries. Merely 6.5 per cent of Pakistani survey respondents

objected to having a neighbor of a different race. People in Pakistan are very respectful. And is the

happiest country amongst the neighboring country. The data showed that Anglo and Latin

American countries were the most tolerant in the world. Respondents were the most receptive to

having racially diverse neighbors in the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and

New Zealand. India, Jordan, Bangladesh and Hong Kong were the least racially tolerant countries,

according to the data. Only three countries out of the 81 surveyed had more than 40 per cent of

respondents say that they would not like to have a neighbor of a different race.

Aspects of Racism:

1. Aversive Racism:

Aversive Racism is a form of racism in which an individual unconsciously

discriminates and avoid interaction with people belonging to different racial and ethnic
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 8

groups. For example, people who behave in an aversively racial way will often change

their behavior when interacting with the people belonging to different racial and ethnic

groups than the ones, they themselves belong to.

2. Cultural Racism:

This term is used to define those racial thoughts that took place from the Holocaust

a genocide which was initiated by Adolf Hitler during the period of World War II. It can

be defined as a common beliefs and customs that spread the assumption that a certain

culture, including the language and traditions of that culture are superior to those of other

cultures.

3. Institutional Racism:

Institutional Racism also known as Structural Racism is used to define those type

of racial discrimination which are caused by governments, educational institutions or

organizations which holds the authority to impact the life of any individual. Stokely

Carmichael a Trinidadian-American prominent socialist organizer in the Civil Rights

Movement defined this term as “The collective failure of an organization to provide an

appropriate and professional service to people because of their color, culture or ethnic

origin. For example, in an organization an individual is not allowed to apply for a job

because he or she belongs to a certain cultural, religious and ethnic group.

WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 9

4. Racial Discrimination:

Discrimination between individuals and groups based on their race.

5. Racial Separation:

Racial separation or racial segregation is the term used to define the separation of

two different individuals both belonging to different culture, religion or color. For

example, people having black skin tone are not allowed to sit and eat with the people

having white skin tone or vice versa.

6. Subconscious Biased:

Research shows that the number people who intentionally reject racism also shows

an indirect discrimination toward others.

WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 10

Conclusion

Racism is quite a complex issue to understand. Studies shows that it is not possible to

entirely purge this problem unless all individuals amend their mindset. Generally, racism arises

due to psychological disputes. In keeping views like this alive in the world people are making

those races that are seen as inferior, have no chance of bettering their status. It is clear that there

are no biological factors making one race better than another. Race, which leads to racism, is

simply something that is used to justify brutalities and cruel and unjust treatment of people all

around the world. Racism has occurred for centuries, but there is still a chance to end it. Many

believe racism should end because if it continues, it can split the unity of races. It may also lead to

more violence within the countries. Taking this consideration, it depends on the people who can

essentially change their beliefs and create a healthier society for every individual.
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 11

References

(Malott, K. M., and Schaefle, S. 2015). Addressing clients’ experiences of racism: A model for

clinical practice. Journal of Counseling and Development, (p.361)

(Herbst, P. H. 1997). The color of words: An encyclopedic dictionary of ethnic bias in the United

States. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. (p.193)

(Garcia, D. and Abascal, M. 2015). Colored perceptions: Racially distinctive names and

assessments of skin color. American Behavioral Scientist, (p.60)

(Yahaya, A., Ing, T. C., Lee, G. M., Yahaya, N., Boon, Y., Hashim, S. and Taat, S. 2012). The

impact of office bullying on work. Archives Des Sciences, (p.65)

(Jennifer Richeson 2014), Yale University social psychologist. Current Direction in Psychological

Science (p.111)
WHAT CAUSES RACISM? 12