UNIT 14 LEGENDRE POLYNOMIALS

Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Legendre's Differential Equation and Legendre Polynomials
Generating Function
Recurrence Relations
Orthogonality Relations
Rodrigues' Formula
Summary
Terminal Questions
Solutions and Answers
Appendix A: Associated Legendre Polynomials

14.1 INTRODUCTION
You are now familiar with Laplace's equation as it occurred in your different physics courses, viz.
PHE-05, PHE-07. For instance, the temperature distribution over a spherical or a cylindrical shell
during the steady state satisfies Laplace's equation. The gravitational potential due to a mass and
electrostatic potential due to a charge distribution obey Laplace's equation at points away from
the source. The Laplace's equation in spherical polar co-ordinates (r,B,$)admits solutions
expressible in Legendre polynomials. Similarly, in order to obtain the solution of the (8,$) part
of the Schrodinger equation for an electron, we need to know the Legendre polynomials, also
called Legendre functions of the first kind. Further, though the description of an atom in terms of
the principal, orbital, azimuthal and spin quantum numbers became possible from an
experimental study of the atomic spectra, its theoretical explanation on the basis of
Schrodinger equation required a knowledge of the properties of Legendre polynomials. In
Unit 3, Block 1 of the Physics Elective Course PHE-05 : Mathematical Methods in Physics - 11,
you have learnt to solve Legendre's differential equation using the power series method. Recall
that these solutions could not be expressed in terms of known elementary functions -sine,
cosine, exponential, etc. In fact, these solutions turned out to be new functions with very
interesting properties.

In this Unit we shall revisit the solution of Legendre's differential equation and obtain the
Legendre polyno~nialsin two different ways: By solving the differential equation and from the
generating function. (You should refresh your knowledge by studying Unit 3 of PHE-05 course.)
You will then learn the properties of Legendre polynomials; the most conspicuous among these is
the orthogonality property. We have discussed many applications of Legendre polynomials. We
expect you to study these examples carefully and link them up with the relevant topics.

It is important to study Legendre's associated differential equation but we shall not go into the
mathematical rigor of the properties of the associated Legendre polynomials. Moreover, you will
not be examined for these.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
identify, Legendre's and associated Legendre's differential equations;
obtain Legendre polynomials from the solutions of Legendre's differential equation;
obtain Legendre polynomials from the generating function as well as Rodrigues' formula;
derive the recurrence relations for Legendre polynomials;
derive the orthogonality relation for Legendre polynomials; and
solve problems related to electrostatic and gravitational potentials.
-.I$.rial Functions
14.2 LEGENDRE'S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND
LEGENDRE POLYNOMIALS
:Yt- rcwrite Eq. (14.1) as
You first encountered Legendre's differential equation in Examples 1 and 3 of Unit 3 in
Bloclc 1 of PHE-05 course. Let us rewrite the equation:
t,et L I ~tiow make the substitution
s = cos 0. By Chain rule. we have

The solution of this equation has been worked out in the margin. It is

and
I -x2 = sinZO
Hence. Legendre's equation takes the
form

sin 0 do

For an even integer (n 2 o), the first bracketed tenn in this series (with even powers ofx)
terminates leading to a polynomial solution. For an odd integer (n > O), the latter term in the
series (with odd powers ofx) terminates and gives a polynomial solution. That is to say, for any
integer (n 2 O), Legendre's equation has a polynomial solution. For n = 0,1,2,. .., Eq. (14.2),
'*respectively, leads to
This is the 0-part of the Laplace's
equation in spherical polar coordinates.

You will recognise that x = fl are regular

singular points of Legendre's differential
equation. We therefore solve it in the
range -1 < x < I using po\;er series
method and write

h =I,
Substituting this and its derivatives
yf(x) and )"'(x) in Legendre's dityerential
These expressions (ofy) are, apart from a multiplication constant, the Legendre polynomials
equation, we get
P, (x),. The lnultiplicative constant is chosen so that P, (1) = 1 .

You will recall that Eq. (14.2) can be rewritten as

+ n a Z a , x A= O
I =I)
where m = n(n+l). In expanded fonn,
this is rewritten as
(ii) where J J ~(x) and y2 (x) are linearly independent. You should note that E,q. (14.4) does not give the
general solution of Legendre's differential equation. To understand the general solution we have
to reconsider the recursion formula given in Eq. (iii) in the margin:

(n-k) (n+ k+1)

+(12a, - 2a2 - 4a2 + nfa2)x2+ ...= 0
Equating the coeflicie~itof each power of
x to zero. we get the recursion relation
= - (n - k)(k + 11 + I) (iii)
<k+l)(k+~"
tells us that we can express the
cients with even subscripts in terms
.~ndthose with odd subscripts in
is o f a , . On inserting the values for the
.licients we get Eq. (14.2).
ak+2 = - (k i i ) ( k + 2 J ak
You will note that the coefficients a k + ,will vanish when (i) n = k and/or (ii) n = -(k+I).
ak+a= 0 is indicative of the series getting terminated with Ckas the last non-zero coefficient. That
is how we get polynomial solutions. While obtaining the polynomial solutions P,(x), we
considered the polynomial solution with n = k only. When we take n = -(k+l), the series
obtained diverges for x = f 1. This solution is unbounded and is called a Legendre function of
second kind and is denoted by Q,,(x). Thus the most general solution of Legendre's differential
equation can be written as
Here we shal! restrict ourselves to Legendre polynomial's of the first kind, that is P,(x). Let us
now derive the expressions for P,(x).

From Eq. ( 1 4.5) we note that if k = n, a,,,? = 0 and, by induction, anw= 0 = .

(k + 1) ( k + 2)
To continue our discussion, we invert Eq. (14.5) to obtain ak = - - - - ---- - - - ak+2.
(n-k)x(n+k+l)
By taking k = n - 2 , n - 4, ...we get

To rl~owthe equivalence of expressio~~s ill

This yields the polynolnial solution Eq. ( 1 4 . 8 ) .we note that even terrns are not

n(n - 1) x l l - 2
2(2n - 1)
+
n(n-
.
l)(n-2)(n-3)
. .

2x4(2n-1)(2n-3)
- xt1-4 - . .I 4.7)
occurring in the numerator defining t l ~ c
coefficients a,,.S o we multiply the nurncl.;~tor
and denominator by
2rt(2n-2)(2n-4), ..4 x 2 . This gives

The Legendre polyno~nialsP,(x) are defined by choosing

This choice of the coefficients a,, ensures that P,(1) = 1 when n = 0. Thus Now (2n)(2rz- 2)(2n - 4 ) . .x 4 x 2 .

= 2"n!
so that the expression for a,,reduces 18
(14.8) a,, =
2n!
-
We now work out a simple example to enable you to fix these concepts. PI!)^

Example 1 : Expressions for first few Legendre polynomials

Starting from Eq. (14.8), prove that

a) Po (x) = 1
b) P I ( x ) = x
and

Solution

From Eq. (14.8), we have

a) Since 0 ! 7 1, and x0 = 1 , we readily obtain Po (x) = 1.

b) Insert n = 1 . Then
c) Similarly, on inserting n = 2, we get

Proceeding in this way, you canobtain expressions for higher order Legendre Polynomials. To
give you some practice, you should solve the following SAQ.

SAQ 1

Prove that P3(x) = '/2 (5x3 - 3x)

Refer to Fig 14.1. It shows plots of P,(x) for n = 2, 3,4, 5. You may have to refer to these plots
and the values of P,(x) while solving physical problems. Note that Legendre polynomials are
categorised as special functions. (In this Block you will come across three other special
functions -Hermite, Laguerre and Bessel functions.) This no~nenclaturehas genesis in the fact
that these functions are far more complex than elementary functions.

So far we have obtained expressions for Legendre polynomials by solving Legendre's differential
equation. These expressions can also be generated from a function of two variables, say x and t.
When expanded in powers oft, the x-dependent coefficients define the Legendre polynomials.
This forms the subject matter of discussion for the following section.

14.3 GENERATING FUNCTION

Consider the function

We expand (1 - 2?t +t )
2 -112
I {I - (2x -t)t}-"' in powers o f t for !ti <l using binomial
expansion:

On equating the coefficients of r N for n = 0,1,2, and 3 in Eqs. (14.9) and (14.10), we find that the
first few Legendre polynomials are given by
You should note that these expressions are the same as obtained in Example 1.

The coefficient of t" in the above expansion will be

This may be rewritten as

You can readily identify this with Eq. (14.8). So we may conclude that Eq. (14.9)
1
withiti < 1signifies the generating relation for Legendre polynomials and g (x,t) = -
Jr-TTT
is called the generating function for Legendre polynomials.

We shall now obtain some special values using the generating function.

For x = 1, Eq. (14.9) gives

a
The left hand side now reduces to (I - t)-' , which has series representation as x t " . Then the
11=0
above expression takes the form

On comparing the coefficients of r", we get Pn(l) = 1 so that the expression of the generating
function gets validated.
e
The generating function is useful in solving physical problems involving the potential associated
with any inverse square force. To illustrate this we consider an electric charge q placed on the z-
axis at z = a (Fig 14.2). From Unit 4 of PHE-07course on Electric and Magnetic Phenomena you
will recall that the electrostatic potential at a non-axial point due to this charge is given by

From the properties of a triangle, we can write

Special Functions

On inserting this expression in Eq. (14.1 I), we get

For r > a, the expression under the radical sign may be written as ( 1 - 2xt + tZ)-''Zwhere x = cos 8
a
and t = - ;It/< 1. From Eq. (14.10) we note that when (1 - 2xt + ? )-I!' is expanded in powers o f t
r
for It1 < 1, the coefficient of r" can be identified with P,,(x).

On inserting this result in Eq. (14.12),we get

Example 2: Derivations from the generating function

Calculate the values of P2,,( 0 ) and PZncl(0).

Solution ..

Putting x = 0 , in E q . (14.12),we get

Using binomial expansion, we can write

( l + t 2 ) - ' I 2= I - - t1 2 + -3t 4 1 x 3 ~...5x(2n-1) tztl +...= P,(O)+P,(O)t+ p2(0)t2

2 8 2"n!
+ ...+ P2,,(0)t2"
On comparing the powers of t2", we get

Since in the expansion of (l+t)-" we only get even power oft, we have

P2,,+,(0)= 0

You may now like to solve an SAQ on generating functions.

SAQ 2
Spend
Prove that
5 tnin
(a) P, (- 1 ) = (- l )I' and
(b) P, (-x) = (- 1)" PI,( 4

We shall now use the generating function to obtain the recurrence relations or recursion relations
for Legendre polynomials. This nomenclature stems from the fact that expressions for higher
order polynomial can be derived from a knowledgeof the expressions for lower order
polynomials.

14.4 RECURRENCE RELATIONS

The generating relation for Legendre polynomials is

To obtain two primary recurrence relations, we differentiate g (x,t) partially with respect to t and
x, respectively. Differentiating partially with respect to t, we get

We rewrite this result as

and use the generating relation to write

On re-arrangement, we obtain

To collect the coefficients oft", we replace n by n-I id the first term and by n + 1 in the last term.
Then equating the resultant expression to zero, we get

n el-,(x) - (2n + 1)x P,, (x) + (n + 1) (x) = 0

Spyial Functions so that
.&

-
This is one of the two important recurrence relations and correlates any Legendre polynomial
with its adjoining polynomials. For example, by putting n = 1 in Eq. (14.14), we get

3x P I ( x ) = 2 P2( x ) + Po ( x )

But we know that Po( x ) = I , and P I ( x ) = x. Hence, we find that

Similarly, P3 ( x ) can be obtained using expressions for P I ( x ) and P2 ( x ) ; P4 ( x ) can be obtained

using expressions for P2( x ) and P3 (x), and so on.

To derive the second recurrence relation, we differentiate g ( x , t ) partially with respect to x :

so that

On combining this result with Eq. (14.12), we get

Raise the index of the first On rearranging terms, we obtain

term by one and lower the
index of second terms by
one of the RIG.

AS before, on collecting coefficients of t "+'from both sides and equating them, we get the
second recurrence relation:
Another very useful recurrence relation is obtained by combining Eqs. (1 4.14) and (1 4.15). To
this end we first differentiate Eq. (1 4.1 4) with respect to x and multiply the result by 2. This gives

2 (2n + I)P,, (x) + 2(2n + 1)x P,: (x) = 2(n + 1)P,:+,(x) + 2n (x)
We rewrite it as

2(2n + 1)x PI:(x) = 2(n + I)P,:+, (x) + 2nP,:-, (x) - 2(2n + I) PI,(x)

Next, we multiply Eq. (14.15) by (2n+l). This leads to

2(2n + I)x PI;(x) + (2n + 1) PI, (x) = (2n + I)P,:+~(x) + (2n + 1) P,~-,
(x)

Substituting for 2(2n + I)x P,;(X) in this relation, we obtain

+ 2(2n + 1) PI,(x) = (2n + I)<;+,(x) + (2n + I)P,;-, (x)

On simplification, we obtain

Eqs. (14.14) and (1 4.16) are the prime recurrence relations for the Legendre polynomials. Using
these recurrence relations and Legendre's differential equation, you can obtain the following
relations:

< : + I ( x > = ( ~l)P,,(x)+x

+ P,;(x) (14.1~7a)

(x) = x <: (x) - n 4, (x) (14.17b)

(1 - x 2 )P,:(x) = n PI,-, (x)- n x P,,(x) (14.17~)

and

(1 - x 216:(x) = (n + l1x P,, (x) - (n + 1) (x) (14.17d)

You should note that recurrence relations are identities in x and simplify proofs and derivations.

SAQ 3

Prove the relations (l4.17a-d) '

14.5 ORTHOGONALITY RELATIONS

One of the important characteristics of Legendre polynomials is that they are orthogonal. This
property enables us to express a given function defined on the interval (-1,l) in a serie? of
Legendre polynomials. It is therefore important for you to master its applications. The m th and
the n th order Legendre polynomials PI,,(x) and P,,(x) respectively satisfy the equations

( 1- x2) PI: - 2x Plil + m(m + 1 ) P,(x) =0

and
Multiply the first equation by P,(x) and the second equation by P,,,(x). Next subtract the latter
product from the former. This will lead to the relation

You can verify quite easily that the left hand ride is equal to ((I-x') (P,,P,;, - P,,,P,:) so that
dx
we can write

On integrating both sides over x from x = -1 to x = + 1, we obtain

You should note that (I-x2) vanishes for both the limits (x = + I ) implying that the right hand side
will be zero always. Further, when m # n, for the above relation to hold we must have

which means that the scalar product of Legendre polynomials of different orders (in the range
-1s x r 1) is zero. Eq. (14.19) constitutes the orthogonality relation for Legendre

'i
polynomials. Let us now evaluate the integral P,,, (x) P,, (x) dx for m = n. In other words, we
-I

+1

I
have to evaluate the integral [P,, (x)12drz.
-I

From the generating relation we recall that

Similarly, we can write

Multiplying these equations and integrating with respect to x, between x = -1 and x = +I, we get

!(JLzP)(JZLLF) 2[jp,,, 1
+I
drz
= (x) PI)(x) h
' siJJtJJ
~ ~ l 11=n
= n -1

From Eq. (14119) we understand that the RHS survives for terms with m = n only. We also
observe that when we consider terms for which nz = n, the notations t and s become identical and
we can write
 du
To evaluate the integral on the LHS, we put 1-2 t x + t2= u so that -2t dx = du or & = - -- .
2t
Wllen x = -1, the of integration changes to u = 1 + 2t + t2 = (1 + t12. Similarly,
whenx=+l,wehaveu= 1-2t+t2=(1-t)'. Hence

We now recall the series expansion of a logarithmic. function:

rn(~+r)=t--+---+ ...
2 3 4
and .2 .3 .4

so that

Thus

On equating the coefficients of t2",we get

We can combine Eqs. (14.19) and (14.20) to write

Special Functions where 6 ,,,,,is the Kroneckers ' delta, defined as

6,,,,, = 0 , when m t r n
In Vector Analysis you have learnt
that the scalar product of a unit =l,whenm=n
vector with itself is unity and the Eq. (14.2 1) tells us that the scalar product of a Legendre polynomial of a particular order with
scalar product of one unit vector
with another is zero. Writing.
that of another order is zero, whereas it is non-zero for the product of a Legendre polynomial with
symbolically. itself (in the range -1 5 x < 1). This suggests that Legendre polynomials of different orders are
- 1 1.. 1 L - orthogonal.
i.i = j . j = k . k = I
and
.
.
a ..
i . j = j.i = O
Completeness of Legendre polynomials
a - a.
j.k= k . j = 0 In vector analysis, we &fine a set of orthogonal basis vectors as complete if there is no other
.
.a

k . i = i.k = 0
.
.a

These properties are.utilised for

. I vector orthogonal to them all in the number of dimensions under consideration. By analogy, we
define a set of orthogonal functions as complete if there is no other function orthogonal to all of
writing a three-dimensional vector them. In Unit 7, Block 2 of your PHE-05course, you learnt to use an infinite series of sine and
in terms of the linear combination cosine terms to express a function, temperature distribution say, in a Fourier series on (-n,n).
of its components in the three
Now you will learn to expand a function in a series of Legendre polynomials, which form a
directions because i,j and k form a
complete orthogonal set on (-1,l). This completeness means that any well-behaved functionf (x)
co~npleteset of orthogonal vectors
in 3-D: can be approximated to any desired accuracy by a series of Pk(x)through the relation
A = A, i+ A* j+ A, k
Using the properties of scalar
product for unit vectors, we have

To obtain the coefficient Aa, we multiply both sides by P,(x) and integrate the resultant
expression iri-therange -1 to +1:
+l * +I
. p,,, m
-1
(x)f 0 ) =
k=O
Ak pill ( V k (x) m
-1
.
,

Using orthogonality relation (Eq. (14.2 I)), we can write

since tib1 = 0 except for k = m and 6,11n1

= 1.

Hence

We shall now illustrate this with the help of an example.

 Example 3: Expansion of a function in terms of Legendre polynomi~ls Legendre Polynomials
< .

m
I, O<x<l
Expand the function A x ) = in a series of the form Ak Pk ( x ) cbr .
0, - l < x < O k=O
Solution
From Eq. (14.23), we have

2k +l
2
-I 0
We are given that

On inserting these values in the expression for Ak, we get

Now, refer to Example 1 and SAQ 1. We recall that Po( x ) = 1, P, ( x ) = x,

(3x2 - 1 ) 5 x 3 - 3x
2'f ( x )= ,4 ( x ) = ,and so on. Therefore
2 2

and

11
Proceeding in this way, you will find that A, = 0, A, = -and
32 .so on.
Thus, we can write
*#

You may now like to do an SAQ.

 SAQ 4

Spend a) In Example 3 you must have observed that Ak= 0 for even k # 0. Re-establish this result
I0 inin using the recurrence relation given by Eq. (14.16).

b) Expandj(x) = 2 in a series of the form 2

k=O
A, P, (x)

You have learnt to obtain Legendre polynomials from the generating function. There is another
simple way of arriving at the Legendre polynomials. This is through Rodrigues' Formula, which
we discuss now.

14.6 RODRIGUES' FORMULA

Let us consider the function

v = (x - 1)"

and differentiate it with respect to x. This gives

dv
- = n(x2 - 1)"-' x2x = 2nx (x2 -])"-I
G!x
so that

That is, v satisfies the differential equation

Differentiating it again with respect to x, we get

lf you differentiate it again with respect to x, you can write the resultant expression as

This can be re-arranged and written in a compact form as .

After r differentiations, y,ou will get

When r = n, we get the n ti1 derivative of Eq. (14.24): Legendre Polynomirls

This equation can be rewritten as

On comparing it with Legendre's differential equation

you will note that d"v/drUsatisfies the Legendre's equation. So can write

That is, 6,(x) is a constant multiplier times d " v- . On substituting for v, we obtain
dx"

where C i s a constant. To determine this constant, we have to consider terms with the highest
power ofx,on both sides. From Eq. (14.8) we recall that the term with the highest power o f x ir
(2n)!
the expression for PI,(x) is - - x" . Hence,
-

~"(YI!)~

On comparing the coefficients of xn on both sides, we get

c=m! 1

Hence, we can write

p (x) = - --- (x* - 1)"

(2")n! dx"

This is known as the Rodrigues' formula for Pn(x). We now consider an application of this
formula.
 --

Special Functions
Example 4: Rodrigues' formula

Obtain the value of Pj(x) using Rodrigues' fonnula.

Solution:

From EP. ( I 4.25) we can write

Differentiating the expression in the small brackets with respect to x, you will get

Again differentiate the resultant expression with respect to x:

and

You may now like to do an SAQ,

Spend SAQ 5 ..
5 min
Obtain Pd (x) using Eq. (14.25).

We have discussed the basic operations involving Legendre polynomials. We now intend to
discuss their applications in physics. The most instructive applications arise while solving
Laplace's equation in spherical polar co-ordinates for potential and temperature related problems.
YOUshould go through the following examples carefully as you can learn a lot of good physics.
Example 5: The potential due to a pointcharge Legendre Polynomials

We have discussed this problem in Sec. 14.3. Let us take another look at it. Refer to Fig. 14.3.

'' \
r Source point

Fig 14.3: Polar co-ordinates for potential due to a point charge

By referring to the A Of Q, we can write

so that

This can be expressed in two ways depending on whether or not r > ro. We express it in powers
of (r/rn) when r < rn and in powers of ro/r when r > ro:

and

If we identify cos 0 with p and (rho) or (rn/r) with t , the terms on the RHS ofthe above- .
expression.become analogous to the generating function (Eq. 14.12). Then we may write

and

Since the potential at a non-axial point is given by V =--

4nso R
'
,we have

and
 Special Functions Example 6: Conducting sphere in a uniform electric field
I
I Let us consider a conducting sphere placed in a uniform electric field of strength Eo, as shown in
Fig. 14.4 and calculate the electrostatic potential at a point outside the sphere. To this end, we
note that the potential function will be independent of the azimuthal angle @.From Unit 6 TQ 1,
of Block 2 of PHE-05 course on Mathematical Methods in Physics-11, you will recall that
--+---- Laplace's equation can be split into the following differential equations:

I
I and

Fig.14.4: A conducting sphere

in an electric field sin d0

where P(P + 1) is the separation constant. The former of these equations is the radial part of
Laplace's equation and admits solutions of the form
We assume a trial solutio~l
R=rP
Then
dR = I-"" I
dr You will recall that (ii) is Legendre's equation, which admits Legendre Polynomials as solutions.
and Hence, the solution of Laplace's equation with azimuthal symmetry (no +-dependence) is given
=p ( p - ' by
dr2
Substituting in (i), we get V(r,8)=2(A,r1 + -$)Pi(COSO) (iii) .
p ( p - 1)r" + 2pr" - P(C + 1)r" = 0 r=o
or
p ( p + ~=) e(e+l)
To determine the constants A, and B, , we have to impose boundary conditions. Since the original
Tlit~stwo solutions for p a r e p = e and
uniform electric field (before the sphere is placed in electric field) is Eo, we must have
.1, = -(!+I)
, . and radial bark of Laolace's
equation has the solution

V = -E, r PI (cos 0) (.:P,(x)=x) (iv)

For r + m, the second term in the square brackets on the right side of (iii) will disappear. Thus,
on comparing (iii) and (iv), we get

A,=O,A,,=O foralln>l
and
A, =-Eo (v)

For the second boundary condition, we choose the surface of the sphere to be at zero potential.
Thus from (iii) we have

I For this equality to hold for all values of 8, each coeff~cientof P, (cos 8) must vanish. Hence, we
have

Ao=Bo=O

.B,=o for n 2 2
and
B, = Eo a3
7

-
Inserting these results in the above expression, we find that the electrostatic potential is given by Legendre Polynomi;~la

In this case, the potential

outside the sphere is only
relevant as potential inside a
conducting sphere is zero.

We have here discussed the problem of a conducting sphere in a uniform electric field. You
should now solve the problem of a dielectric sphere in a uniform electric field.

SAQ 6

A dielectric sphere of radius a and dielectric constant E , is placed in a uniform electric field Eo .
The sphere is surround by a medium of dielectric constant E ~Calculate
. the potentials inside and
outside the sphere.

Hint: This problem is an extension of Example 6 . So begin with expression for potential Spend
function given by (vi). You will have to apply the boundary conditions 15 min

&,El'.= E ~ and
E ~ El,~= E2,

where El and E, are tangential and radial (i.e. normal) co~nponentsof electric field:
E =-- av and EI - 1 av Field Poinl
'. ar r 80

In electrodynamics and gravitation you have come across problems of determination of potential
due to a ring or a disc at an axial point. In the following example you will note that for the
determination of potential at an off-axial point also we require a knowledge of Legendre
functions.

Example 7: Potential due to a charged ring

Refer to Fig. 14.5. The point P is an off-axial.point at a distance r from the origin of the Fig.14.5: Potential due to $1
coordinate system and angle 0 with the axis of symmetry. We wish to calculate the potential at P. charged ring at an
If the distance from the origin along the polar axis is denoted by z, the potential along the polar off-axial point
axis, as calculated in Example 6 , can be written as
m

V (z,Ol = - - ~ ~ [ ~ ] ~ ( ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ )
r<'il 471~0r0
and

The potential at an off-axial point, not lying on the polar axis, in obtained by multiplying the nth
term in the series by P,(cos0) and writing r for I. The resultant expressions are

and
SpeCial Functions
Example 8: Temperature distribution in a sphere

We wish to know steady-state temperature inside a sphere of radius a whose upper hemisphere is
maintained at a temperature T = To and the lower hemisphere is maintained at temperature
T = - To. To this end, we solve Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates subject to the given
boundary conditions. Equation (iii) in Example 6 gives the solution of azimuthally symmetric
Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates. Since temperature distribution is independent of 4,
we can write

Since temperature will be finite at the centre of the sphere (r = 0), we must have B,,, = 0 for all m;
otherwise solution will diverge. Hence expression in (i) reduces to

T(r, 0) = A,,l r "I P,,, (cos 0)'

In view of the given conditions, the temperature distribution on the surface of the sphere can be
written as

(iii)

where x = cos 8. Applying the boundary conditions to Eq. (ii), we get

To determine the constants A,,,, we use the orthogonality relation. To this end, we multiply both
sides of this equation by P,(x) and integrate the resultant expression over x in the range -1 to + I .
This yields

Using the orthogonality relation for the Legendre.Polynomials, we get

Since P,(-x) = (-1)" P,(x), the above expression simplifies to

A, =
I
10
o
I
( 2 t + l ) ( ~ ~ / a ' )6J ( x ) h (=odd

e = even
(vii)
 /
From this you can readily write the values of first few coefficients: Legendre Polynomials
, ,/
/

Hence the temperature distribution inside the given sphere is given by

Example 9: Electric potential inside a sphere

8-3cos8
'I
+... (viii)

We consider a sphere of radius a such that V (r, 8))=,, = Vo cos3 8 and assume that there are no
charges at the origin. Since V must satisfies Laplace's equation and the boundary condition has
no I$ dependence, the solution will be obtained in terms of Legendre Polynomials. The general
solution can be written as

From this f m of the solution, we note that V can be finite at the origin only if B, = 0 for all n.
Then expression m (i) reduces to

(ii)

On applying the given boundary condition, we have

01

V (r, e) = Vo cos' 0 = A,, a"& (cos 8) (iii)

,,=o
To solve for A,, we rewrite cos38 in terms of Legendre Polynomials. To this end, we recall that
P3(cos8) = (5 cos38- 3cos 0)/2 and we can write

Since cos 8 = P I (cos 0), we find that

Inserting this result in (iii) we obtain

m
-51 [Zv0P?(EOS%)+ 3v0PI(copQ)]= A,t~llP.<cos8) (iv)
11=O
Using the OFtkgmF'kypepsty of Legendre polynomials, you can easily see that A, = 3 VJ5a
and A3 = 2Vo/sd.b e .

3 2
r, ;
~ ( 0)= Vo(r I a)P, (eos 8) + ;
Vo(r la)) PI (COS
8)
Special Functions From the PHE-11 course on Modern Physics, you will recall that for the study of structure of
atom, it is essential to understand the hydrogen atom problem. For this, we solve the time-
independent Schrijdinger equation. The solution of Schrodinger equation requires a knowledge
of associated Legendre polynomials (Appendix A). This conibined with the solution of +-part
gives what is Icnown as the spherical hannonics. The spherical harmonics forms the base of many
important concepts related to the structure of atom. You will study these in your post-graduate
studies in physics.

14.7 SUMMARY
Legendre's differential equation is

The polynomial solution of Legendre's differential equation is given by

with

The generating function for Legendre polynomials is given by

The recurrence relations for Legendre polynomials are:

Pt:-l (XI = x P,: ( x ) - n P,, ( x )

The orthogonality relation for Legendre polynomials is given by

where
 /
Any function f (x) can be expanded in terms of Pk(x) as Legendre Polynomial

where

The Rodrigues' formula for Legendre polynomials is given by

14.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 25 min

1. Evaluate the integrals

(a) I-,
I
xPj1-,(x) Pp1(XI
dr ;and (b) 5-I
1
xP,, (x) dr

2. Calculate the potential Vat a point (a) inside and (b) outside a hollow sphere of unit radius
if upper-half of its surface is charged to potential Vo and the lower-half is at zero potential
(Fig.14.6).

Fig.14.6: .4 sphere of unit radius: upper-half of its surface is at finite potential ~whereasqoner-halfis at
zero potential.

3. Calculate the gravitational potential at a point (r, 0, 4) in space due to a uniform ring of
radius a and mass per unit length m, (Fig.14.7). It is given that the potential at the point P
(at a distance z from the centre of the ring along axis) is given by
Fig.14.7: A uniform ring
14.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-assessment Questions

2. (a) Putting x = - 1 in Eq. (14.12), we get

(b) We observe that the generating function remains unchanged even if we replace x by -x
and t by -t. Thus

so that

.'. P,, (x) .=(- 1)" PI, (-x)

3. By adding Eqs. (1 4.15) and (14.16), we get

2P,:+,(x) = 2(n + 1)P,,( x ) + 2x P,: (x)

 Legendre Polyno~ninlu
which is same as Eq. (14.17a).

On subtracting Eq. (1 4.16) from Eq. (14.19, we get

2 P,'-, (x) = -2n P,, (x) + 2x P,; (x)

:. P,:-l (x) = xP,: (x) - n P,, (x)

which is identical with Eq. (14.17b).

In Eq. (1 4.17a), we replace n by (n - I). This gives

P,: (x) = n (x) + x P,:-I (x)

Now, multiplying Eq. (14.1 7b) by x, we get

xP,:-, (x) = x PI:(x) - n x 4,(x)

On comparing the two above equations, we get

(1 - x2)<; (x) = n P,,-~

(x) - n x P,, (XI

which is Eq.(14.17c).

By replacing n by (n+l) in this expression, we get

(1 - x 2 ) ~ ; + l = (n + 1) P,, (x) - (n + OX P,,,~(XI

(X)

Using Eq.(14.17a), we get

(1 - x2)(n + l)Ptt(x) + x(1- x2)pt;(x)= (n + I) Ptl(x) - (n + I)XP,+, (x)

or

- (n + 1 ) x 2 ~ , ( x+) x(1- x2)<:(x) = -(n + I)xP,,+,(x)

'

As x # 0 (in general), we get

(1 - x 2 )P,: (XI = ( n + 1 ) P,,

~ (XI- (n + I)P,,+,(x)

which is the result contained in Eq. (14.17d).

Using Eq.(14.16), we can write

 Hence, for even k (other than k = 0), Ah = 0.

We have to find A * , k =0,1,2,3 ,... such that

Since left hand side is a polynomial of degree 2, we must have A3 = 0, A4 = 0, A5 = 0 and

SO on.

A2 3
A,--=O,2 A , = O , a n d --A -1
2 2 -
Thus
1 2
A"=-,A, = O and A, = -
3 3

Alternatively, you can calculate Ah'susing the relation

6. Refer to Fig. 14.8. You will note that we have to consider two separate potential functions V ,
(for inside the sphere) and V2 (for outside the sphere). Guided by Eq.(vi) of Example 7, we
can write
Fig.14.8: The lines of electric displacement due to a dielectric sphere of dielectric constant EI placed in a
uniform electric field in a medium of dielectric constant EZ.

From physical considerations, we should not have V , -+ oo for r -+ 0. Therefore, we

must have B2 = 0.

Again, the potential function must be continuous at the boundary. Therefore, we have

(This condition is equivalent to El, = E2,.)

(iii)

Now,

From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we get

and

So the potential inside and outside the sphere are given by

and
Terminal Questions

1. (a) We start with the Recurrence relation

( n + l)P,,l ( x ) - (2n + 1)x PI,( x ) + n (x)=0

We multiply both sides by Pll-l ( x ) and integrate the terms with respect to x between the
limits - 1 and + l . This leads to the relation

From Eq. (14.21), we recall that

IPI,,
l ( x )PI,-, ( x )*
I
=O
and

where I , = 1,xP, (x)P,-, ( x )o!x . On rearranging terms, we get

1

so that

I
(b) To evaluate the integral
I I
xP,, ( x ) dr, we note that x = P, ( x ) , so that

Ih = 1,PI(x)P, ( x )dr . Therefore orthogonality relation for Legendre polynomials

1

2 2
(Eq. 14.21) implies that I , = 0 for n ;c 1and I , =-= - for n =1
2x1+1 3

2 . Refer to Fig. 14.6 again. The potential has azimuthal symmetry so that Y is independent of 4.
Thus

where p = cos 8 and we have the conditions

 Legendre Polynomials
(a) Potential at an interior point (0 I r < 1)
As V should not tend to infinity for r + 0, we must have 8, = 0 for all n. Thus the
expression in (i) reduces to

,GO
so' that

(ii)

Now, from Eq. (14.22), we can write

A = .2n
, '
.- +I
..~

2
l,
v(l,e) PI, (PI dv

(iii)

On inserting the values of P,,(p) for n = 1,2,3,...; and evaluating the resultant integral,
we will obtain

1 3 7 11
A, = - Y o , A, = - V
2' 4 0 , A2 =--Vo.
16 A4 =O, As = -32
V,, ...
(iv)
Thus

(v)

(b) Potential a t a point outside the sphere (I < r < oo)

Since V is bounded for r + 0, we must have A, = 0 for all n; otherwise the function
given by (ij will diverge.

and

Thus B;#.= A, of part (a) and we can write

3. Refer to Fig. 14.7. As in the case of TQ 2, we canwrite

corresponding to the regions 0 < r < a and r > a, we have to consider two cases.

(a) O 5 r c a

In this case B , = 0 as otherwise the solution will become unbounded at r = 0 . So, we ,

have

For 8 = 0 (i.e. 11 = I), this must reduce to the potential along the z-axis, so that r = z. So
we have

(iii)

1; order to obtain A,,, we have to expand the left side as a power series in t.This leads to

On comparing Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we get

Thus, we have

In this case A,, = 0, as otherwise the solution will become unbounded for r --P oo. So, we
have

As in case (a) this expression must reduce to the potential on z-axis for 8 =0 and r = z,
i.e.
2narnp " B,,
7d
a +s =C
,,=o
As in case (a), we have to expand the left hand side but we have to keep in mind that we
1
have to compare with terms having T. So we express the left side as
Z
On comparing we get

Thus, we get
 APPENDIX A: ASSOCIATED LEGENDRE POLYNOMIALS
Laplace's equation in spherical polar co-ordinates (r,e,$) is:
,I will ~ c c i l llllilt
l if avector quantity
I; irrotalii~l::ll (i.e, curl A = 0. i t c i l i

!I;. c~prcssed 8 ; A = -VI', whet% I/ is

.iI;rr potent;,.~l.If over and above
\ is soleni)idal, then
v.:\ = 0
T..'?/'- 0

1 1,; = 0 To solve this equation we use the method of separation of variables:

i;< , ~ is
c lLaplace's
~ eql~ation..lnother
~ v ~ ~ r idf sa.vector quantily is sole~ioidal
ns well as irrc~t:~i~onal. the scalar
i,otcntial from \vIiich the vector is
Icrived satisfies L.aplacels equation. From Unit 6, Block 2 of PHE-05 course, you will recall that on inserting this substitution in
Eq. (A. 1) and rearranging the resultant expression, we get

:(r2 :I=- O sin

I- 9 dr (Sine$1- I d2@
-

@sin2€) d$'

Since LHS depends only on rand RHS depends on 9 and I$,it follows that each side must be a
constant, which we put equal to -C(@+ I). This ensures physically meaning solution for 0, which
is one of the factors determing the potential function. Now, we write-

and

d(sin~$) +- 1 - -- - = -C(C + 1)
d2m
0 sin 8 d r @sin2@ d$2

We can rewrite Eq. (14.28) as

r d2R+2rdR+C(C+l)R=0
dr' dr

As shown-earlier, the solution of the radial part of Laplace's equation is of the form

Let us now consider the angular part of Laplace's equation. On multiplying Eq. (A.4) by sin28 and
rearranging terms, you can write

Since left hand side is a function of I$ only and the right side involves only 9, we put each side
equal to a constant, say -m2. Thus, the azimuthal part of Laplace's equation can be written as
This equation admits solutions of the form

0 = B, cosnr4 + B2 sin m4

where B, and B2 are constants.

The @ part can now be rewritten as

This equation is called the Legendre's associated differential equation. If we set m = 0, i.e.
there is no 4 dependence, then Eq. (A.7) reduces to Legendre's differential equation. We can
transform Eq. (A.7) by introducing a change of variable:

x = cos 8

so that sin% = 1-x' and by Chain rule

d - ddx
de

d@
:. sin 8 c o s ~ in'^^ =-x(l-r2)z
de LLY
Similarly, we can write

so that

On'inserting these results in Eq. (A.7), we get

Dividing throughout by (I - x 2 ) we get Legendre's associated differerential eqbation in x:

It lnay be pointed out here that solutions of Legendre's associated differential equation are
labelled by both parameters & and m and are written P,"'(x).

For non-negative integral values of m and !, the general solution of Eq. (A.8) is given by

r - C ,PJ" (x) + C 2 Q y (x)

Note that P,?x) is finite for - I < x 5 1 (which conforrns wit11 x = case) and Qj"(x) is unbound€
for x = + I . For this reason, as a solution of the Laplace's equation, we consider Pr (cos 8) only,
and that too with integral values of /TI and n.

The associated Legendre polynomials are connected with Legendre polynomials through the
relation.

(A. 10)

where P, (I)is the Pth Legendre polynomial. You must note that if m > @,
PY(x-) = 0.

Orthogonality

Like Legendre polynomials, the associated Legendre polynomials P,: (x)are also 01-thogonal in
the range -1 < x < 1. Mathematically, we write

2 (n+m)!
krr (A. I 1)
2n+1 (n-m)!
-I

As before, we can expand f (x) in a series of the form

(A. 12a)

where
I
(2k + I)(k - m)!
A, = - -- Jf(x) P
: (x)
2(k + m)!
-I