1

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

MIDTERMS - UNIT TEST 1
FUENTES • Enables • No genetic variation
reproduction without that gives them
REPRODUCTION a mate chances at survival
Biological process in which different • No wasted time or • Whole species can be
organisms have the ability to produce energy wiped out from disease
another of their kind; ability to improve their • Enables rapid • Dangerous mutations in
species and enhance physical characteristics reproduction in large DNA (parent with
numbers mutation produces
I. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION daughter with mutation)
- does not involve gametes or sex cells;
does not involve fertilization II. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- can be observed in some plants and - involves the union of gametes inside or
lower forms of animals outside the body of an organism
- offspring inherit all their DNA from a - exhibited in higher forms of organisms
single parent Fertilization - egg and sperm unite to
- organisms are identical to each other form zygote
and to their parent
 Cellular differentiation - process by
which a cell changes from one type to
A. BUDDING another (cell—tissue—organ—organ
- New organisms grow by mitosis and cell system—organism)
division on the body of its parent; Selective breeding - used to develop
develops from outgrowth many types of plants and animals that
- Bud, when large enough, can break off have desirable traits
parent and live on its own; or may
remain attached and form a colony
ex. Yeast, hydra, cactus ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Diverse offspring • Time and energy

B. FRAGMENTATION (1/2 paternal; / 1/2 required to grow and
- Organisms are produced from detached maternal develop an organism
body parts of its parent chromosomes)
• Producing new organisms: sea star, • Individuals within a
sea urchins, sea cucumber, sponges, population have
planarians slight differences
• Producing new body parts: gecko, • Can resist disease
newts, tadpoles, crabs, zebra fish
• Traits develop to
resist harsh
C. BINARY FISSION environments
Fission - cell division in prokaryotes
that form two genetically identical
cells A. INTERNAL
- DNA is copied - Egg is fertilized by sperm inside the
- Cell begins to grow longer, pulling female
copies apart ex. Mammal, bird, reptiles, insects,
- Cell membrane pinches toward inside of arachnids
the cell B. EXTERNAL
ex. Bacteria, protists - Egg is fertilized by sperm outside female
- Female lays eggs, males fertilize them
D. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ex. Fish and some amphibians, plants
- Uniform offspring grow from a part of a and fungi (pollen and spores)
parent plant
1. Parent plan sends out runner REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS IN ORGANISMS
2. Runner touches ground, then
roots grow COLOR DISPLAY
3. New plant is produced even if - Use of bright colors to attract pollinators (in
runner is broken plants)
4. New plants are uniform and - Some animals use color display to attract a
identical to the parent mate (i.e, peacock with magnificent color
ex. Pingao, common silverweed, display on its feathers attracts peahen)
crabgrass
SEXUAL SELECTION
E. SPORE FORMATION - Male species compete with other males to
- Reproduction of spores (specialized copulate with females
asexual reproductive cells)
ex. Ferns, e.coli, protozoa, fungi
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Method of Fertilization Morphogenesis

(change in shape)
ANIMALS PLANTS

• Require physical • Need a vector (insect ANIMALS PLANTS

interaction with or bird)
each other in close • Develop into a • Develop by going
proximity distinct and through a longer
complete body period of
shape (during morphogenesis
DEVELOPMENT adulthood) • Grow and develop
Based on phylogenetic evidence • Grow by increasing continuously until they
(evolutionary history of organisms), the number of cells die
primitive ancestor of plants and animals • Grow by increasing
was likely a unicellular eukaryote. cell size

However, based on molecular evidence NUTRITION

from gene comparisons, there is not much
similarity between genes of plants and
animals.
Unicellular stages of development
Process of providing or obtaining food
necessary for health, survival, and growth
of an organism; different substances
obtained from various food sources are taken
in, digested, and used.

ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS Nutrients - substances providing energy for

the organism’s metabolic processes (growth,
• Motile (capable of • Positionally fixed maintenance, reproduction, immunity)
movement)
MODES OF NUTRITION
Growth stages 1. Autotrophic - can manufacture their own
nutrients by synthesizing inorganic
BODY PLANS OF BODY PLANS OF materials
ANIMALS PLANTS a. Photoautotrophic - Photoautotrophs
directly use energy from the sun and
• Clearly • Highly regulated by other inorganic substances such as
determined by the environment carbon dioxide and water to form
their genes since plants cannot organic food (ex. some form of
choose their own bacteria and protists)
growing locations b. C h e m o a u t o t r o p h i c -
Chemoautotrophs use chemicals to
Life cycles create simpler organic substances
important for their survival (ex. most
ANIMALS PLANTS bacteria and members of the group
Archaea)
• Has only one • Undergo alternation of - Common inorganic substances
continuous generations (where synthesized: hydrogen sulfide, sulfur,
multicellular stage they have sexual and ammonia
(after fertilization) asexual life cycles) 2. Heterotrophic - Heterotrophs cannot
make their own food and obtain energy
by digesting organic matter
a. Saprophytic or saprotrophic -
Saprophytes obtain their nutrients
from dead organic matter; secrete
digestive juices to the surroundings
(ex. fungi and bacteria)
b. Parasitic - Parasites take food from a
host; the parasite may be inside or
outside the host
• Ectoparasitism - parasite is
outside the host’s body
(ex. fleas in dogs, head
Formation of gametes lice in humans)
• Endoparasitism - parasite
ANIMALS PLANTS lives inside the host’s body
(ex. roundworms and
• Gametes are • Spores are produced hookworms)
directly formed first before forming the
gametes (during
meiosis)
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3. Holozoic - organisms ingest solid or

liquid food which is then digested and
absorbed by the body
a. Herbivorous - are called herbivores;
eat only plants (ex. sheep, rabbits,
cows)
b. Carnivorous - are called carnivores;
eat other animals (ex. lions, tigers,
sharks)
c. Omnivorous - are called omnivores;
eat both plants and animals (ex. pigs,
hens, bears)

GAS EXCHANGE ANIMALS

Process in which different gases are • Starts with diffusion of oxygen from
transferred in opposite directions across respiratory surface into blood
a respiratory surface; involves use of • Transport oxygen to cells of different parts of
oxygen produced by photosynthetic the body
organisms and release of carbon dioxide to • Oxygen diffuses
the environment as a waste product of • Carbon dioxide is absorbed into the
respiration bloodstream
• Carbon dioxide will be released to the
PLANTS environment
In leaves: In roots and stems: Structures for Gas Exchange in Animals
1. Cell Membrane
• Gases enter leaves • Cork cells of woody
through specialized stems and mature
- Used by unicellular organisms
pores (stomata) roots are
- Gases pass directly through membrane by
Each stoma contains impregnated with means of diffusion
•
guard cells that suberin (waxy, Ex. Bacteria
control the opening waterproof substance
and closing of the that doesn't not allow 2. Body surface or skin
pores gases and water to
- Respiratory surface covered with thin and
Stomata open when pass) most epithelial cells that allow oxygen and
•
light strikes leaves in • These stems and carbon dioxide exchange
the morning; close at roots are perforated
- Gases can only cross the cell membrane
night by nonsuberized when dissolved in aqueous solution; hence,
When guard cells pores (lenticels) the surface should be moist
•
develop turgor Ex. Flatworms and frogs
• Lenticels provide a
pressure, the pathway for direct
stomata open (due exchange of gases 3. Gills
to bulging out of between internal
- Convoluted outgrowths containing blood
guard cells) tissue of plant and vessels covered by a thin layer of epithelial
When guard cells the atmosphere cells (either found internally or externally)
•
lose turgor pressure,
- Greatly increase the surface area for gas
the stomata close exchange in aquatic organisms
(due to regaining their *convoluted - intricately folded, twisted, or coiled
original shape) Ex. Axolotls (external gills), fish (internal gills)
*Turgor pressure -
pressure involved when 4. Tracheal systems
the guard cell is pushed
- Series of respiratory tubes that carry gases
against the cell wall directly to the cells for gas exchange
- Gases enter and exit through spiracles
Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration (openings at the body surface)
Ex. Grasshoppers and cockroaches
Plants take in carbon Plants take in oxygen
dioxide from the air to to release energy and 5. Lungs
make food carbon dioxide as by- - Ingrowths of the body wall that connect to
products the outside environment by a series of
respiratory tubes and small openings
- One of the most complex respiratory organs
of animals
Ex. Humans
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TRANSPORT / CIRCULATION Transport in Plants

Circulatory systems allow important
biological fluids to be transported around ORGANS ASSOCIATED
the organism, so that the organism can
breathe, gain nutrition, and maintain its
internal environment for survival; enables
organisms to remove wastes and other
Xylem
unwanted substances from them.
Transport in Animals
(more focused on mammals)
ORGANS
ASSOCIATED / FUNCTION Phloem
MEDIUM USED
Blood (can be • Transports gases and
considered as an nutrients
organ) • Carries wastes out
Most • Regulates the body’s
invertebrates and temperature and pH
Tracheids
arthropods have • Helps in healing and
hemolymph prevention of further
instead of blood damage (platelet
formation)
55% - plasma • Plays important role in
44% - red blood cells immune system
1% - white blood cells Sieve Tubes
and platelets
Tubular structures
carrying blood
Arteries - carry blood
from the heart
Blood vessels Veins - carry blood
toward the heart
Capillaries - in
between veins and
heart
Hollow muscular organ
that pumps blood
Heart
throughout different parts
of the body
Blood is forcefully
CIRCULATION
pumped throughout the
PROCESS
body by the heart
About 90% of water is
WATER carbon dioxide transport) stomata and the
transported through
TRANSPORT
blood plasma
FUNCTION
/ MEDIUM USED
Main Circulatory Organs
Transports water
and nutrients from
the roots to different
parts of the plant
Transports sugars
and other
metabolic products
from the leaves to
the rest of the plant
Supporting Organs
Elongated cells in
the xylem that help
in the transport of
water and nutrients
Elongated cells in
the phloem that
serve as conduits of
sugar transport
*conduit - channel
for conveying fluid
Fluids circulate
through
CIRCULATION
transpiration pull
PROCESS
(evaporation of water
from plant’s leaves)
Water is
WATER TRANSPORT transported
through the xylem
Sugars and other
metabolic nutrients
FOOD TRANSPORT
are transported
through the phloem
Gases are diffused
GAS EXCHANGE through the air
(involving oxygen and spaces such as the
lenticels

Present in the form of REGULATION OF FLUIDS

FOOD TRANSPORT glucose; found in blood Both plants and animals need to regulate
plasma fluids inside their bodies because these
body fluids are essential for carrying out
1. O2 is taken into the the different bodily functions in organisms.
bloodstream by
combining with In Plants
hemoglobin; O2 is Water - one of the main substances needed
GAS EXCHANGE circulated by plants to survive
(involving oxygen and throughout the body - Water is used in photolysis
carbon dioxide 2. CO2 is taken into the (photochemical process that allows water
transport) bloodstream by molecules to split in the presence of light)
combining with
hemoglobin; CO2 is
transported out of
the body
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If plants absorb less water than needed, 4. Capillary action

they may dry out and wither
If plants absorb an excessive amount of
water than needed, they may dry out and
wither
Water Regulation Processes in Plants
1. Osmosis
- Water passes through the
semipermeable membrane of plant cells
- Water movement is from an area with
low solute concentration to an area
with high solute concentration
(Solute concentration inside the plant cell is
higher than that of the soil; thus, water moves
from the soil to the plant cells)
- Movement of liquid across a solid
surface (due to adhesion)
- Narrow xylem tubes allow water
molecules to climb up on their own
because water molecules adhere to
the surface of the xylem tubes
In Animals
Fluid regulation depends on:
- an animal’s excretory system
- concentration of water and mineral ions
such as Na (sodium), Cl (chlorine), and K
(potassium)
Water & mineral intake: eating and drinking
Water & mineral loss: evaporation and
excretion
To maintain homeostasis in animals,
Amt. of water acquired = amt. of water lost

Fluid regulation in Aquatic Animals

Marine Marine environment has a

invertebrates greater solute
2. Transpiration Ex. concentration (which may
- Water exits the plant through the Annelids cause seawater to be toxic to
stomata of the leaves because of Arthropods marine invertebrates)
evaporation Corals
- Allows water to travel from the soil Echinoderms However, marine
throughout the plant Jellyfish invertebrates have a high
- This process pulls water up the bodies Mollusks concentration of urea in
of plants (as water evaporates through Sea anemones their blood, which matches
the stomata, it creates negative Sponges the tonicity of their
pressure, exerting a pulling force that Tunicates environment
draws water upward)
Marine Body fluids of marine
vertebrates vertebrates are at lower
Ex. concentration than that of
Fish seawater
Seabirds
Marine reptiles Hence, marine vertebrates
Marine mammals reabsorb water to remain in
a healthy state; and excrete
sodium and chlorine ions
minimally to retain a high
amount of water inside them

Freshwater Bodies of freshwater

vertebrates vertebrates have greater
Ex. solute concentration than
3. Adhesion-cohesion property of water
Freshwater fish their environment
- Adhesion occurs as water and nutrients Amphibians (hypertonic)
get inside the xylem because water
molecules cling to the xylem tissue Thus, water diffuses into
- Cohesion occurs because the water their bodies; kidneys
molecules stick to one another release ions (Na & Cl) out of
- Water molecules form a huge chain that the bloodstream; organisms
fills up an entire column in the xylem need to reabsorb ions via
active transport

Fluid regulation in Terrestrial Animals

Excretory system removes metabolic wastes;

retains proper amounts of water, salt, & nutrients

Some animals live in moist environments,

develop impermeable covering, and produce
concentrated urine to reduce water loss

CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS CONTROL
Higher forms of animals have complex forms
of nervous control while plants have parts
that may be likened to nervous control
mechanisms in animals.
Nervous control mechanisms in Animals
ORGAN FOR NERVOUS CONTROL
Brain • Main organ used by
vertebrates for nervous
control
• Controls all activities
of the body
• Simpler kind of nervous
system for some
invertebrates
• Consists of individual
Nerve nets
nerve cells that form a
netlike arrangement
throughout the animal’s
body
Nerves - carry information
CHANNEL WHERE from the brain and the
INFO TRAVELS spinal cord to the muscles
and glands
Hormones - chemicals
CHEMICAL that are important for an
CONTROL animal’s growth and
survival
Nervous control mechanisms in Plants
Serial nervous system -
root tip or apex serves as
unit of its nervous system
ORGAN FOR
NERVOUS
Numerous apices
CONTROL
connect to the vascular
strands, thus forming the
serial nervous system
Vascular strands - serve
as nerves in plants
(contained in the leaves)
Vascular bundles - found
CHANNEL WHERE in the stem
INFO TRAVELS Vascular cylinder - found
in the roots (roots contain
vascular tissues and its
strands are supported by
numerous cells)
Hormones - chemicals
CHEMICAL needed for certain
CONTROL physiological processes in
the body
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IMMUNE SYSTEM
Protects organisms from diseases or other
potentially damaging foreign bodies. It
identifies threats and finds ways to fight
them.
ANIMALS PLANTS
Responses to infection
Have the ability to Cannot fight infection
become immune once or defend themselves
infected against pathogens like
bacteria, viruses, and
fungi
Structure and components of immune system
• Have multifaceted • Do not have
and complex structural immune
immune systems systems
• Composed of • Have plant cells that
complex interactions respond to
that allow organisms pathogens
to distinguish their independently due to
own cells from the absence of a
foreign cells circulatory system
Each plant cell
Lymphocytes - contains
specialized blood cells receptors that
that travel through the recognize
circulatory system to pathogen
destroy foreign bodies molecules
Once invaders
Lymphatic system - are identified by
comprising a large receptors,
network of lymphatic defense
vessels that carry a responses are
clear fluid called lymph triggered
directionally towards
the heart Responses:
- cell wall production
Lymph - clear-to-white and thickening
fluid made of white - production of
blood cells, especially antimicrobial
lymphocytes (cells that compounds
attack bacteria in the (phytoalexins,
blood) enyzmes)
- cell death (apoptosis)
SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISMS
Detects signals from the outside environment
and communicates it to the body via the
nervous system
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ANIMALS PLANTS
4. Effector - can be organs, glands, or
• Sensory & motor React to light, tissues that are instructed to adjust the
mechanisms are chemicals, gravity, amount of output that produces a desired
directly controlled water, and touch effect
by nervous 5. R e s p o n s e - t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e
systems Tropism - ability of adjustment that should remove the initial
• Employ a wide plants to respond to stimulus
variety of sensory stimulus
receptors 1. Phototropism -
• Sensory information movement of plant
is conveyed and in response to light
perceived by: (usually in the
1. Presence of direction toward the
physical light)
stimulus Ex. Sunflowers
2. Transduction
of stimulus 2. Geotropism -
into impulses movement of plant
in the sensory in response to
receptors gravitational force
3. Transmission Negative - moves away Negative Feedback Mechanism
of action from the earth Ex. - Allows internal condition of the body to
potentials in Grass return to its normal state by inhibiting
sensory Positive - moves or removing the stimulus
neurons toward the Earth - As the concentration of substances
4. Interpretation Ex. Potatoes inside the body increases, the rate of
of stimulus process decreases.
by the central 3. Hydrotropism -
nervous movement of plant Ex. When your body absorbs a lot of
system in response to glucose, receptors in your body will signal
water the brain to command the pancreas to
*Transduction - Ex. Mangroves secrete insulin into the blood; once this is
process of converting done, blood sugar level will effectively
energy or a message 4. Thigmotropism - decrease and reach homeostasis, and will
into another form movement of plant cause the pancreas to stop secreting
in response to insulin.
mechanical
stimulation
(physical touch)
Ex. Venus fly trap,
Makahiya plant

HOMEOSTASIS
Refers to the body’s ability to maintain
internal balance or a constant internal
environment; allows one’s body to function Positive Feedback Mechanism
well in spite of the ever-changing external - As the concentration of substances
environment; organisms with efficient inside the body increases, the rate of
homeostasis systems can tolerate many process also increases.
external factors
Ex. During childbirth; as the mother labors,
At a cellular level: oxytocin is released inside her body.
If the cell recognizes a disruption in the Oxytocin (hormone) causes muscle
steady state of the cell, signals are sent to contractions to speed up and intensify;
the nervous and endocrine systems to increase in muscle contractions releases
produce an appropriate reaction that will more oxytocin until the baby is born. The
maintain the optimal condition of the cell birth ends the continuous release of the
hormone, thus also ending the positive
Stimulus-Response Model feedback mechanism.
1. Stimulus - structure that produces
change
2. Receptor - structure that detects change
3. C o n t r o l c e n t e r - s t r u c t u r e t h a t
determines the appropriate response to
the stimulus
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Regulation of Body Temperature

1. High body temperature (Makes blood
warmer than the hypothalamic set point)
• Heat-loss center in the hypothalamus is
activated
- Sweat glands are signaled to secrete
sweat
- Sweat is vaporized by body heat to
lower internal body temperature
• Hypothalamus signals blood vessels to
become dilated (more open)
- This allows capillaries to be flushed with
warm blood; permitting heat to radiate
from the surface of the skin
• Once body temperature decreases, heat-
loss center shuts off
2. Drop in temperature
• Heat-promoting center in the
hypothalamus is activated
- Allows skeletal muscles to start
shivering (helps muscles generate
heat)
- Diameter of blood vessels become
small (diverts blood from skin to deeper
tissues to minimize overall heat loss)
• Once body temperature increase, heat-
promoting center shuts off
Regulation of Body Fluids
Water is continually released from your body
through sweat and urine;
Regulation of Gas Concentration
Carbon dioxide and oxygen must have a
normal concentration inside the body; the
respiratory system helps maintain the
concentration of these gases, as well as
the pH level inside your body
• Oxygen enters the body as an essential
component for the process of
respiration; carbon dioxide is produced
by its by-product
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and exit
the lungs and travel through the
bloodstream
- Insufficient oxygen supply disables
cells from producing energy
- Carbon dioxide, if not carefully
managed, could accumulate at
problematic levels
• The pH level is maintained by the
respiratory system since it is directly
influenced by the concentration of
carbon dioxide
• Parts of the respiratory system, with the
help of the circulatory system, aid in the
intake of oxygen and the release of carbon
dioxide
- Nerve impulses control muscles and
other organs of the respiratory system
- Respiratory control lies in the control
center located in the medulla oblongata
at the base of the brain

• When water is lost, solutes become more

concentrated inside the cell (creating
higher osmotic pressure detected by
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus)
• Hypothalamus sends a message to nerve
impulses to activate the drinking center
and the posterior pituitary gland to release
the ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
- The ADH stimulates a person’s
drinking behavior;
- Also controls the kidneys from
releasing large amounts of water to
be excreted in urine; increases amount
of water to be put back into the
bloodstream
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Regulation of Blood Pressure • The pancreas and the adrenal gland are
Blood pressure - pressure exerted by the two major organs responsible for balance
blood against the walls of the blood vessels of blood glucose in the body
• As heart pumps blood into different - Islets of Langerhans are cells in the
parts of the body through blood vessels, pancreas that release insulin and
pressure is regulated glucagon; they perceive changes in the
• As blood travels farther form the heart, blood sugar level
these blood vessels branch off and
decrease in size
• Blood pressure keeps the blood flowing
so that cells receive oxygen and
nutrients
• If BP is too high, it could damage the
blood vessels; if it is too low, organs in
the body cannot receive adequate
oxygen and nutrients

Regulation of Glucose Concentration

Glucose - important sugar in the body;
produces energy when combined with
oxygen
• Without glucose, metabolic reactions
would not occur.
• Too much or too less of it might result in
brain damage & loss of consciousness
- Insulin and glucagon regulate blood
glucose levels by allowing the glucose
level to decrease (insulin) or increase
(glucagon)
a. Insulin
- Makes cell membranes in the
bloodstream more permeable to
glucose; decreasing glucose levels in
the bloodstream
- Prevents glucose production from
ammonia acids, fatty acids, and
glycogen
- Liver stores excess glucose as
glycogen
When blood glucose level is normal,
secretion of insulin stops

b. Glucagon
- Stimulates the breakdown of
glycogen into glucose
- Allows glucose production from
fatty acids and amino acids
- Liver breaks down stored glycogen
into blood glucose
When blood glucose level is normal,
secretion of glucagon stops

Insulin and glucagon, along with their

counteracting effects, help maintain
homeostasis in the blood glucose level