BIOLOGY – REVIEWER
LESSON # 1
DISCOVERIES OF THE CELL THEORY
THEORY
 A set of principles developed over time via
multiple investigations.
CELL THEORY
 The cell theory is one of the foundational tenets
of biology and explains the relationship
between cells and living things
 Development of this theory occurred largely as
a result of advancements in the field of
microscopy between 1665-1838
3 MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL THEORY:
 All organisms are made of cells.
 All existing cells are produced by other living
cells.
 The cell is the most basic unit of life.
HOW IT ALL STARTED:
ROMANS
 When Romans discovered they were able to
make glass in the 1st century BC, things
changed for the better!
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
 He figured how to grind glass together and
decided to experiment. Leeuwenhoek made his
own 270x magnification compound
microscope!
 Today, microscopes magnifications range from
200x-10,000,000x magnification.
CONTRIBUTORS OF THE CELL THEORY
ZACHARIAS JANSSEN
 are known for inventing the compound optical
microscope. They made it in the 1590's.
ROBERT HOOKE
 English Scientist
 Used the compound microscope to observe
cork.
 Hooke observed that cork is composed of
small, hollow compartments.
 The parts prompted Hooke to think of small
rooms (cells) in a monastery, so he gave them
the same name: CELLS.
 Investigated cork through experimenting with
the compound microscope and came up with
the name cells!
 Key Note: Hooke discovered the cell in 1665,
which started formulating the cell theory!
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
 Dutch Tradesman
 Study new approaches for creating lenses to
observe cloth.
 Leeuwenhoek’s microscope was more
powerful than Hooke’s compound microscope.
 From investigating and experimenting with his
microscope, Leeuwenhoek became one of the
first scientists to refer to living cells when he
observed an abundant number of single-celled
organisms, which he called animalcules (plant
& animal), swimming in a drop of pond water!
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
 German Scientist
 Fascinated with plant cells, Schleiden used the
compound microscope and studied plant cells.
 From investigating and experimenting with
plants, projected plant parts are made of cells!
 Discussed what he observed with his dear
friend, German scientist Theodor Schwann.
THEODOR SCHWANN
 German Scientist
 Studied plant & animal cells, and was intrigued
by the similarities between the two.
 From investigating and experimenting with
plant & animal cells, Schwann was able to
determine that all animals are made of cells!
 Schwann published the 1st statement of the cell
theory: all living things are made of cells and
cell products!
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
 Based on his investigations and experiments,
he stated that all cells come from preexisting
cells, which is the 2nd part of the cell theory: all
existing cells are produced by other living cells!
 Key Note: After Virchow’s completed his
 work, the cell theory was finally formulated in
1838!
LESSON # 2
CELL ORGANELLES
CELL NUCLEUS
 Control center of the cell
 smallest unit of life, and are often called the  Contains DNA which contains the coded
"building blocks of life" instructions for making proteins which are the
TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF CELLS: molecules that do “everything”.
 Surrounded by a double membrane called the
PROKARYOTE (PROKARYOTIC CELLS) nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope.
 Bacteria  Nuclear envelope has thousands of pores
which allow material to move into and out of the
 Have no membrane-bound nucleus
nucleus.
 Nucleic acid is usually found in “loops” in the
cytoplasm
CHROMATIN IN THE NUCLEUS
 Usually smaller than eukaryotes
 The thread-like material in the nucleus is called
 Have fewer organelles than eukaryotes chromatin which is DNA wrapped around
EUKARYOTES (EUKARYOTIC CELLS) protein.
 Usually looks like this but as a cell prepares to
 Larger divide, chromatin condenses to form
 Have a membrane-bound nucleus where DNA chromosomes.
is located NUCLEOLUS
 More organelles  Small dense region within the nucleus
 All organisms except bacteria are eukaryotes  The assembly of ribosomes begins here
CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTES
RIBOSOME
 Organelle means “little organ”  Proteins are assembled by ribosomes,
following instructions from DNA.
CYTOPLASM  Ribosomes are found attached to rough
 is everything inside the cell membrane, except endoplasmic reticulum or floating free in
the nucleus cytoplasm
CYTOSOL  Produced in a part of the nucleus called the
 or the intracellular fluid is the liquid found inside nucleolus
cells.
CELL MEMBRANE
 The boundary of the cell ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
 Surrounds the cytoplasm and holds the shape  The internal membrane system of the cell
of the cell  Connected to the nuclear membrane
 Protects the cell  Assembles lipid components of the cell
 Allows certain material to pass through membrane, proteins and other materials for
o (selectively permeable) export from the cell.

PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 Structure of the phospholipid molecule:
 two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails"
 a hydrophilic "head" consisting of a phosphate
group.
 Hydrophobic (nonpolar molecules) – Repelled
by, not dissolved in or not combining with H2O.
 Hydrophilic (polar molecules) – Easily
absorbing in H2O.
CELL WALL
 A tough, flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer
that surrounds some types of cells.
 Located outside the cell membrane
 Provides structural support and protection,
sometimes preventing the cell from bursting
from water entering the cell.
 Studded with ribosomes
 Proteins that are being synthesized for export
from the cell and proteins that are to be used in
the cell membrane are made on the these
ribosomes.
 Proteins synthesized on the ribosomes on the
RER enter the RER where they may be
chemically modified.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 No ribosomes
 Synthesizes lipids
 Contains many enzymes which have
specialized jobs
 Makes membrane lipids; carries proteins;
detoxifies drugs
GOLGI APPARATUS
 Looks like a stack of plates
 Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and
other materials made in the ER for storage in
the cell or secretion from the cell.
 VESICLES
 which contain the materials modified by the
Golgi Apparatus pinch off the ends.
LYSOSOMES
 Clean-up crew (sometimes called cannibals)
 Membrane-bound sacks filled with enzymes
that break down lipids, carbohydrates and
proteins from food into smaller molecules that
the cell can use.
 Also break down organelles that have outlived
their usefulness for disposal.
VACUOLES
 Storage container for water, food, enzymes,
wastes, pigments, etc.
 Large central vacuole in plant cells
 Many small vacuoles in animal cells
MITOCHONDRIA
 (singular = mitochondrion)
 “Powerhouse of the cell”
 Convert the chemical energy from food into
energy that can be used by the cell.
 Enclosed by two membranes---an outer one
and another that is folded up inside the
mitochondrion
 Cellular respiration occurs here to release
energy for the cell to use
 Has its own strand of DNA
 Our mitochondria are inherited from our
mothers via the eggs cell.
CHLOROPLAST
 Found in plant cells
 Contains the green pigment chlorophyll which
captures the sun’s energy and converts it into
chemical energy (glucose) in a process called
photosynthesis.
CYTOSKELETON
 A network of protein filaments/tubes that helps
the cell maintain its shape and which helps
move materials around the cell.
 Acts as skeleton and muscle
 Provides shape and structure
MICROFILAMENTS
(1 TYPE OF CYTSKELETON)
 thread-like structures
 Made of a protein called actin
 Make a tough, flexible framework that supports
the cell
 May also help the cell move by assembling and
disassembling
MICROTUBULES
(ANOTHER TYPE OF MICROSKELETON)
 Hollow structures made of proteins known as
tubulins
 Perform different functions in different cells:
 Critical to maintaining shape of some cells
 Form centrioles (animal cells only)
 Build projections from cell’s surface such as
flagella and cilia that enable some cells to
“swim”
 Some cells have them arranged so that they
can be used to produce controlled movements
of the cell.
CENTRIOLES
 Aid in cell division
 Found in pairs in animal cells
 Made of microtubules
LESSON # 3
THE CELL ENERGIZERS
DISCOVERY OF THE MITOCHONDRIA
RICHARD ALTMAN
 In 1886 when Richard Altman, a cytologist,
identified the organelles by dye technique, and
dubbed them as "bioblasts".
 He postulated that these structures were the
basic units of cellular activity.
CARL BENDA
 in 1898, coined out the term mitochondria.
ALBERT VON KOLLIKER
 should be credited with discovery of the
existence of mitochondria around 1857.
 He was studying human muscle cells when he
noted strange granules in them.
MITOCHONDRION
 Mitochondrion, membrane-bound organelle
found in the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic
cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei),
 the primary function of which is to generate
large quantities of energy in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 are typically round to oval in shape and range
in size from 0.5 to 10 μm.
 In addition to producing energy, mitochondria
store calcium for cell signaling activities,
generate heat, and mediate cell growth and
death.
STRUCTURE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA
OUTER MEMBRANE
 fully surrounds the inner membrane, with a
small intermembrane space in between
 has many protein-based pores that are big
enough to allow the passage of ions and
 molecules as large as a small protein
INNER MEMBRANE
 has restricted permeability like the plasma
membrane
 is loaded with proteins involved in electron
transport and ATP synthesis
 surrounds the mitochondrial matrix, where the
citric acid cycle produces the electrons that
travel from one protein complex to the next in
the inner membrane.
 At the end of this electron transport chain, the
final electron acceptor is oxygen, and this
ultimately forms water (H20).
 At the same time, the electron transport chain
produces ATP in a process called oxidative
phosphorylation.
MITOCHONDRIAL CRISTAE
 are folds of the mitochondrial inner membrane
that provide an increase in the surface area.
 This allows a greater space for processes that
happen across this membrane.
 The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
are the processes which help produce ATP in
the final steps of cellular respiration.
 The following picture is the mitochondrion,
showing the inner membrane, including the
cristae.
CHLOROPLASTS
 which are found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis.
 This process converts solar energy to chemical
energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to
drive the synthesis of organic compounds such
as sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
STRUCTURE OF THE CHLOROPLAST
OUTER MEMBRANE
 This is a semi-porous membrane and is
permeable to small molecules and ions which
diffuse easily.
 The outer membrane is not permeable to larger
proteins.
INTERMEMBRANE SPACE
 This is usually a thin intermembrane space
about 10-20 nanometers and is present
between the outer and the inner membrane of
the chloroplast.
INNER MEMBRANE
 The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a
border to the stroma.
 It regulates passage of materials in and out of
the chloroplast.
 In addition to the regulation activity, fatty acids,
lipids and carotenoids are synthesized in the
inner chloroplast membrane.
 STROMA
 This is an alkaline, aqueous fluid that is protein-
rich and is present within the inner
 membrane of the chloroplast. It is the space
outside the thylakoid space. The chloroplast
DNA,
 chloroplast ribosomes, thylakoid system, starch
granules, and other proteins are found floating
around the stromata.
LESSON # 4
CELLS IN THE HUMAN BODY
STEM CELLS
 Stem cells are unique cells of the body in that
they are unspecialized and have the ability to
develop into specialized cells for specific
organs or to develop into tissues.
 Stem cells are able to divide and replicate many
times in order to replenish and repair tissue.
 In the field of stem cell research, scientists are
attempting to take advantage of the renewal
properties of stem cells by utilizing them to
generate cells for tissue repair, organ
transplantation, and for the treatment of
disease.
BONE CELLS
 Bones are a type of mineralized connective
tissue and a major component of the skeletal
system.
 Bone cells form bone, which is composed of a
matrix of collagen and calcium phosphate
minerals.
THREE PRIMARY TYPES OF BONE CELLS
OSTEOCLASTS
 are large cells that decompose bone for
resorption and assimilation.
OSTEOBLASTS
 regulate bone mineralization and produce
osteoid (organic substance of bone matrix),
which mineralizes to form bone. Osteoblasts
mature to form osteocytes.
OSTEOCYTES
 aid in the formation of bone and help maintain
calcium balance.
BLOOD CELLS
 From transporting oxygen throughout the body
to fighting infection, cells of the blood are vital
to life.
THREE MAJOR TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS
RED BLOOD CELLS
 determine blood type and are also responsible
for transporting oxygen to cells.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
 are immune system cells that destroy
pathogens and provide immunity.
PLATELETS
 help to clot blood and prevent excessive blood
loss due to broken or damaged blood vessels.
MUSCLE CELLS
 Muscle cells form muscle tissue, which is
important for bodily movement.
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
 attaches to bones enabling voluntary
movement.
 Skeletal muscle cells are covered by
connective tissue, which protects and supports
the muscle fiber bundles.
CARDIAC MUSCLE
 cells form involuntary cardiac muscle found in
the heart.
 These cells aid in heart contraction and are
joined to one another by intercalated discs,
which allow for synchronization of the
heartbeat.
SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
 is not striated like cardiac and skeletal muscle.
Smooth muscle is involuntary muscle that lines
body cavities and forms the walls of many
organs (kidneys, intestines, blood vessels, lung
airways, and so on).
FAT CELLS
 Fat cells, also called adipocytes, are the major
cell component of adipose tissue.
 Adipocytes contain droplets of stored fat
(triglycerides) that can be used for energy.
When fat is being stored, fat cells swell and
become round in shape.
 When fat is being used, these cells shrink in
size. Adipose cells also have an endocrine
function as they produce hormones that
influence sex hormone metabolism, blood
pressure regulation, insulin sensitivity, fat
storage and use, blood clotting, and cell
signaling.
SKIN CELLS
 The skin is composed of a layer of epithelial
tissue (epidermis) that is supported by a layer
of connective tissue (dermis) and an underlying
subcutaneous layer.
 The outermost layer of the skin is composed of
flat, squamous epithelial cells that are closely
packed together.
 The skin protects the internal structures of the
body from damage, prevents dehydration, acts
as a barrier against germs, stores fat, and
produces vitamins and hormones.
 NERVE CELLS
 Nerve cells or neurons are the basic units of the
nervous system.
 Nerves send signals among the brain, spinal
cord, and other body organs via nerve
impulses.
A NEURON CONSISTS OF TWO MAJOR
PARTS:
CENTRAL CELL BODY
 contains the neuron's nucleus, associated
cytoplasm, and organelles.
NERVE PROCESSES
 are "finger-like" projections (axons and
dendrites) that extend from the cell body and
are able to conduct and transmit signals.
CANCER CELLS
 Cancer results from the development of
abnormal properties in normal cells that enable
them to divide uncontrollably and spread to
other locations.
 Cancer cell development can be caused by
mutations that occur from factors such as
chemicals, radiation, ultraviolet light,
chromosome replication errors, or viral
infection.
 Cancer cells lose sensitivity to anti-growth
signals, proliferate rapidly, and lose the ability
to undergo apoptosis or programmed cell
death.

SEX CELLS
 Sex cells are reproductive cells produced in
male and female gonads.

MALE SEX CELLS

 or sperm are motile and have a long, tail-like
projection called a flagellum.

FEMALE SEX CELLS

 or ova are non-motile and relatively large in
comparison to the male gamete.
 In sexual reproduction, sex cells unite during
fertilization to form a new individual.
 While other body cells replicate by mitosis,
gametes reproduce by meiosis.

PANCREATIC CELLS
 The pancreas functions as both an exocrine
and endocrine organ.

 EXOCRINE acinar cells produce and secrete

digestive enzymes that are transported by
ducts to the small intestine.
 A very small percentage of pancreatic cells
have an endocrine function and secrete
hormones.

 Pancreatic ENDOCRINE cells are found in

small clusters called islets of Langerhans.
 Hormones produced by these cells include
insulin, glucagon, and gastrin.
 Pancreatic cells are important for regulating
blood glucose concentration levels as well as
for the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats.
LESSON # 5
PLANT CELL TYPES
PARENCHYMA CELLS
 The major cells of plants.
 They make up plant leaves and are responsible for the plant’s metabolism and food production. These
cells are typically more flexible because they are thinner

SCLERENCHYMA CELLS
 Very hard and therefore give the plant support. They usually exist in the plant roots and do not live past
maturity

COLLENCHYMA CELLS
 Hard but not as hard as sclerenchyma cells. They also provide plants with support but normally when the
plant is young. They grow and stretch as the plant grows.

XYLEM CELLS
 also known as water conducting cells. They are hard cells that bring water up to the leaves. They do not
live past maturity because their cell wall remains to allow water through the plant.

PHLOEM CELLS
 a system of cells that transports sugar produced by the leaves throughout the plant. These cells live past
maturity.
LESSON # 6
BIOMOLECULES
 Living things, or organisms such as plants and
animals, are made of uncountable numbers of
molecules. But one thing they all have in
common is they contain carbon atoms.
 Life on earth is based on carbon compounds
that we call biomolecules.
 Biomolecules are macromolecules or “giant
molecules.”
 They are giant because they are polymers
made of hundreds or even thousands of smaller
molecules, called monomers.
 They undergo a metabolic process whereby
certain organisms obtain energy from organic
molecules;
THE MAJOR KINDS OF BIOMOLECULES.
A. CARBOHYDRATES
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in
definite ratio, 1:2:1, with a general formula of
CH2O
 The main source of energy in the body (short
term)
 Building blocks are glucose molecules
 Carbohydrate originates as a product of the
process of photosynthesis
 Building blocks or Monomers are
Monosaccharides (or simple sugar)
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. MONOSACCHARIDES
 Simple sugar
 Important source of energy
 Sub-units of which most polysaccharides are
made
Examples:
GLUCOSE
the body's main source of energy and is found in
fruit such as pasta, whole grain bread, legumes and
a range of vegetables.
FRUCTOSE
this 'fruit sugar' found in foods such as fruit, honey,
some vegetables and soft drinks.
GALACTOSE
 this is a component of lactose (the 'milk sugar')
and can be found in foods such as legumes,
dairy products and dried figs.
2. DISACCHARIDES
 Double sugar
 Two monosaccharides bonded together
SUCROSE
 referred to as 'table sugar' and chemically
consists of glucose plus fructose. It is a
common form of sugar found in sugarcane,
some fruits and vegetables, and products which
have been sweetened (e.g. cereal, ice cream,
baked desserts and yoghurt).
LACTOSE
 referred to as 'milk sugar' and chemically
consists of glucose and galactose. Lactose is
found primarily in dairy products but is often
added to bread and baked goods, lollies,
cereals and processed snacks.
MALTOSE
 referred to as 'malt sugar' and chemically
consists of two glucose molecules. Maltose is
found in cereals containing barley and 'malt
products' such as malted milkshakes, lollies
and beer.
3. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Oligosaccharides are composed of repeating units
of galactose, glucose, and fructose.
4. POLYSACCHARIDES
Many monosaccharides bonded together
Bonded by glycosidic bonds
 Cellulose
 Starch
 Chitin
 Glycogen
B. LIPIDS
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
with no definite ratio, the number of oxygen
atoms is very less compared to hydrogen
atoms
 For long term energy
 Storage of energy and important component of
the cell membrane
 Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol
LIPIDS FUNCTIONAL GROUPS TYPES OF PROTEINS
1. NEUTRAL FATS FIBROUS PROTEINS

 A fat molecule is composed of one glycerol and  are generally composed of long and narrow
three fatty acids; hence this is also called strands and have a structural role
triglycerides. (they are something)
 Glycerol and fatty acids are joined together by
ester bonds formed through dehydration a) Collagen
synthesis. b) Keratin
 Fats are deposited in the adipose tissue. c) Fibrinogen
d) Muscle Proteins
FATS CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO: e) Silk
SATURATED FATS
 These are fats that have single bonds between GLOBULAR PROTEINS
their molecules and are "saturated" with
hydrogen molecules. They tend to be solids at  Generally have a more compact and rounded
room temperature, such as butter. shape and have functional roles
(they do something)
UNSATURATED FATS
 Unsaturated fats contain one or more double or a) Albumins and globulins
triple bonds between the molecules. As oils, b) Hemoglobin
these fats are liquids at room temperature. c) Enzymes, antibodies and hormones
They are also found in solid foods.
2. PHOSPHOLIPIDS CONJUGATED PROTEINS

 Phospholipids are a subgroup of lipid, which is  are composed of simple proteins combined
a major structural component of a cell with a non-proteinous substance.
membrane.
 Phospholipids are made up of glycerol, two a) Nucleoprotein
fatty acids and a phosphate group. b) Glycoprotein
c) Lipoprotein
3. WAXES d) Chromoprotein
 A wax is a simple lipid which is an ester of a
long-chain alcohol and a fatty acid. The alcohol
D. NUCLEIC ACIDS
may contain from 12-32 carbon atoms. Waxes
are found in nature as coatings on leaves and  Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
stems. nitrogen, and phosphorus
4. STEROIDS  Important in protein synthesis as RNA, and in
heredity DNA
Groups of steroids are:  Building blocks are the nucleotides, which are
made up of a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA or
a. Cholesterol
deoxyribose in DNA), a nitrogen base and
b. Sex Hormones phosphoric acid
c. Adrenocorticoid hormones DNA
C. PROTEINS  replicates and stores genetic information. It is a
blueprint for all genetic information contained
 Proteins are large, complex molecules within an organism
composed of 20 kinds of amino acids
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and RNA
nitrogen plus other elements such as sulfur,
 converts the genetic information contained
iron and iodine
within DNA to a format used to build proteins,
 Building block: Amino Acids
and then moves it to ribosomal protein
factories.