DEFINATION:

Fredmund Malik defines it as "the transformation of resources into utility."

"Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in formally organised
groups."

The Four Functions of Management:

Management involves far more than just telling others what to do. Before any of you decide that
you think you can do your boss's job, let's take a look into more of what a manager does.

The major functions that a manager completes can be categorized into four different functions
known as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

Planning
The first of the managerial functions is planning. In this step, the manager will create a detailed
action plan aimed at some organizational goal.

Organizing
The second of the managerial functions is organizing. This step requires Melissa to determine
how she will distribute resources and organize her employees according to the plan.

Staffing
Staffing is the function of hiring and retaining a suitable work-force for the enterprise both at
managerial as well as non-managerial levels.

Directing
The directing function is concerned with leadership, communication, motivation and supervision
so that the employees perform their activities in the most efficient manner possible, in order to
achieve the desired goals.

Controlling
The function of control consists of those activities that are undertaken to ensure that the events
do not deviate from the per-arranged plans.

Span of Management
Definition: The Span of Management refers to the number of subordinates who can be managed
efficiently by a superior. Simply, the manager having the group of subordinates who report him
directly is called as the span of management.

The Span of Management has two implications:

"Influences the complexities of the individual manager’s job".

"Determine the shape or configuration of the Organization".

The span of management is related to the horizontal levels of the organization structure. There is
a wide and a narrow span of management. With the wider span, there will be less hierarchical
levels, and thus, the organizational structure would be flatter. Whereas, with the narrow span, the
hierarchical levels increases, hence the organizational structure would be tall.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow is well renowned for proposing the Hierarchy of Needs Theory in 1943. This
theory is a classical depiction of human motivation. This theory is based on the assumption that
there is a hierarchy of five needs within each individual. The urgency of these needs varies.
These five needs are as follows-
Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and shelter. In other
words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of life.

Safety needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional safety and protection.
For instance- Job security, financial security, protection from animals, family security, health
security, etc.

Social needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness, and
friendship.

Esteem needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self- respect, confidence,
competence, achievement and freedom) and external esteem needs (recognition, power, status,
attention and admiration).

Self-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable of becoming /
what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for growth and self-contentment. It
also includes desire for gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity and being aesthetic.
The self- actualization needs are never fully satiable. As an individual grows psychologically,
opportunities keep cropping up to continue growing.

According to Maslow, individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these needs is
significantly satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. Maslow grouped the five
needs into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order needs. The physiological and
the safety needs constituted the lower-order needs. These lower-order needs are mainly satisfied
externally. The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs constituted the higher-order needs.
These higher-order needs are generally satisfied internally, i.e., within an individual. Thus, we can
conclude that during boom period, the employees lower-order needs are significantly met.

by Frederick Herzberg:

One of the main content theories of motivation, the Two-Factory Theory was proposed by
American psychologist Frederick Herzberg. According to this theory, there are two types of factors
that influence motivation and satisfaction among individuals, particularly those who work in the
employment sector.

The Two-Step Approach

The Two-Factor Theory includes two types of factors that affect how motivated or satisfied an
employee is at work. These are comprised of hygiene factors and motivator factors.

Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors are those that need to be addressed by a business in such a way that they would
not result to the employee’s unpleasant experiences and feelings at work. The satisfaction of
hygiene factors motivates employees in their work. The hygiene factors are:

Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration

Company policy and administration
Quality of interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Feelings of job security
Quality of supervision

Motivator Factors

Motivator factors emerge from the need of an individual to achieve personal growth. Job
satisfaction results from the presence of motivator factors. Moreover, effective motivator factors
do not only lead to job satisfaction, but also to better performance at work. The motivator factors
are:

Challenging or stimulating work

Status
Opportunity for advancement
Responsibility
Sense of personal growth/job achievement
Acquiring recognition

Home >
Academic >
Psychology >
Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Sarah Mae Sincero 24K reads Printer-friendly versionSend by emailPDF version

by Frederick Herzberg

One of the main content theories of motivation, the Two-Factory Theory was proposed by
American psychologist Frederick Herzberg. According to this theory, there are two types of factors
that influence motivation and satisfaction among individuals, particularly those who work in the
employment sector.

Note: Not to be confused with the “Two-Factor Theory of Emotion”, by Schachter and Singer.

Origin of the Theory

In 1959, Herzberg conducted a study with 200 engineers and accountants as the subjects. They
were asked to recollect their experiences and feelings (positive or negative) they had at work, and
the reasons behind the way they felt. Based on the subjective data from the respondents,
Herzberg began to analyze their job attitudes. From the study, he proposed a two-factor approach
when attempting to understand motivation among employees.

The Two-Step Approach

The Two-Factor Theory includes two types of factors that affect how motivated or satisfied an
employee is at work. These are comprised of hygiene factors and motivator factors.

Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors are those that need to be addressed by a business in such a way that they would
not result to the employee’s unpleasant experiences and feelings at work. The satisfaction of
hygiene factors motivates employees in their work. The hygiene factors are:

Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration

Company policy and administration
Quality of interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Feelings of job security
Quality of supervision
Motivator Factors

Motivator factors emerge from the need of an individual to achieve personal growth. Job
satisfaction results from the presence of motivator factors. Moreover, effective motivator factors
do not only lead to job satisfaction, but also to better performance at work. The motivator factors
are:

Challenging or stimulating work

Status
Opportunity for advancement
Responsibility
Sense of personal growth/job achievement
Acquiring recognition

Application

The two-factor theory of motivation can be used to analyze any evidence of de-motivated
employees at work. Applying Herzberg’s model, these evidences may include a low level of
productivity, poor quality of production and/or service, poor employee-employer relationships,
strikes and industrial disputes concerning pay and/or working condition complaints. Following a
thorough assessment on the hygiene factors of the business and the motivator factors concerning
employees at work, Herzberg suggested that the business’ management to apply three methods
in which work can be rearranged:

Job Enlargement
Job Rotation
Job Enrichment

PLANNING STEPS

1. Goal setting:

Plans are the means to achieve certain ends or objectives. Therefore, establishment of
organizational or overall objectives is the first step in planning. Setting objectives is the most
crucial part of planning. The organizational objectives should be set in key areas of operations.

2. Developing the planning premises:

Before plans are prepared, the assumptions and conditions underlying them must be clearly
defined these assumptions are called planning premises and they can be identified through
accurate forecasting of likely future events.

3. Reviewing Limitations:

In practice, several constraints or limitations affect the ability of an organization to achieve its
objectives. These limitations restrict the smooth operation of plans and they must be anticipated
and provided for.

4. Deciding the planning period:

Once the broad goals, planning premises and limitations are laid down, the next step is to decide
the period of planning. The planning period should be long enough to permit the fulfillment of the
commitments involved in a decision.

5. Formulation of policies and strategies:

After the goals are defined and planning premises are identified, management can formulate poli-
cies and strategies for the accomplishment of desired results. The responsibility for laying down
policies and strategies lies usually with management. But, the subordinates should be consulted
as they are to implement the policies and strategies.

6. Preparing operating plans:

After the formulation of overall operating plans, the derivative or supporting plans are prepared.
Several medium range and short-range plans are required to implement policies and strategies.

7.Integration of plans:
Different plans must be properly balanced so that they support one another. Review and revision
may be necessary before the plan is put into operation. Moreover, the various plans must be
communicated and explained to those responsible for putting them into practice.