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Damages of Buildings On Expansive Soils
Damages of Buildings On Expansive Soils
Damages of Buildings On Expansive Soils
Accepted 10 March 2017, Available online 16 May 2017, Vol.6, No.2 (May 2017)
Abstract
This paper aims to identify the factors that cause damages to buildings constructed on expansive soils and suggests
practical solutions to avoid swelling problems. Literature of buildings failures associated with expansive soils and
techniques experienced to prevent the swelling damages were intensively reviewed. Three regions in Khartoum state,
famous expansive soil areas were selected for this study. Ten cases of damaged buildings were randomly selected for
investigation. A field survey of damages was conducted to diagnosis and point out the causes, extent and type of damage
that was observed in the buildings. It was observed that eight lightweight buildings suffered heavy damages and only two
other buildings were slightly damaged. Common failures observed were cracks in walls and floors, foundation
movements, column buckling, sagging of beams and slabs in typical damage cases. It was found that poor surface
drainage, gardens watering close to buildings, source of water leakage and improper design of foundation contribute to
most failures and damages in buildings. Based on the causes of failure and other factors, practical measures are
suggested for the damaged buildings. Finally, conclusions are drawn from the study findings.
Pyroxene minerals of the parent rocks have decomposed to The volume change behavior of expansive soil generates
form montmorillonite and other secondary materials. The serious damage to civil infrastructures in Sudan and many
second group comprises the sedimentary rocks that contain countries over the world. In general, the annual damage in
montmorillonite as a constituent which breaks down Sudan exceeds $6million and most of the annual damage
physically to form expansive soils. Examples of this type reported occurs in residential and commercial buildings,
of rock are bedrock shale found in North America and the [1]. Previous studies indicated a continual increase in
shale in South Africa, [3]. The three most important annual damage caused by expansive soil as the population
minerals of expansive clay are montmorillonite, illite and continues to grow due to the need of new developments to
kaolinite. The montmorillonite is considered as a highly the expanding residential buildings and commercial
expansion and the most effective one for swelling markets,[7][8]. Rosenbalm and Zapata [9] stated that in
behavior, [4]. the United States alone, the cost to repair structures
Potentially swelling clays can be recognized in the damaged by expansive soils has been estimated to be twice
laboratory by their plastic and swelling properties. the combined damages of natural disasters. Expansive
Generally, clays of high plasticity usually have high soils have reportedly inflicted billions of dollars in
swelling potential. Expansive soils are characterized by damages and repairs annually to structures, [10].
plasticity index over 30%, liquid limit exceeding 50% and Evaluation of damages has to base on experience and
have high swelling potential, [3]. In the field, expansive knowledge of the history of the building, construction
clays can be recognized in the dry season by the deep materials details, crack patterns, and existing physical
cracks of roughly polygonal patterns, [5]. Three condition. This is possible by means of walk through
ingredients that are necessary for soil to swell, clay rich of inspection to identify and categorize both distinct and
montmorillonite mineral; when the natural water content is hidden damages. For all damages, the professional
around the plastic limit of the soil; and there is a source of inspector must predict a complete set of causes and
water leakage. effects. The correlation between causes and effects require
Expansive soils experience volume changes as a result experimental and analytical investigation. This is used to
of moisture changes leading to differential movements identify, localize and quantify the damages for structural
below a building‟s foundation. When a structure builds on performance evaluation. Damage evaluation based on
such a soil, it applies an upward pressure on the different deterministic criteria in relation with angular
foundation. If the foundation transfers a downward stress distortion, [11][12].
which is smaller than the swelling pressure, the foundation The most obvious identifications of damage to
moves upward. These upward and downward movements buildings are doors and windows that get jammed, uneven
of foundations become cyclic seasonal movements during floors, and cracked foundations, floors, masonry walls and
the entire life span of the structure. These cyclic ceilings. Moreover, different crack patterns mean different
movements tend to tear up the walls and eventually causes for different foundation materials. In most cases,
destabilize the whole structure. Light structures, such as cracks due to shrinkage and expansive clay usually run
single or double storey buildings, pavements, etc. which from corner towards adjacent opening and are uniform in
generally transmit smaller stresses to the soil than the width or v-shaped, wider at the top than the foundation
swell pressure are greatly suffered the damage, [6].
wall, [13][14]. This pattern of cracks happens when the
2.2 Damages in Buildings moisture movement is from the perimeter to the centre of
the house. In some cases, the cracks are wider at the
Different Buildings experience various levels of damages bottom than the top due to dishing effect as opposed to
during their life time. Damages may occur within a few dooming effect. This happens when the moisture moves
months following construction, may develop slowly over a from centre to the perimeter resulting into the saucer
period of about 5 years, or may not appear for many years effect. In the dishing effect, the cracks are wider bottom
until some activity occurs to disturb the soil moisture, [7]. than top because of the inwards tilt, [15]. Cracks due to
The probability of damages increases for structures on structural failure are significant cracks and caused due to
swelling foundation soils if the climate and other field improper design and/or quality control failure. Besides
environment, effects of construction, and effects of functions and cost such cracks have psychological impact
occupancy tend to promote moisture changes in the soil. on the owners and can be encountered in high-rise
The differential movement caused by swell or shrinkage of building and in non-expansive soil areas. Such cracks
expansive soils can increase the probability of damage to occur very rarely. Crack due to foundation movement are
the foundation and superstructure. Differential rather than
usually associated with expansive soil, which can exert a
total movements of the foundation soils are generally
pressure which moves the structure. The pattern of the
responsible for the major structural damage. Differential
movements redistribute the structural loads causing cracks depends on whether it is a doming heave or a dish
concentration of loads on portions of the foundation and shaped lift heave. Figure 1 schematically illustrates some
large changes in moments and shear forces in the structure commonly observed exterior cracks in brick walls from
not previously accounted for in standard design practice, doming or edge down patterns of heave. The pattern of
[6]. The damages are due to design faults, cheap heave generally causes the external walls in the
construction materials, poor workmanship, poor drainage, superstructure to lean outward, resulting in horizontal,
climatic condition and swelling behaviour of expansive vertical, and diagonal fractures with larger cracks near the
soils. top, [16].
109| International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Scientific Emerging Research, Vol.6, No.2 (May 2017)
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi et al Damages of Buildings on Expansive Soils: Diagnosis and Avoidance
lowering the water table in expansive soil, [3]. This 3. Research Methodology
usually is not accomplished due to negligence, cost,
limited property size and other reasons. The research methodology which has been followed to
achieve the ultimate goal of the study is conducted by field
2.3.3 Chemical Stabilization and laboratory investigation. Some cases of existing
houses in Khartoum state were selected to assess their
Many chemical admixtures can be used to stabilize damages. The case study was carefully selected to provide
expansive soils but lime has proven to be the most rich information on expansive soils problems to
effective for highly expansive clays. The use of lime to lightweight buildings. The research focused on evaluating
prevent or minimize soil expansion has been increasing in damages that occurred on some houses in Khartoum state
favor during the last few decades because it significantly in order to come out with the possible causes and practical
reduces swelling characteristics and increases soil remedies. Primarily the study based on recorded
strength. Generally the amount of lime required to information, field investigation and laboratory tests.
stabilize expansive soils ranges from 5 to 8% by weight.
The addition of lime to clay soil provides an abundance of 3.1 Project Description
calcium ions (Ca+2) and magnesium ions (Mg+2). These
ions tend to displace other common cations such as Khartoum is the capital and largest city of Sudan.
sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+), in a process known as Khartoum state is composed of three towns, Khartoum;
cation exchange. Replacement of sodium and potassium Khartoum North; and Omdurman. The three towns are
ions by calcium significantly reduces the plasticity of the located around the river Nile and its two main branches,
expansive clay, [20]. A reduction in plasticity is usually Blue Nile and White Nile in a triangle shape. Recently,
accompanied by reduced potential for swelling. The construction developments are concentrated in areas
addition of lime increases the soil pH, which also extensively covered with expansive soils. The study area
increases the cation exchange capacity. A change of soil in this work includes most regions of Khartoum state
texture takes place when lime is mixed with clay. Fly ash where expansive soils are dominantly found, namely
and fiber reinforcement in foundation also takes a vital Almenshia in Khartoum (KH), Shambat and Alshabia in
role for stabilization of expansive soils, [4]. Khartoum North (KN) and Alarda in Omdurman (OM),
shown in Figure 2.
2.3.4 Soil replacement KN
Soil replacement is the simplest methods for preventing
building damages. The most important requirements for
soil replacement are the type of the material for
replacement, the depth of replacement and the extent to
which the replacement is needed. The material replaced OM
should be non-expansive and impermeable, [3]. If the
replacing material is highly permeable (coarse sand,
gravels), it transmits the surface moisture directly on the
expansive clay layer. This would bring about differential
KH
movement the same as the surface. Hence, use of sand,
gravel as replacing materials is dangerous. The depth at
which the soil to be replaced depends on the depth of the
active zone. Active zone is the depth at which the soil does
not affected by dry weather, [2].
2.3.5 Structural Measures
The structural measures that should be undertaken in order
to minimize or eliminate damages of structures due to Figure 2 The project location in Khartoum state
heaving are dependent on the design of the structures. The
types of foundations commonly used worldwide to support In Khartoum state, most of the residential buildings are
structural loads in expansive soil are: spread footings, low rise buildings which are susceptible to damage caused
continuous footings, stiffened raft and bored concrete by expansive soils. These buildings are mainly constructed
piles. The shallow foundations are modified to increase the from hollow concrete blocks, brick or masonry walls.
bearing pressure so as to minimize heave. Some Only few buildings are high rise or tall buildings. Most of
modifications have been provided include, [2]: the dwellings of Khartoum, particularly in expansive soil
areas have similarities in size, construction material and
narrowing the width of the footing base, construction method. Taking samples from the population
placing the foundation wall directly on grade without inference can be made about the buildings those
a footing, constructed in expansive soil areas.
providing void spaces within the supporting beam or Ten randomly selected houses in the three towns of
wall to concentrate loads at isolated points, and Khartoum state. The houses are located at Almanshia
increasing the reinforcement around the perimeter (three houses) in Khartoum; Shambat (three houses) and
and into the floor slab to stiffen the foundation Alshabia (two houses) in Khartoum North; and Alarda
111| International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Scientific Emerging Research, Vol.6, No.2 (May 2017)
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi et al Damages of Buildings on Expansive Soils: Diagnosis and Avoidance
(two houses) in Omdurman. The selected houses for the It was observed that most of the surveyed houses of single
study were built in relatively small areas about 300 to 400 storey buildings of masonry or hollow block concrete load
m2. Most of the studied houses (seven houses) are single bearing walls and supported on strip foundation, suffered
storey buildings while the remaining are two-storey much damages than the two-story buildings that supported
buildings. The houses are mostly built using masonry or on reinforced concrete pad foundations. One possible
hollow block concrete for load bearing walls or partition
explanation for this could lie in the fact that the single
walls of reinforced concrete frame. The buildings are
supported on reinforced concrete pad or strip foundations. storey buildings which exert downward pressures lower
than the amount of upward ground pressure exerted by the
3.2. Records Review swell soils.
The most common exterior damage was to the fence
A detailed record Review was conducted to obtain some walls. Most of the surveyed houses, the fence walls are
information about the design and construction of the
supported on strip foundation at a shallow depth. It was
project. The documents contain information data about the
building history, structural design, construction materials clearly observed that the walls nearby gardens are much
information and specifications, previous maintenance suffered serious cracks due to the adverse effect of garden
records, and other relevant information such as soil watering, shown in Figures 3 and 4. Cracks were vertical,
investigation reports, and temperature, weather or rainfall horizontal or diagonal, and almost always through the
data. These collected data are very important for both the mortar joints between bricks. Cracking were from hairline
field survey task and the evaluation of building failures. to more than 20 mm in width. In some cases the whole
3.3 Field Investigation wall was separated, as shown in Figure 4.
A visual inspection was conducted for each house in order Figure 4 Severe and deep cracks appear in the exterior
to examine the extent of damage, identify possible causes walls of the building
and evaluate the structural defects in the superstructure
members. A questioner was prepared so that properly The roots of big trees grown adjacent to the building
organized and consistent data could be collected during resulted in settlement of the foundation wall around the
assessment of the selected houses. corner of the building as shown in Figure 5. Also severe
112| International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Scientific Emerging Research, Vol.6, No.2 (May 2017)
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi et al Damages of Buildings on Expansive Soils: Diagnosis and Avoidance
Figure 6 Serious cracks around window in the interior Figure 9 Doors not properly close or open due to
wall movement of floor
Floor damage caused by expansive soils is evident in most Damage to concrete perimeter foundations caused by
houses, shown in Figures 7 and 8. In these figures, it was
differential heave of the foundation soil ranged from
observed that floor heave caused uneven level of the
ceramic tiles and serious cracks appear on the slab. The minor hairline and 1 to 2mm cracking to much larger
floor heave resulted in difficulty in opening doors and cracks with anywhere from 50-100 mm of separation and
windows as clearly seen in Figure 9. significant lateral offsets, as shown in Figure 10.
113| International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Scientific Emerging Research, Vol.6, No.2 (May 2017)
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi et al Damages of Buildings on Expansive Soils: Diagnosis and Avoidance
Improper drainage is probably the most important factor The use of low quality materials for construction adversely
contributing to soil volume change and subsequent affects the performance of the building. This sometimes
damage to buildings. If water is allowed to stand in occurs in the form of the improper concrete mixture, and
drainage ditches close to buildings, it can penetrate down poor foundation of low bearing capacity. The use of
and amplify heave, [4]. The main causes of poor surface substandard materials for building construction and wall
plastering will affect structural performance. These
drainage can be considered include: surface runoff not
materials may accelerate deterioration of the building and
properly drained away from the building; sprinkling of often result in cracking, low strength, shortened service
water for grass and shrub plantation; overflow from life, or some combination of these problems. Designers
elevated and/or ground water tank; and slope of have come to rely on modern structural materials.
surrounding area. However, manufacturing or fabrication defects may exist
in the most reliable structural materials, such as standard
4.2.3 Presence of gardens nearby buildings structural steel sections or centrally mixed concrete.
Most of the damages caused by expansive soils are [10]. Nelson, J. D. and Miller, D. J. (1992): Expansive soils:
due to poor construction and lack of timely Problem and practice in foundation and pavement
maintenance by the homeowners and are in most engineering, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
cases preventable, yet the communities have [11]. Hintze, S. (1994): Risk analysis in foundation engineering
insufficient knowledge about the features and with application to piling in loose friction soils in urban
situation, Doctoral Thesis, Division of Soil and Rock
behaviour of the expansive soils.
Mechanics, KTH, Sweden.
[12]. Burland, J. B., and Wroth, C. P. (1975): “Settlement of
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