SYNOPSIS OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Pre-Spanish Times
There are two theories on the origins of the first Filipinos, the inhabitants of what will later be called the
Philippine Islands and eventually the Republic of the Philippines.

In the beginning of the 3rd century, the inhabitants of Luzon island were in contact and trading with
East Asian sea-farers and merchants including the Chinese. In the 1400's the Japanese also established a
trading post at Aparri in Northern Luzon.

In 1380, Muslim Arabs arrived at the Sulu Archipelago and established settlements which became mini-
states ruled by a Datu. They introduced Islam in the southern parts of the archipelago including some
parts of Luzon and were under the control of the Muslim sultans of Borneo. They had a significant
influence over the region for a couple of hundreds years. The Malay Muslims remained dominant in these
parts until the 16th century.

Philippine History During the Spanish Colonial Times

In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer who was serving the Spanish crown, landed in Samar
Island on his voyage to circumvent the globe. He explored the islands and named it Archipelago of San
Lazaro. Magellan was killed during a rebellion led by a Datu named Lapu Lapu in Mactan Island
(adjacent to Cebu Island). Spain continued to send expeditions to the island for financial gain and on the
fourth expedition, Commander Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, named the islands: Philippines, after Prince
Philip (later King Philip II), heir to the Spanish throne. Spain ruled the Philippines for 356 years.

In 1565, King Philip II appointed Miguel Lopez de Legazpi as the first Governor-General of the
Philippines. Legazpi chose Manila to be it's capital because of it's natural harbor. Spain's legacy was the
conversion of the people to Catholicism and the creation of the privileged landed class. Because
of abusesand suppression of the Spaniards, a Propaganda Movement emerged with the aims for equality
between Filipinos and Spaniards. The arrest of propagandist Dr. Jose Rizal and execution in 1896 gave
fresh momentum to Filipino rebels to fight against Spain.

The secret society of the Katipunan, founded by Andres Bonifacio attacked the Spanish Garrison in San
Juan with little success, while Katipuneros in Cavite Province headed by Emilio Aguinaldo defeated the
Guardia Civil in Cavite. Aguinaldo's victories lead him to be elected as head of the Katipunan. The
factions of Bonifacio & Aguinaldo fought and lead to the trial and execution of Bonifacio on Aguinaldo's
orders. Aguinaldo later drafted a constitution and established the Republic of Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan
province. In 1897, an impasse between the Spanish government and Aguinaldo arose. After negotiations
between the two sides, Aguinaldo accepted an amnesty from the Spaniards and US$ 800,000.00 in
exchange for his exile to Hong Kong with his government.

Philippine History During the American Era

The Spanish-American war which started in Cuba, changed the history of the Philippines. On May 1,
1898, the Americans led by U.S. Navy Admiral George Dewey, in participation of Emilio Aguinaldo,
attacked the Spanish Navy in Manila Bay. Faced with defeat, the Philippines was ceded to the United
States by Spain in 1898 after a payment of US$ 20 million to Spain in accordance with the "Treaty of
Paris" ending the Spanish-American War. On June 12, 1898, Filipinos led by Emilio Aguinaldo declared
independence. This declaration was opposed by the U.S. who had plans of taking over the colony. And
this led to a guerrilla war against the Americans. In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and declared
allegiance to the United States. On the same year, William Howard Taft was appointed as the first U.S.
governor of the Philippines. The U.S. passed the Jones Law in 1916 establishing an elected Filipino
legislature with a House of representatives & Senate. In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act was passed by
the U.S. Congress, established the Commonwealth of the Philippines and promised Philippine
independence by 1946. The law also provided for the position of President of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines. On the May 14, 1935 elections, Manuel L. Quezon won the position of President of
the Philippine Commonwealth.

In accordance with the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934, The Philippines was given independence on July
4, 1946 and the Republic of the Philippines was born.

Philippine History During the Japanese Occupation

On December 8, 1941, the Japanese invades the Philippines hours after bombing Pear Harbor in Hawaii.
While the forces of Gen. Douglas MacArthur retreated to Bataan, the Commonwealth government of
President Quezon moved to Corregidor Island. Manila was declared an open city to prevent further
destruction. After the fall of Bataan on April 9, 1942 and Corregidor, In March 1942, MacArthur &
Quezon fled the country and by invitation of President Roosevelt, the Commonwealth government went
into exile to Washington D.C. American and Filipino forces surrendered in May 6, 1942. Soon a guerrilla
war against the Japanese was fought by the Philippine & American Armies while Filipinos were enduring
the cruelty of the Japanese military against civilians.

Prior to Quezon's exile, he advised Dr. Jose P. Laurel to head and cooperate with the Japanese civilian
government in the hope that the collaboration will lead to a less brutality of the Japanese towards the
Filipinos. Rightly or wrongly, President Laurel and his war time government was largely detested by the
Filipinos.

In October 1944, Gen. MacArthur with President Sergio Osmeña (who assumed the presidency after
Quezon died on August 1, 1944 in exile in Saranac Lake, New York) returned and liberated the
Philippines from the Japanese.

The Philippine Republic

On July 4, 1946, Manuel Roxas of the Nationalista Party was inaugurated as the first President of the
Republic of the Philippines. Roxas died in April 1948. He was succeeded by Elpidio Quirino. Both Roxas
& Quirino had to deal with the Hukbalahap, a large anti-Japanese guerrilla organization which became a
militant group that discredited the ruling elite. The group was eventually put down by Pres. Quirino's
Secretary of Defense, Ramon Magsaysay.

Magsaysay defeated Quirino in the 1953 elections. He was a popular president and largely loved by the
people. Magsaysay died in an airplane crash on March 17, 1957 and was succeeded by Carlos Garcia.
Diosdado Macapagal won the 1961 presidential elections and soon after he changed history by declaring
June 12 as independence day - the day Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence in Cavite from Spain in
1898. Aguinaldo was the guest of honour during the fist Independence Day celebrations in 1962.

Philippine History During the Martial Law Regime

Ferdinand E. Marcos won the presidency in 1965 and was the first president to be re-elected for a second
term in office. Marcos He embarked on an ambitious public works program and maintained his popularity
through his first term. His popularity started to decline after his re-election due to perceived dishonesty in
the 1969 campaign, the decline in economic growth, government corruption and the worsening peace &
order. He declared Martial Law in 1972 near the end of his second & final term in office. Staunch
oppositionist, Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino (later went on self exile to the U.S.) & Senator Jose
Diokno were one of the first to be arrested. During the Martial Law years, Marcos held an iron grip on the
nation with the support of the military. Opposition leaders we imprisoned and the legislature was
abolished. Marcos ruled by presidential decrees.

Post Martial Law up to the Present Time

The 21-year dictatorial rule of Marcos with wife Imelda ended in 1986 following a popular uprising that
forced them to exile to Hawaii. Corazon "Cory" Aquino, the wife of exiled and murdered opposition
leader Benigno Aquino who was perceived to have won a just concluded snap election was installed as
president. Aquino restored civil liberties, initiated the formation of a new constitution and the restoration
of Congress.

On September 16, 1991, despite the lobbying of Aquino, the Senate rejected a new treaty that would
allow a 10-year extension of the US military bases in the country.

In the1992 elections, Pres. Aquino endorsed Secretary of Defense Fidel Ramos as her successor, which
Ramos won with a slight margin over his rival, Miriam Defensor-Santiago. During the Ramos presidency,
he advocated "National Reconciliation" and laid the ground work for the resolution of the secessionist
Muslim rebels in the southern Philippine Island of Mindanao. The Moro National Liberation Front
(MNLF) led by Nur Misuari, signed a peace agreement with the government. However a splinter group,
The Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) led by Hashim Salamat continued to fight for an Islamic state.
Ramos worked for the economic stability of the country and the improvement of the infrastructure
facilities like telecommunications, energy and transportation.

Joseph Ejercito Estrada, a popular actor, succeeded Ramos in 1998 with Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo (daughter of former President Diosdado Macapagal) as his Vice-President. Estrada's lack of
economic & management skills plunged the economy deeper as unemployment increased and the budget
deficit ballooned. In October 2000, Estrada's close friend Luis "Chavit" Singson accused Estrada of
receiving millions of pesos from "Jueteng", an illegal numbers game. Soon after, Congress impeached
Estrada on grounds of bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust and culpable violation of the
constitution. His impeachment trial at the Senate was however blocked by his political allies in the
Senate. Shortly after the evidence against Estrada was blocked at the Senate, thousands of people rallied
up at the EDSA Shrine, site of the People Power Revolution which ousted Marcos in 1986.

In January 2001, the Supreme Court declared Joseph Estrada unable to rule in view of mass resignations
from his government and declared Vice-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as his constitutional
successor. To this date, Estrada remains detained facing graft charges before the Sandigan Bayan, the
Anti-graft court.

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, completed the remaining term of Estrada and run for re-election against
Fernando Poe, Jr., another popular actor and a friend of Estrada in May 2004. Arroyo with her running
mate Noli de Castro was eventually proclaimed the winners of the Presidential & Vice-Presidential
elections. She has been advocating a change from a Presidential form of government to a Parliamentary
form of government.

Arroyo's husband & son has been rumored to be receiving money from gambling lords and this has
tainted her reputation. A tape recording of Arroyo talking with a commissioner on elections surfaced
establishing impropriety by Arroyo and suggesting that she might have influenced the outcome of the last
elections. Demonstrations followed in June 2005 calling for Arroyo to resign.

On the eve of the anniversary of the "People Power Revolution" on February 24, 2006, the government
took pre-emptive measures to quash alleged plots to unseat Arroyo through massive rallies and a coup.
Arroyo declared a "State of Emergency" the next day mobilizing the police and the military averting any
destabilization moves. Note: Arroyo is has been under hospital arrest since 2011 for charges of electoral
sabotage and misuse of public funds. She is detained at the Veterans Memorial Hospital in Quezon City,
Metro Manila.

May 14, 2007 - National Elections for Senators, Congressmen, Governors, Mayors and local officials.
Although there are instances of violence and allegations of cheating specially in Mindanao, this elections
is considered by many as one of the most peaceful elections conducted in Philippines.

September 12, 2007 - Former President Joseph Ejercito Estrada is convicted of plunder by
the Sandiganbayan, the anti-graft court and is sentenced to 40 years imprisonment. He is the first former
president ever convicted of any crime in Philippine history. Six weeks later, on October 26, Estrada was
pardoned by President Arroyo. Because of the pardon, Estrada was able to run for Mayor of Manila and
won. He is presently the city mayor of Manila.

Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, affectionately called "Noynoy" and "Pnoy", a former senator is
the son of former President Corazon C. Aquino and the late Senator Benigno Aquino. He won the May
10, 2010 presidential elections and was proclaimed president on June 30, 2010 at Rizal Park in Manila.
Former President Gloria Arroyo, was elected congresswoman for the second district of Pampanga.
This was the first computerized national elections in Philippine history. Aquino is generally perceived as
honest with high public satisfaction ratings. Under his presidency, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
Renato Corona was impeached in 2011 for non-declaration of assets and prominent politicians like
Senators and Congressmen is being charged of corruption. Aquino continues his anti-corruption crusade.
Under the present constitution, Aquino cannot run for a second term. Presidential elections were held in
May 9, 2016. Strong candidates were Mary Grace Sonora Poe-Llamanzares, Rodrigo Roa Duterte,
Manuel "Mar" Araneta Roxas II and Jejomar Cabauatan Binay.

On June 30, 2016, Rodrigo "Rody" Roa Duterte (a.k.a. Digong), the former mayor of Davao City in
Mindanao who is known for his strong stance against illegal drugs and crime, assumed the presidency
succeeding Benigno Aquino III after receiving an overwhelming win in the May 9 elections. On the same
day but separately, former congresswoman Maria Leonor "Leni" Santo Tomas Gerona-Robredo (Leni
Robredo for short) who belongs to a different party, takes oath as vice-president succeeding Jejomar
Binay. Both Duterte & Robredo serves a single term limit of six-years (till 2022). Duterte is advocating a
change of government from presidential to a federal form of government. Unlike previous presidents, the
tough-talking Duterte is antagonistic towards the United States, which has been a long time ally of the
Philippines. Remarkably, he is more friendly with China, a country which the previous administration
filed a case against at The Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague for occupying several islands
within the Philippine 200 mile exclusive economic zone. The court decided overwhelmingly in favor of
the Philippines in July 2016, China refuses to accept the verdict. Duterte has been criticized by human
rights groups and some in the international community for his hard handed tactics against illegal drugs
which has lead to the killings of thousands (including innocent bystanders) allegedly involved in the drug
trade.

Source: Copyright © 2005-2019 PHILIPPINE-HISTORY.ORG

Last modified: 12-Jan-2019
 Philippine History

Early History -The Negritos are believed to have migrated to the Philippines some 30,000 years ago
from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. The Malayans followed in successive waves. These people belonged
to a primitive epoch of Malayan culture, which has apparently survived to this day among certain groups
such as the Igorots. The Malayan tribes that came later had more highly developed material cultures.

In the 14th cent. Arab traders from Malay and Borneo introduced Islam into the southern islands and
extended their influence as far north as Luzon. The first Europeans to visit (1521) the Philippines were
those in the Spanish expedition around the world led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan.
Other Spanish expeditions followed, including one from New Spain (Mexico) under López de Villalobos,
who in 1542 named the islands for the infante Philip, later Philip II.

Spanish Control - The conquest of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when
another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel López de Legaspi, arrived. Spanish
leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no
central rule. By 1571, when López de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site of a
Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish foothold in the Philippines was secure, despite
the opposition of the Portuguese, who were eager to maintain their monopoly on the trade of East Asia.

Manila repulsed the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574. For centuries before the Spanish
arrived the Chinese had traded with the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the
islands until after the conquest. Chinese trade and labor were of great importance in the early
development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came to be feared and hated because of their
increasing numbers, and in 1603 the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser
massacres of the Chinese).

The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the advice of the powerful royal audiencia.
There were frequent uprisings by the Filipinos, who resented the encomienda system. By the end of the
16th cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying on a flourishing trade
with China, India, and the East Indies. The Philippines supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain,
and the richly laden galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked by English
freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters, and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by
continual wars with the Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East Indies,
and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the Spanish faced was the subjugation of the
Moros. Intermittent campaigns were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the
middle of the 19th cent. As the power of the Spanish Empire waned, the Jesuit orders became more
influential in the Philippines and acquired great amounts of property.

Revolution, War, and U.S. Control - It was the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large
measure brought about the rising sentiment for independence. Spanish injustices, bigotry, and economic
oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired by the brilliant writings of José Rizal. In
1896 revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution of Rizal that December, it spread
throughout the major islands. The Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success
before a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however, for neither side honored
its agreements, and a new revolution was brewing when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898.

After the U.S. naval victory in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey supplied
Aguinaldo with arms and urged him to rally the Filipinos against the Spanish. By the time U.S. land
forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken the entire island of Luzon, except for the old walled city of
Manila, which they were besieging. The Filipinos had also declared their independence and established a
republic under the first democratic constitution ever known in Asia. Their dreams of independence were
crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris
(1898), which closed the Spanish-American War.

In Feb., 1899, Aguinaldo led a new revolt, this time against U.S. rule. Defeated on the battlefield, the
Filipinos turned to guerrilla warfare, and their subjugation became a mammoth project for the United
States—one that cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish-American War. The
insurrection was effectively ended with the capture (1901) of Aguinaldo by Gen. Frederick Funston, but
the question of Philippine independence remained a burning issue in the politics of both the United States
and the islands. The matter was complicated by the growing economic ties between the two countries.
Although comparatively little American capital was invested in island industries, U.S. trade bulked larger
and larger until the Philippines became almost entirely dependent upon the American market. Free trade,
established by an act of 1909, was expanded in 1913.

When the Democrats came into power in 1913, measures were taken to effect a smooth transition to self-
rule. The Philippine assembly already had a popularly elected lower house, and the Jones Act, passed by
the U.S. Congress in 1916, provided for a popularly elected upper house as well, with power to approve
all appointments made by the governor-general. It also gave the islands their first definite pledge of
independence, although no specific date was set.

When the Republicans regained power in 1921, the trend toward bringing Filipinos into the government
was reversed. Gen. Leonard Wood, who was appointed governor-general, largely supplanted Filipino
activities with a semimilitary rule. However, the advent of the Great Depression in the United States in
the 1930s and the first aggressive moves by Japan in Asia (1931) shifted U.S. sentiment sharply toward
the granting of immediate independence to the Philippines.

The Commonwealth - The Hare-Hawes Cutting Act, passed by Congress in 1932, provided for complete
independence of the islands in 1945 after 10 years of self-government under U.S. supervision. The bill
had been drawn up with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, but Manuel L. Quezon, the leader
of the dominant Nationalist party, opposed it, partially because of its threat of American tariffs against
Philippine products but principally because of the provisions leaving naval bases in U.S. hands. Under his
influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The Tydings-McDuffie Independence Act (1934)
closely resembled the Hare-Hawes Cutting Act, but struck the provisions for American bases and carried
a promise of further study to correct “imperfections or inequalities.”
The Philippine legislature ratified the bill; a constitution, approved by President Roosevelt (Mar., 1935)
was accepted by the Philippine people in a plebiscite (May); and Quezon was elected the first president
(Sept.). When Quezon was inaugurated on Nov. 15, 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was
formally established. Quezon was reelected in Nov., 1941. To develop defensive forces against possible
aggression, Gen. Douglas MacArthur was brought to the islands as military adviser in 1935, and the
following year he became field marshal of the Commonwealth army.
World War II - War came suddenly to the Philippines on Dec. 8 (Dec. 7, U.S. time), 1941, when Japan
attacked without warning. Japanese troops invaded the islands in many places and launched a pincer drive
on Manila. MacArthur’s scattered defending forces (about 80,000 troops, four fifths of them Filipinos)
were forced to withdraw to Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island, where they entrenched and tried to
hold until the arrival of reinforcements, meanwhile guarding the entrance to Manila Bay and denying that
important harbor to the Japanese. But no reinforcements were forthcoming. The Japanese occupied
Manila on Jan. 2, 1942. MacArthur was ordered out by President Roosevelt and left for Australia on Mar.
11; Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright assumed command.

The besieged U.S.-Filipino army on Bataan finally crumbled on Apr. 9, 1942. Wainwright fought on from
Corregidor with a garrison of about 11,000 men; he was overwhelmed on May 6, 1942. After his
capitulation, the Japanese forced the surrender of all remaining defending units in the islands by
threatening to use the captured Bataan and Corregidor troops as hostages. Many individual soldiers
refused to surrender, however, and guerrilla resistance, organized and coordinated by U.S. and Philippine
army officers, continued throughout the Japanese occupation.

Japan’s efforts to win Filipino loyalty found expression in the establishment (Oct. 14, 1943) of a
“Philippine Republic,” with José P. Laurel, former supreme court justice, as president. But the people
suffered greatly from Japanese brutality, and the puppet government gained little support. Meanwhile,
President Quezon, who had escaped with other high officials before the country fell, set up a government-
in-exile in Washington. When he died (Aug., 1944), Vice President Sergio Osmeña became president.
Osmeña returned to the Philippines with the first liberation forces, which surprised the Japanese by
landing (Oct. 20, 1944) at Leyte, in the heart of the islands, after months of U.S. air strikes against
Mindanao. The Philippine government was established at Tacloban, Leyte, on Oct. 23.

The landing was followed (Oct. 23–26) by the greatest naval engagement in history, called variously the
battle of Leyte Gulf and the second battle of the Philippine Sea. A great U.S. victory, it effectively
destroyed the Japanese fleet and opened the way for the recovery of all the islands. Luzon was invaded
(Jan., 1945), and Manila was taken in February. On July 5, 1945, MacArthur announced “All the
Philippines are now liberated.” The Japanese had suffered over 425,000 dead in the Philippines.

The Philippine congress met on June 9, 1945, for the first time since its election in 1941. It faced
enormous problems. The land was devastated by war, the economy destroyed, the country torn by
political warfare and guerrilla violence. Osmeña’s leadership was challenged (Jan., 1946) when one wing
(now the Liberal party) of the Nationalist party nominated for president Manuel Roxas, who defeated
Osmeña in April.

The Republic of the Philippines - Manuel Roxas became the first president of the Republic of the
Philippines when independence was granted, as scheduled, on July 4, 1946. In Mar., 1947, the Philippines
and the United States signed a military assistance pact (since renewed) and the Philippines gave the
United States a 99-year lease on designated military, naval, and air bases (a later agreement reduced the
period to 25 years beginning 1967). The sudden death of President Roxas in Apr., 1948, elevated the vice
president, Elpidio Quirino, to the presidency, and in a bitterly contested election in Nov., 1949, Quirino
defeated José Laurel to win a four-year term of his own.
The enormous task of reconstructing the war-torn country was complicated by the activities in central
Luzon of the Communist-dominated Hukbalahap guerrillas (Huks), who resorted to terror and violence in
their efforts to achieve land reform and gain political power. They were finally brought under control
(1954) after a vigorous attack launched by the minister of national defense, Ramón Magsaysay. By that
time Magsaysay was president of the country, having defeated Quirino in Nov., 1953. He had promised
sweeping economic changes, and he did make progress in land reform, opening new settlements outside
crowded Luzon island. His death in an airplane crash in Mar., 1957, was a serious blow to national
morale. Vice President Carlos P. García succeeded him and won a full term as president in the elections
of Nov., 1957.

In foreign affairs, the Philippines maintained a firm anti-Communist policy and joined the Southeast Asia
Treaty Organization in 1954. There were difficulties with the United States over American military
installations in the islands, and, despite formal recognition (1956) of full Philippine sovereignty over
these bases, tensions increased until some of the bases were dismantled (1959) and the 99-year lease
period was reduced. The United States rejected Philippine financial claims and proposed trade revisions.

Philippine opposition to García on issues of government corruption and anti-Americanism led, in June,
1959, to the union of the Liberal and Progressive parties, led by Vice President Diosdado Macapagal, the
Liberal party leader, who succeeded García as president in the 1961 elections. Macapagal’s
administration was marked by efforts to combat the mounting inflation that had plagued the republic since
its birth; by attempted alliances with neighboring countries; and by a territorial dispute with Britain over
North Borneo (later Sabah), which Macapagal claimed had been leased and not sold to the British North
Borneo Company in 1878.

Marcos and After - Ferdinand E. Marcos, who succeeded to the presidency after defeating Macapagal in
the 1965 elections, inherited the territorial dispute over Sabah; in 1968 he approved a congressional bill
annexing Sabah to the Philippines. Malaysia suspended diplomatic relations (Sabah had joined the
Federation of Malaysia in 1963), and the matter was referred to the United Nations. (The Philippines
dropped its claim to Sabah in 1978.) The Philippines became one of the founding countries of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. The continuing need for land reform fostered
a new Huk uprising in central Luzon, accompanied by mounting assassinations and acts of terror, and in
1969, Marcos began a major military campaign to subdue them. Civil war also threatened on Mindanao,
where groups of Moros opposed Christian settlement. In Nov., 1969, Marcos won an unprecedented
reelection, easily defeating Sergio Osmeña, Jr., but the election was accompanied by violence and charges
of fraud, and Marcos’s second term began with increasing civil disorder.

In Jan., 1970, some 2,000 demonstrators tried to storm Malacañang Palace, the presidential residence;
riots erupted against the U.S. embassy. When Pope Paul VI visited Manila in Nov., 1970, an attempt was
made on his life. In 1971, at a Liberal party rally, hand grenades were thrown at the speakers’ platform,
and several people were killed. President Marcos declared martial law in Sept., 1972,charging that a
Communist rebellion threatened. The 1935 constitution was replaced (1973) by a new one that provided
the president with direct powers. A plebiscite (July, 1973) gave Marcos the right to remain in office
beyond the expiration (Dec., 1973) of his term. Meanwhile the fighting on Mindanao had spread to the
Sulu Archipelago. By 1973 some 3,000 people had been killed and hundreds of villages burned.
Throughout the 1970s poverty and governmental corruption increased, and Imelda Marcos, Ferdinand’s
wife, became more influential.

Martial law remained in force until 1981, when Marcos was reelected, amid accusations of electoral
fraud. On Aug. 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino was assassinated at Manila airport, which
incited a new, more powerful wave of anti-Marcos dissent. After the Feb., 1986, presidential election,
both Marcos and his opponent, Corazon Aquino (the widow of Benigno), declared themselves the winner,
and charges of massive fraud and violence were leveled against the Marcos faction. Marcos’s domestic
and international support eroded, and he fled the country on Feb. 25, 1986, eventually obtaining asylum
in the United States.

Aquino’s government faced mounting problems, including coup attempts, significant economic
difficulties, and pressure to rid the Philippines of the U.S. military presence (the last U.S. bases were
evacuated in 1992). In 1990, in response to the demands of the Moros, a partially autonomous Muslim
region was created in the far south. In 1992, Aquino declined to run for reelection and was succeeded by
her former army chief of staff Fidel Ramos. He immediately launched an economic revitalization plan
premised on three policies: government deregulation, increased private investment, and political solutions
to the continuing insurgencies within the country. His political program was somewhat successful,
opening dialogues with the Marxist and Muslim guerillas. However, Muslim discontent with partial rule
persisted, and unrest and violence continued throughout the 1990s. In 1999, Marxist rebels and Muslim
separatists formed an alliance to fight the government.

Several natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo on Luzon and a succession of
severe typhoons, slowed the country’s economic progress. However, the Philippines escaped much of the
economic turmoil seen in other East Asian nations in 1997 and 1998, in part by following a slower pace
of development imposed by the International Monetary Fund. Joseph Marcelo Estrada, a former movie
actor, was elected president in 1998, pledging to help the poor and develop the country’s agricultural
sector. In 1999 he announced plans to amend the constitution in order to remove protectionist provisions
and attract more foreign investment.

Late in 2000, Estrada’s presidency was buffeted by charges that he accepted millions of dollars in payoffs
from illegal gambling operations. Although his support among the poor Filipino majority remained
strong, many political, business, and church leaders called for him to resign. In Nov., 2000, Estrada was
impeached by the house of representatives on charges of graft, but the senate, controlled by Estrada’s
allies, provoked a crisis (Jan., 2001) when it rejected examining the president’s bank records. As
demonstrations against Estrada mounted and members of his cabinet resigned, the supreme court stripped
him of the presidency, and Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was sworn in as Estrada’s successor.

Macapagal-Arroyo was elected president in her own right in May, 2004, but the balloting was marred by
violence and irregularities as well as a tedious vote-counting process that was completed six weeks after
the election.

Source: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05.