A GIS Based Genetic Algorithm for Highway

Alignment Development Process

A Thesis
Submitted to the Council of Erbil Technical Engineering College,
Erbil Polytechnic University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
for the Degree of Master of Science in Highway Engineering

By
Wrya Hade Nadir
B.Sc Civil Engineering
Supervised by
Dr. Botan Majeed Ahmad AL-Hadad

Erbil-Kurdistan-Iraq
June-2017
 ‫بسم ەللا الرحمن الرحیم‬
))‫))وقل ربي زدني علما‬
‫صدق ەللا العظیم‬
)114) ‫سورة طه ایة‬

………. And Say my Lord Increase me in knowledge.

Surat Taa-Haa, Verse 114
The Glorious Qur‟an

i
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the name of Allah, the most Merciful, and Gracious

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Dr.

Botan Majeed Ahmad AL-Hadad for his continuous support and
encouragement for this thesis. This thesis would not have become a reality
without his guidance and advice.

Additional appreciation is extended to the members of the Civil

Engineering Department at Erbil technical engineering college for their
facilities and assistance throughout this investigation. Special thanks are
offered to Ass. Professor Basil Younis, head of the department.

I would like to thank Dr. Bahman Omer Taha, who advised me to

choose highway engineering branch to complete post graduate which I have
no regret.

I have special thank to Miss. Glpa Ali Jukil, She actively advised me
during my research. Her insightful comments on my research work helped me
to develop better ideas. Without her valuable guidance and instruction, this
work would not have been finished on time.

Finally, I wish to thank my parents, sister, and brother for their love
and encouragement. Their continuous help cannot be forgotten, especially my
mother for her timely encouragement, and endless patience during all years
study in my life.
Wrya Hade Nadir
2017

ii
 DECLARATION
I declare that the Master Thesis entitled: “A GIS Based Genetic Algorithm
for Highway Alignment Development Process” is my own original work,
and hereby I certify that unless stated, all work contained within this thesis is
my own independent research and has not been submitted for the award of
any other degree at any institution, except where due acknowledgment is
made in the text.

Signature:

Wrya Hade Nadir

Date:

iii
 LINGUISTIC REVISION

I confirm that I have reviewed the thesis entitled; “A GIS Based

Genetic Algorithm for Highway Alignment Development Process” from
the English linguistic point of view, and I can confirm that it is free from
grammatical and spelling errors.

Signature:

Name of Reviewer: Dr. Botan Majeed Ahmad AL-Hadad

Date:

iv
 SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATE

This thesis entitled “A GIS Based Genetic Algorithm for Highway

Alignment Development Process” been written under my supervision and
has been submitted for the award of the degree of Masters of Since in Civil
Engineering-Highway Engineering with my approval as supervisor.

Signature:

Name: Dr. Botan Majeed Ahmad AL-Hadad

Date:

I confirm that all requirements have been fulfilled.

Signature:

Name: Assistant Prof. Basil Y. Mustafa

Head of the Department of Civil Engineering

Date:

I confirm that all requirements have been fulfilled.

Postgraduate Office

Signature:

Name: Mr. Zana Kanaan Shakir

Date:

v
 EXAMINING COMMITTEE CERTIFICATION
We certify that we have read this thesis entitled "A GIS Based
Genetic Algorithm for Highway Alignment Development Process" as an
examining committee examined the student (Wrya Hade Nadir) in its content
and what related to it. We approve that it meets the standards of a thesis for
the degree of master of since in Civil Engineering-Highway Engineering.

Signature: Signature:
Name: Dr. Botan Majeed Ahmad AL-Hadad Name: Dr. Raad Awad Kattan
Supervisor Assist. Professor /Chairman
Date: Date:

Signature: Signature:
Name: Dr. Aso Faiz Talabany Name: Dr. Ganjina Jalal Madhat
Assist. Professor /Member Member
Date: Date:

Signature:
Name: Professor Dr. Mereen Hassan Fahmi
Dean of Erbil Technical Engineering College
Date:

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 ABSTRACT
Highway alignment development process is a very complex
engineering problem, iterative, and time consuming. In this process, the
engineers often face a wide variety of factors and a huge number of
alternatives. They should select an economical path based on topography, soil
condition, environmental impact such as air pollution and noise,
socioeconomic factors.
Traditional alignment design usually consists of a series of phases,
starting from a broad area, then narrowing down to several possible
transportation corridors, and finally focusing on the detailed alignment
designs in the selected corridor.
In this study, an optimization model was developed to solve the
horizontal alignment optimization problem in a defined corridor. Geographic
information system as an assistant tool used to find the best corridor where
the best alignment is existed, the model searches the whole study area until
the least cost centerline path is specified. The path is then considered as the
centerline for a search corridor. The width of the corridor depend on the
planner's preferences for searching the final alignment so that the result can
possess the design standards, and genetic algorithms (GA) use this corridor as
a search area to find the potential/proposed global optimum solution (highway
alignment). The present optimization tools integrates with a geographic
information system (GIS) for optimizing highway alignments and processes
massive amounts of relevant data associated with highway design and
alternative evaluation using Arc GIS 10.2.2 software. The proposed model
use station point techniques to configuration of the alignment rather than
traditional method.
The analysis results show that the proposed model can effectively
optimize highway alignments in an area combining complex terrain and
various types of natural and cultural land-use patterns, and provide detailed
vii
information of optimized alignments as a model output. The results of this
study clearly showed the applicability and potential of using GIS as assistance
tool in preliminary route location with least potential impacts.

viii
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... ii
Declaration .......................................................................................................... iii
Linguistic Revision ............................................................................................. iv
Supervisor Certificate ......................................................................................... v
Examining Committee Certification ................................................................... vi
Abstract ............................................................................................................... vii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................... ix
List of Figures .................................................................................................... xii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................... xvii
List of Symbols .................................................................................................. xviii
List of Abbreviation ............................................................................................ xx

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Highway Planning and Development Process .............................................. 2
1.3 Aims of the Study ......................................................................................... 4
1.4 Thesis Outline ............................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Models for Optimizing Highway Alignment ................................................ 8
2.3 GIS and Highway Alignment ........................................................................ 13
2.4 Station Point Approach for Highway Alignment Configuration .................. 21
2.5 Highway Cost Component ............................................................................ 24
2.6 Genetic Algorithms (GAs) ............................................................................ 27
2.6.1Genetic Encoding ........................................................................................ 29
2.6.2 Population .................................................................................................. 29

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2.6.3 Fitness ........................................................................................................ 29
2.6.4 Selection ..................................................................................................... 30
2.6.5 Genetic Operators ...................................................................................... 30
2.6.5.1 Crossover ................................................................................................ 30
2.6.5.2 Mutation .................................................................................................. 31
2.6.6 Convergence .............................................................................................. 31

CHAPTER THREE: Methodology

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 32
3.2 The GIS Model Formulation ......................................................................... 33
3.2.1 The Study Area in GIS ............................................................................... 34
3.2.2 Cost Raster ................................................................................................. 36
3.2.3 Source and Destination dataset .................................................................. 38
3.2.4 Cost Distance tool ...................................................................................... 38
3.2.5 Cost Path tool ............................................................................................. 40
3.3 The GA Model Formulation ......................................................................... 42
3.3.1 The Study Area .......................................................................................... 43
3.3.2 The Cost Function ...................................................................................... 44
3.3.2.1 Length Dependent Cost (CLE) ................................................................. 45
3.3.2.2 Location Dependent Cost (CLO) .............................................................. 46
3.3.3 The Fitness Function .................................................................................. 49
3.3.4 Chromosome Representation (Encoding) .................................................. 49
3.3.5 Initial Population Generation ..................................................................... 52
3.3.6 Selection ..................................................................................................... 56
3.3.7 Crossover Operator .................................................................................... 56
3.3.7.1 Single Point Crossover ............................................................................ 56
3.3.7.2 Random Multiple Point Crossover .......................................................... 58
3.3.8 Mutation Operator ...................................................................................... 59

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3.3.8.1 Uniform Mutation (SM) .......................................................................... 60
3.3.8.2 Group Point Mutation (GPM) ................................................................. 62
3.3.9 Constraints and station point approach ...................................................... 66
3.3.9.1 Maximum Allowable Deflection Calculation ......................................... 69
3.3.9.2 Actual ( ) Deflection Angle Calculation ............................................... 71
3.3.10 Repaired and Penalty Approach ............................................................... 74
3.3.10.1 Penalty Approach .................................................................................. 74
3.3.10.2 Repaired Approach ............................................................................... 75

CHAPTER FOUR : THE GA-GIS MODEL RESULT

4.1 The GIS Model Test Results (optimum path tools) ...................................... 78
4.2 (GA-GIS) Model Verification Tests ............................................................. 80
4.3Tests for the GA Parameters .......................................................................... 85
4.3.1 Population Size Parameter Tests ................................................................ 87
4.3.2 Random Multiple Point Crossover Tests (RMPCrO) ................................ 92
4.3.3 Station Point Mutation Rate Tests (PMR %) ............................................. 95
4.3.4 Individual Mutation Probability Tests (IMR %) ........................................ 100
4.4 Horizontal Alignment Curvature as a Constraint .......................................... 104
4.5 The Model Validation ................................................................................... 109
4.6 Real World Application Tests ....................................................................... 114

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 116
5.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................... 118

REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 120

APPENDIXES

Appendix A
xi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure (1-1) Stages of Alignment Selection .................................................. 3
Figure (2-1) Decision Variables at Each Vertical Cut ................................... 10
Figure (2-2) Result of Paths from GA and GIS Model ................................. 12
Figure (2-3) Using Vector and Raster Data ................................................... 15
Figure (2-4) A Representation Model is composed of layers of Data ........... 16
Figure (2-5) Model process ........................................................................... 16
Figure (2-6) Transfer Elevation Data Raster to TIN and Slope .................... 17
Figure (2-7) Identify Corridors or Best Paths between Locations ................ 17
Figure (2-8) Least-cost paths with two different weights ............................. 18
Figure (2-9) Case Study Alignment Alternatives .......................................... 20
Figure (2-10) Shows the differences between the traditional and the proposed
design approach of station points for horizontal alignment ...... 21
Figure (2-11) A typical layout of a horizontal curve ....................................... 22
Figure (2-12) Flowchart of Basic Genetic Algorithm Steps ........................... 28
Figure (2-13) Shows Two Type of Encoding .................................................. 29
Figure (2-14) Shows Two Types of Crossover ............................................... 30
Figure (2-15) An Example of Mutation ........................................................... 31
Figure (3-1) Stages to develop optimum Horizontal Highway Alignment ... 33

Figure (3-2) Flow diagram of the generation least-cost path to find preliminary
location of highway alignment ................................................. 34
Figure (3-3) A Study Area Format with Grid Cells 200x200m .................... 35
Figure (3-4) Creating Cost Raster in GIS model ........................................... 36
Figure (3-5) Land Parcel Cost Rasters .......................................................... 37
Figure (3-6) Type of Movement to calculate least accumulative cost .......... 38
Figure (3-7) Output of cost distance function ............................................... 39
Figure (3-8) The Optimum Path Raster (Cost Distance) ............................... 40

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Figure (3-9) Conversion Process Raster to Point Shape file ......................... 41
Figure (3-10) The Preparation of Point Shape file from Raster Cell Size ....... 41
Figure (3-11) The New Approach of Station Point for 2D Highway Horizontal
Alignment Configuration .......................................................... 43
Figure (3-12) Steps of Producing TIN Surface from Cost Raster ................... 44
Figure (3-13) Steps to Calculate Location Dependent Cost ............................ 46
Figure (3-14) The Explanation of the Total Alignment Length Within the grid
Cells ............................................................................................ 47
Figure (3-15) Max Cell Value determination ( ) for each segment Length
for Alignment within the Cells .................................................. 48
Figure (3-16) Genetic representation of a chromosome For 2D highway
alignment .................................................................................. 51
Figure (3-17) Graphical representation of a chromosome for 2D highway
Alignment .................................................................................. 51
Figure (3-18) Preparing the creation of the decision variables at each point
shape file ................................................................................... 52
Figure (3-19) A Randomly Generated Possible Solution in the Initial
Population ................................................................................. 54
Figure (3-20) Flowchart to Create Station Point inside the Buffered area ..... 55
Figure (3-21) Parent chromosomes A and B before one point crossover ....... 57
Figure (3-22) Offspring A and B after one point crossover ............................ 57
Figure (3-23) Graphical Representation of One Point Crossover on the Parent
Alignment Solutions ................................................................ 58
Figure (3-24) Flowchart of Random Multiple Point Crossover ...................... 59
Figure (3-25) Flowchart to Explain Steps of Grouped Point Mutation
(GPM) ....................................................................................... 64
Figure (3-26) An Off Spring before Applying GPM ....................................... 65
Figure (3-27) An Offspring after Applying GPM ........................................... 65

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Figure (3-28) Chord Definition Illustration for Degree of the Curve .............. 67
Figure (3-29) The Curvature Consideration with the Concept of Station Point
.................................................................................................... 69
Figure (3-30) Actual Curvature Calculation ................................................... 71
Figure (3-31) Consider Three Points to Calculation Actual Deflection
Angle (Bi).................................................................................... 72
Figure (3-32) The Process of Horizontal Curvature Consideration with
the Concept of Station Points..................................................... 73
Figure (3-33) Repair Approach in Horizontal Curvature ............................... 76
Figure (3-34) Summaries Mainly Steps in Two Stages to Find Optimum
Highway Alignment ................................................................. 77
Figure (4-1) The minimum distance between two points is straight line ...... 79
Figure (4-2) A voiding optimum path from high unit cost ............................ 79
Figure (4-3) A voiding optimum path from one cell unit high cost .............. 80
Figure (4-4) Word W_1 set up with a known straight alignment solution ... 81
Figure (4-5) The Best Alignment Solutions at different generations ............ 82
Figure (4-6) An Optimum Solution At Generation =150,When the Width of
the roadway is =0m ................................................................... 84
Figure (4-7) Optimum Solutions at Generation =150 .................................. 84
Figure (4-8) Fitness graph results of the two scenarios W_1 and W_2 ........ 85
Figure (4-9) World W_3 set up ..................................................................... 86
Figure (4-10) World3and the best path result from the GIS model ................ 87
Figure (4-11) Sensitivity Study of Various Population Size ........................... 88
Figure (4-12) The effect of Psize and MM on the search stableness
performance .............................................................................. 89
Figure (4-13) The effect of Psize and mutation type on solution fitness and
converge.................................................................................... 90

xiv
Figure (4-14) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
by S6 .......................................................................................... 90
Figure (4-15) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
by S12 ........................................................................................ 91
Figure (4-16) The effect of crossover methods on obtaining better solutions . 93
Figure(4-17) Minimum fitness graph obtained from each test scenario ........ 93
Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
Figure (4-18) by S1 ......................................................................................... 94
Figure (4-19) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
by S5 ......................................................................................... 94
Figure (4-20) The Search Performance of the Two Mutation Operators of SM
and GPM .................................................................................... 95
Figure (4-21) Best fitness obtained from SPM ................................................ 97
Figure (4-22) Best fitness obtained from GPM ............................................... 100
Figure (4-23) The effect of the rate of SPM and GPM on the search
performance .............................................................................. 98
Figure (4-24) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
by S1 ......................................................................................... 99
Figure (4-25) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
by S12 ........................................................................................ 99
Figure (4-26) The effect of different IMR on the model performance using SM
and GPM (Psize=100) ................................................................ 101
Figure (4-27) The effect of IMR on the best fitness value using GPM and SM at
generation 200 ............................................................................ 101
Figure (4-28) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
by S1 ........................................................................................... 102
Figure (4-29) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters defined
by S9 .......................................................................................... 103

xv
Figure (4-30) The effect of start generation number to apply Repair & penalty
techniques .................................................................................. 106
Figure (4-31) The effect of different parameters on the stableness of the solutions
Obtained from 10 test runs ........................................................ 106
Figure (4-32) The optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters
R & P @100 ............................................................................. 107
The optimum horizontal highway alignment without constraint
Figure (4-33) consideration ............................................................................. 108
Figure (4-34) Output curvature report for optimum 2D Highway alignment
without constraint consideration ................................................ 108
Figure (4-35) Output proposed model at without constraint condition,44 station
point .......................................................................................... 111
Figure (4-36) The alignment solution obtained by Al-Hadad‟s model without
constraint condition, 44 station points ....................................... 112
Figure (4-37) The alignment solution obtained by Al-Hadad‟s model without
constraint condition, third option (60 station points) ................ 112
Figure (4-38) Output result of this research study with constraint condition, 44
station points .............................................................................. 113
Figure (4-39) Output the alignment solution obtained by Al-Hadad‟s model with
constraint condition, third option (60station points) ................. 113
Figure (4-40) Cost map of the study region with optimum path ..................... 115
Figure (4-41) Optimized alignment at the 1000th generation ......................... 115

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table (2 -1) Potential advantages and disadvantages of existing approaches

for optimizing horizontal alignment ......................................... 9
Table (2-2) Clarification of Highway Costs ................................................. 25
Table (3-1) Modified Attribute Table Cost .................................................. 37
Table (4-1) Initial Test Parameter Set .......................................................... 81
Table (4-2) Test results of the initial tests at different generations of the
two W_1 and W_2 scenarios.................................................... 83
Table (4-3) Tests On Various Population Sizes ........................................... 89
Table (4-4) Result comparison of S1 to S12 ................................................ 91
Table (4-5) Test parameters for different crossover methods ...................... 92
Table (4-6) Different sets of parameters for PMR tests ............................... 96
Table (4-7) Test parameters of different IMR .............................................. 100
Table (4-8) Summary of the tuned parameters for a „good‟ 2D alignment
solution without constraint ........................................................ 103
Table (4-9) The base parameters for 2D highway alignment solution.......... 104
Table (4-10) The design parameter values of the test scenarios .................... 105
Table (4-11) The parameters of the different test scenarios............................ 105
Table (4-12) Description of the horizontal alignment characteristics ............ 105
Table (4-13) The results for horizontal alignment characteristics ................. 107
Table (4-14) The input parameters of the two models ................................... 109
Table (4-15) Outputs record for both models at without constraint
condition .................................................................................... 110
Table (4-16) Outputs record for both models with constraint condition ...... 111

xvii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS
Pavement width (m).
Total unit-length-dependent cost, in term of pavement cost per
unit length (unit cost/m).
Total length of the alignment (m).
Total number of the station point
CLO Total alignment location cost (unit cost)
Ln Length of the segment located in a grid cell (unit length).
Maximum location unit cost of the Cell (unit cost)

P Number of the segments of the alignment

K Cell position value
CTOTAL Fitness function for each horizontal alignment (total unit
cost/solution)
CLE Length Dependent cost for each horizontal alignment (unit
cost/solution)
CLO Location dependent cost for each horizontal alignment (unit
cost/solution)
Nlower Lowest number of station point.
Nupper Highest number of station point
LS Straight distance between two termini points
Rnd ( ) Random function to create random point.
(Xi,Yi) Coordinate of ith station point
(Xpi,Ypi) Coordinate of point's shape file
Dx Input variable to define buffer width in the X-axis direction
Dy Input variable to define buffer width in the Y-axis direction
SPM Number of the selected station points within the mutation

xviii
 process in an individual
IM Number of individuals that undergo mutation
PSIZE Population Size
PMR Point mutation rate
IMR Individual mutation rate
PS Randomly selecting a position
(XPS,YPS) Coordinate values at PS position before uniform mutation
method is applied
(̅ ,̅ Coordinate values at PS position after uniform mutation method
is applied
Rmin Minimum radius
Lchord length of a chord
VHCVT Total violated horizontal curvature value
UHPC User defined unit horizontal penalty cost
PCH-Curvature The total horizontal curvature penalty cost
(i) Maximum Allowable Deflection
Actual Deflection Angle
N Number of station point
Actual Deflection Angle
N Number of station point
Dc Degree of curvature

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATION
GIS Geographic Information System
GAs Genetic Algorithms
OCP Optimum Curvature Principle
ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute
TIN Triangular Irregular Network
HIPs Horizontal intersection points
VIPs Vertical Intersection Points
VMT Vehicle Miles Of Travel
LCP Least Cost Path
CLE Length Dependent Cost
CLO Location Dependent Cost
GPM Group Point Mutation
SM Single Mutation
CrO_Type Crossover type
MM Mutation method
IMR Individual Mutation Probability
PMR Station Point Mutation Rate
RMPCrO-8P Random Multiple Point Crossover Type-8 Point
THC Total horizontal curvature

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction :

Highway alignment is a three-dimensional problem represented in the

Cartesian coordinates (x, y and z) which make the design computation a
complex process (Krammes and Garnham, 1995; Mannering et al, 2009).
Horizontal alignment refers to the position or the layout of the center line of
the highway on the ground. The horizontal alignment consists of a series of
intersecting tangents and circular curves, with or without transition curves.
Vertical alignment is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag
curves, and the straight grade lines connecting them.
In the field of road alignment, various optimization techniques have
been applied to locate a path between two known locations. Most of them
employ GIS due to its powerful functionality in representing and analyzing
geographic features. Road construction projects highly depend on
geographical information obtained from field surveys such as topographical
features, property parcels and environmental features such as floodplains and
wetlands. Since, several costs of road alignment are sensitive to geography,
using GIS as a tool to calculate these costs is very efficient and time saving.
The horizontal alignment optimization in road design is a complex
problem (M.K.Jha et al, 2006). It is affected by the political, socioeconomic,
and environmental issues. Moreover, the data required for dealing with
horizontal highway alignment like land use types, land acquisition and costs,
proximity requirements, and the elements of its geometric design are strongly
interrelated.
This research study tries to introduce and improve methods exploiting
the techniques associated with genetic algorithms (GAs) and geographic

1
 information system (GIS) for better horizontal highway alignment
development.

1.2 Highway Planning and Development Process :

Highway planning and development process consist of five stages

before highway construction is complete:1) Plannin,2) Project development,3)
Final design ,4) Right-of-way ,and 5) Construction (M.K.jha,2000). The aims
of highway Alignment optimization selection process is to find a location for
a new road that will results in the lowest total construction, landuse, traffic
and environmental cost.

Highway alignment design is a very complex and repetitive process.

Designers must select an economical path based on topography, soil
condition, socioeconomic factor, and environmental impact (such as air
pollution and noise). This path must also satisfy a set of design constraints
and operation requirement (M.K.Jha et al, 2006)

In conventional highway design project, highway engineering and

planners select a number of initial possible alignments as alternative solutions
then evaluate each of the alternatives to find the best one (Wright and
Ashford,1998). The final decision for selecting an Alignment will depend
upon right-of-way and land acquisition costs, environmental costs,
construction costs, maintenance costs and user cost, design controls are
established based on criteria posed on the alignment‟s design elements set by
AASHTO design standards. This is to ensure that the selected alignment will
provide suitable conditions for safe and comfort driving.

As described by O‟Flaherty (1991), highway alignment planning is a

“hierarchically structured decision process”. He subdivided the process into
several sequential steps. The first step is to fix the termini points and define a

2
region (region A in Figure (1-1)) of about one-third wide of its length. Then,
narrowing the region by searching in a number of broad band's (bands B and
C in Figure (1-1)) within which the corridors D, E, and F could be selected.
Then, an alignment is generated within the most suitable corridor.

Figure (1-1) Stages of Alignment Selection (AL-Hadad, 2011)

For finding the optimal route location, GIS provides a tool that utilizes
least cost path algorithm to define a piecewise linear trajectory (sharp angled
path) which is very rough and cannot be considered as highway alignment. In
fact it is a path with a width equal to the defined cell size rather than an
alignment. On the other hand, some researchers have tried to establish center
line of alignment by intuition and visual inspection (as described in literature
review) then evaluating them and selecting the one with least cost.

As the establishment of the best centerline is essential in highway

alignment development process, thus, this study is trying to utilize the
capabilities of GIS to assist defining the best path. The path is then considered
as the center for a corridor where the best alignment centerline is existed and
established through an integrated mathematical GA-GIS model.

3
1.3 Aims of the Study:

This study tries to give explanations for the possibility of using new
technology. This study tries to use GIS as assistant tool to define a search
corridor where the global optimum alignment is existed. Thus a GA model
searches the corridor aiming to locate the best solution. It is expected that
searching in a pre-defined GIS-Corridor instead of the whole study area,
which means overlooking hundreds or thousands of alternative evaluation,
will enhance in a more effective search for better and more global solution, to
achieve the stated aims and objectives considering the followings:

1. Using GIS for alignment corridor determination:

GIS is used as an assistant tool for preliminary optimum path optimization
which is then converted to a corridor where the best/optimum horizontal
highway alignment is existed. This is done through the satisfaction of the
followings:
- Using real GIS with real maps to represent the area where the optimum
highway alignment is located.
- The GIS model is utilized for land use and spatial data representation and the
associated costs to the problem. This is to assist in the path determination and
feeding the GA model with the required data.
- To locate an optimum path and converting it to corridor through a
user/planner defined buffer around the path. Then considering the corridor as
the base for the alignment determination.
- Considering the buffered zone/corridor as a new search space for the
horizontal highway alignment optimization.
- Thus, the GIS model as an assistant tool, contributes efficiently to reduce the
study area to a corridor search space where the optimum horizontal highway
alignment is existed. This will reduce the time required for the GA search
model and increases the efficiency of the GA model.

4
2. A GA-GIS model formulation to handle the problem of horizontal highway
alignment optimization as a standalone alignment connecting two termini
points. These are aimed with the satisfaction of the following objectives:
- Testing the viability of the station point approach with GIS and buffered
search corridor for horizontal highway alignment.
- A GA model is formulated in conjunction with the GIS model so that they
continuously interact and exchange data during the whole search process
for optimum horizontal highway alignment.
- Testing the extent of GIS contributions in defining a user/planner defined
buffer zone around the best path or paths located by the GIS model. This is
expected to confine the search within the defined zone which is considered
very important for the GA efficiency in providing the best solution.

1.4 Thesis Outline:

This thesis is divided into five chapters.

Chapter One introduction

Gives a brief background about the highway planning process, defines
the problem, highlights the research aims and objectives
Chapter two literature review
A literature review of previous highway alignment optimization
models, various cost components, constraints and an overview on GIS are
presented in Chapter two.
Chapter three methodology
This chapter presents developing a model for 2D highway alignments
in a specified corridor integrated with GIS and the research Methodology for
finding preliminary alignment location in GIS. The cost and the GA
formulations are discussed in detail.

5
Chapter four the GA-GIS Model Results
This chapter deals with the critical constraints of highway alignment
like horizontal curvature, and presents some sensitivity tests for the model
against different planners‟, designers‟, and decision makers‟ requirement and
presents experimental results. Then proposed model tested on the real world
map.

Chapter five Conclusions and Recommendations

The conclusions and recommendations of this thesis are summarized in
Chapter five.

6
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the importance of highway alignment
development. It focuses on the horizontal alignment development with the aid
of GIS as an assistant tool for road planning. Horizontal highway alignment
passes through different types of land uses and makes change on some. The
land and soil properties have great influence on the determination of
alignment location. Moreover, the populated vicinity areas and the socio-
economic aspects of the area where the alignment is built affect the cost and
the development of the road project. GIS, as a geographic data provider, has
been benefited as an assistant tool to make decisions on best highway
alignment alternatives … etc.
Highway alignment consists of horizontal and vertical alignment and
for better results they need to be considered together. The traditional
approaches for alignment development is not able to take more than few
numbers of alternatives because of time consumed, complexity of the
problem, and the very high cost. The consideration of the two alignments
poses many elements on to the development process, thus, increasing the
complexity of decision. Researchers have tried to model the problem into
mathematical formulations for faster evaluation, cheaper costs, and better
results. The process and studies are still trying to establish better approaches
for the development process.
The sections below provide an extensive review for the researches that
have been made by others with a brief description about some tools that have
been used in this study.

7
2.2 Models for Optimizing Highway Alignment:
Horizontal highway alignment optimization is affected by many factors
such as, political, social economic and environmental impact (parker, 1977).
Therefore, models for optimizing horizontal highway alignment is more
complex than models for vertical highway alignment (OECD, 1973), the
mainly used methods to optimize horizontal alignments are calculus of
variations, network optimization, dynamic programming and genetic
algorithms Table (2 -1).
Calculus of variations tries to searching in space to find a curve that
connects two end points which minimizes the integral of a function (Wan,
1995). Howard et al (1968) develop the optimum curvature principle (OCP)
using calculus of variation for horizontal alignment design. The basic
requirement to use OCP is that cost function must be continuous, but in
practice real world land use cost is usually not continuous between different
zone and land use pattern. This discontinues nature of cost function make the
process unstable and same approximate and assumption behind the
determination of the local cost function in the OCP.
Network optimization is another technique that has been used for
horizontal alignment optimization. The basic idea of this approach is to
formulate the optimization of horizontal alignment as a network problem
(M.K.Jha et al, 2006). The alignment is defined as a set of connecting arcs
from starting point to the end point and the resulting solution of this model is
not smooth (Turner and Miles, 1971; Athanassoulis and Caogero, 1973;
Turner, 1978). In this model the study area is divided into grid cells, each cell
in the grid represented a node of the network, where they are connected by
arcs.
Dynamic programming is an optimization approach that transforms a
complex problem into a sequence of simpler problems; it is essential
characteristic is the multistage nature of the optimization procedure (Dreyfus
8
and Law, 1977). The road between start and end points of the alignment is
divided by spaced lines perpendicular to the axis of the road. At each stage,
the states are the nodes or grids on the perpendicular line (M.K.Jha et al,
2006). Same as network programming the solution result of this model is not
smooth. Other researchers have also used the technique for horizontal
alignment optimization (e.g. Trietsch (1987), Hogan (1973), and Nicholson
(1976)).

Table (2 -1) Potential advantages and disadvantages of existing approaches

for optimizing horizontal alignment (Jong, 1998)

Method Advantage Disadvantage

 Yield smooth alignment
 Possibly find the global  Cannot deal with discontinuous
Calculus of optimum cost items (requires well-
 Has continuous search behaved objective function)
Variation
space  Complex modeling and
computation efforts

 Simple and easy to use

 The resulting alignment is not
 Well-developed algorithms
Network smooth
for solving the problem
 Discrete solution set rather than
Optimization exist
continuous search space
 Possibly finds the global
 Large memory requirements
optimum
 Simple and easy to use  The resulting alignment is not
 Well-developed algorithms smooth
Dynamic
for solving the problem  Discrete solution set rather than
Programming exist continuous search space
 Possibly finds the global  Difficulty in handling backward
optimum bends

The first ever developed GA based model for horizontal alignment

optimization was Jong (1998). In jong‟s model the horizontal alignment is
depicted based on equally spaced perpendicular cutting lines along a straight

9
line connecting the two termini points through which the decision variables
for the alignment configuration are derived as shown in figure (2-1). The
method suggests that the straight line (SE) is cut n times with equally spaced
perpendicular cutting lines, then the horizontal intersection points (HIP) of the
optimal alignment lies on these cutting lines. The HIP‟s are first connected
with straight lines then curves are fitted at each HIP. This is done to configure
the horizontal highway alignment using AASHTO (1991) standards. The
most deficiencies of the model is that a fixed number of intersection points
are used which may restrict a flexible alignment configuration, moreover, the
cost matrices are manually dealt.

Figure (2-1) Decision Variables at Each Vertical Cut (Jong, 1998)

Jha and Schonfeld (2000) integrated an optimization model employing

genetic algorithms (GAs) with GIS using specialized dynamic link libraries,
this integration made the process more realistic. The use of GIS assisted in
providing the cost and elevation matrices. The model utilizes GIS for accurate
geographic features and information, and the GAs model was to optimize the
highway alignment in such a way that the associated costs are minimized. The
objective function was based on length-dependent cost, location-dependent

10
cost, fuel consumption cost, travel time, accident cost to get 2D-optimal
Horizontal alignment.
Al-Hadad (2011) introduced a new technique for highway alignment
optimization based on genetic algorithm. The technique is based on station
points to configure the horizontal alignment rather than considering the
existing conventional principles. The introduction of the station point
technique, as stated by AL-Hadad, was inspired by the technology
development in both computer technology and highway alignment field
instruments like total station. Station point approach tries to define highway
alignment through a number of points along the alignment via their X and Y
coordinates for a 2D alignment and their X, Y and Z coordinates for 3D
highway alignment. The model uses GIS compatible data to feed the GA
model with required information as land costs, soil properties and land
elevations so that the GA processes the optimization for optimum highway
alignment solution. The approach of station point provides a wide range of
flexibility to configure the alignment. Each point on the alignment has
chances of search within the whole study area for better location until a
compromised alignment is located. The station point approach for alignment
configuration proved that less geometric design elements are needed and as a
consequence fewer complexities are achieved.
Optimization of highway alignments seeks to find the best alignment
among many alternatives, based on specified objective functions while
fulfilling various design constraints. Objective functions should consider
important factors such as topography, land use patterns, environment, socio-
economic. Easa and Wang (2011) developed a mathematical optimization
model for established the parameter of single or multiple composite
horizontal curve for observing data based on the total least-squares method.
The method which was used by Easa and Wang was useful only for finding

11
centerline of alignments while the optimization needs factors like (land use,
environment....etc), which was not considered in the method.
Horizontal highway alignment optimization attained the interest of
researchers the last two decades. Examples include Jong and Schonfeld
(2003), Nocedal et al (2006), Easa and Mehmood (2008), Li et al (2016), and
to the three dimensional. Example includes Chew et al (1989), Al-Hadad
(2011), Kobryn (2014) and Hirpa et al (2016).
Al-Hadad et al (2016) used Geographic Information System (GIS)
capabilities as an assistant tool to search for a corridor where the best possible
highway alignment can be found. The study aimed to narrow down the
search space for highway alignment development into a corridor based
user/planner/designer defined width using GIS. A GIS model, considering the
construction and land use costs as an objective function, was built and
successfully located a path between two pre-specified termini points. The
results were validated using a Genetic Algorithm (GA) model, which was
previously developed by AL-Hadad (2011) and the path results were
promising as a potential corridor search space centerline. The findings of AL-
Hadad et al could reduce the time required to find the global optimum when
such corridors are used as highway alignment search spaces. Figure (2-2)
shows the comparative results of GIS and AL-Hadad‟s model.

Figure (2-2) Result of Paths from GA and GIS Model

12
 Wei Li et al (2013) Developed an optimization model for highway 3D
alignment based on two-stage, in the first stage dynamic programming is used
to find the best corridor alignment and for the second stage Direction
acceleration method, which is also called Powell method used to establish
final center line of the alignment.

2.3 GIS and Highway Alignment:

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) defined as “a powerful set of
tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming, and displaying
spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes” (Burrough,
2000). Another definition for GIS is “A system for capturing, storing,
checking, integrating, manipulating, analysis and displaying data which are
spatially referenced to the earth. This is normally considered to involve a
spatially referenced computer database and appropriate application software”
(Shahab, 2008).
Availability of the database technology in the 1960s led to the
development of the first wave of GIS applications, which allowed for the
management and analyses of massive databases such as the early U.S Census
data files. In the 1990s, due to increasing the number of personal computers
Led to the development of various levels of GIS technology with relevance to
all levels of users. The advancement of GIS technology has led to increase its
uses in a variety of fields, in late 1990 users of GIS were individuals ranging
from federal government and University Researchers (Robert and Emily,
2008).
The study of this thesis used ArcGIS 10.2.2 to assist in developing
methods for highway alignment optimization. GIS consists of four
applications: Arc Map, Arc Scene, Arc Globe and Arc Catalog. The packages
of GIS software are released by the Environmental Systems Research Institute
(ESRI).
13
 ArcMap is the main application used in ArcGIS for mapping, editing,
analysis, and data management. ArcMap is used for all 2D mapping work and
visualization (Arc GIS 10.2.2Help).
ArcGlobe is used for seamless 3D visualization of geographic data
using a continuous global view. This application is generally designed to be
used with very large datasets that are displayed using varying levels of detail.
ArcGlobe is part of the optional ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension (Arc GIS
10.2.2Help).
ArcScene is used for 3D visualization of focused scenes or areas. It
creates a 3D scene view that you can navigate and interact with for enclosed
areas of interest. ArcScene is also part of the ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension
(Arc GIS 10.2.2Help).
For any kind of analysis in GIS as shown in figure (2-3), data is created
in two basic formats; vector and raster grid data models. GIS uses the data in
either vector or raster or in combination. In vector data models, each location
is recorded as (x,y) coordinate. In raster data models, also referred as grid,
each location recorded as (x,y) coordinate and third reference called value.
Vector approach in spatial data modeling involves using point, lines, areas
and volumes to make representation, while raster approach uses tessellations
of equal size cells in a grid of fixed resolution to represent areas (Shahab,
2008).
The ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension provides a broad range of
powerful spatial modeling and analysis capabilities. Users can create query,
map, and analyze cell-based raster data; perform integrated raster/vector
analysis; derive new information from existing data; query information across
multiple data layers; and fully integrate cell-based raster data with traditional
vector data sources. In general, ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension presents
two main models: Representation model and Process model.

14
 Vector formats
Discrete representations
of reality

Reality (Highway)

Raster formats
Use square cells to
model Reality

Figure (2-3) Vector and Raster Data

Representation model tries to describe the objects in a landscape.

Examples of these objects include buildings, streams, or forests. The way
representation models are created in a GIS is through a set of data layers;
these data layers will be either raster or feature data. Raster layers are
represented by a regular mesh or grid, and each location in each layer is
represented by a grid cell, which has a value. Cells from various layers stack
on top of each other, describing many attributes of each location, figure (2-4)
shows composed of layers of data.

15
 Figure (2-4) A Representation Model is composed of layers of Data.

Spatial Analyst tool can be considered a process model. Some process

models are simple, while others are more complex. Even more complexity
can be incorporated by adding logic and combining multiple process models
with map algebra or model builder as shown in figure (2-5).

Figure (2-5) Model process

New information can be derived from the existing data by applying

Spatial Analyst tools. This is to create useful information from source data.
User can derive distances from points, polylines, or polygons, calculating
population density from measured quantities at certain points, reclassifying
existing data into suitability classes, or creating slope, aspect, and Triangular
Irregular Network (TIN) outputs from elevation data as shown in figure (2-6).

16
 TIN

Elevation Raster (56m cell size)

Slope

Figure (2-6): Transfer Elevation Data Raster to TIN and Slope

GIS has been proven efficient in finding locations or areas for particular
objectives as setting out a new building or analyzing high risk areas of flood
or landslide by combining layers of information. GIS has also been used in
identifying the best path for roads, pipelines, or animal migration, economic,
environmental, and other criteria as shown in figure (2-7).

GIS can also perform statistical analysis based on the local environment,
small neighborhoods, or predetermined zones. Moreover, tasks as interpolate
data values for a study area based on samples, such as Create continuous
raster surfaces from elevation, pollution, or noise sample points is also done
by GIS.

Figure (2-7) Identify Corridors or Best Paths between Locations

17
 A sustainable plan for a road path in an area has been one of the oldest
problems. This problem has recently been integrated with the use of GIS.
During the last decade; a few attempts have been made to automate the route-
planning process using GIS technology. A review of a number of papers
suggests that the methodology is still at an exploratory stage (A. K. Saha et al,
2005).
One of the capabilities of GIS that attracted researcher is cost path tool
to determine the least-cost path between two termini points based on cost
raster and the resulting path will be a path of one cell wide. The output
solution depends on the weighting factors that are given to the cost raster (Arc
GIS 10.2.2Help). Figure (2-8) shows results of two different cost raster
weights: the purple line represent the path created using cost raster in which
each input raster (land-use and slope) have the same weight. The red line
represents the path created using a cost raster with slope raster cost to avoid
steeper slopes.

Figure (2-8) Least-cost paths with two different weights (Arc GIS 10.2.2
help)

18
 Srirama et al (2001) used Arc GIS to find the shortest path (between
Sanjeli, Suliyat and Narsingpur). Four cost rasters used to find four
alternative least cost paths considering spatial data such as land-use, litho
logy, roads, water bodies and slope and non-spatial data such as land value
and construction cost. These data was used to prepare the digitized (vector
and raster) formats required for data analysis in GIS using resistance concept
(areas suitable for new alignment were assigned a low resistance value and
non-suitable areas were assigned a high resistance value)
Dawwas (2005) developed GIS model to generate alternate highway
route locations. Then CADD software (Soft desk 8.0) was used to draw a trial
preliminary center line within the boundaries of the path to ensure that the
final center line avoids sensitive areas and steep slopes the GIS model was
tested to select the best alternative among three suggested highway
alignments that connects two major cities in the north of the West Bank
(Nablus and Jenin). The results of this study clearly showed the potential
applicability of using GIS as a tool in route location analysis.
Al-Jaboory et al (2006) in the same way of Sriramas created four cost
roasters to obtain four alternative paths to construct new road between
Sulaymaniya province and Qaladesi district. Autodesk survey was used for
drawing the trail geometric design of the proposed road alignment. The cost
comparatives were done between road alternatives depending on less cost the
best road alignment was selected.
Anavberokhai (2008), chandio et al (2012), Ahmed and Asmael (2015)
were using GIS to determine the best route for construct new road. The case
study was taken by the researchers, Kogi state in Nigeria, Senai town and
Johor Bahru in Malaysia, Alkadomiyah and Algria districts in Baghdad city
respectively.
Abdelrazig and Moses (2015) developed a methodology to optimal
preliminary roadway alignments utilizing spatial data. Two case studies for
19
new roadway projects in Duval County in the State of Florida are
presented to illustrate the methodology, for each case study, a smoother
trial alignment is generated utilizing the direction indications given by the
two optimal alignments. Figure (2-9) shows the results.
The optimal alignment derived by the path algorithm in GIS is a
piecewise linear trajectory, which is very rough for highway alignment. In
fact it is a corridor rather than an alignment. However, in a specified corridor
an infinity number of horizontal alignments can be built. Therefore, trial
preliminary center lines within the boundaries of the path cannot guarantee to
find optimal alignment.

Figure (2-9) Case Study Alignment Alternatives (Abdelrazig and Moses,

2015)

20
2.4 Station Point Approach for Highway Alignment Configuration:
Al-Hadad (2011) suggests a new design approach for highway
alignment configuration. It tries to design highway alignment directly through
the station points without the need to use IPs, tangents, and curve
fittings...etc. Station points, as defined by Al-Hadad (2011), are a series of
points along the centerline of alignment defined by their X and Coordinates.
Figure (2-10) shows the differences between the traditional and the proposed
design approach of station points for horizontal alignment.

a) Horizontal Alignment configuration with the traditional method

b) Horizontal Alignment configuration using station points

Figure (2-10) Shows the differences between the traditional and the proposed
design approach of station points for horizontal alignment

Geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of

visible feature of highway such as Horizontal intersection points (HIPs),
deflection angles, curve radii; vertical intersection points (VIPs), Tangents,
21
grade values, and sight distances. The geometrics of highway should be
designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum
safety at reasonable cost. The factors which control the geometric design
requirements are speed, road user and vehicular characteristic, design traffic,
traffic capacity and benefit-cost consideration. However, speed is the factor
which is the important governing most of the geometric design elements of
road (Bent thagesen, 1996).
The existing design method deals with a number of design elements
that are used to shape the alignment geometrically, e.g. the horizontal
alignment elements include horizontal intersection point, tangent distance,
point of curvature, point of tangency, length of the curve, length of chord,
external distance, mid-ordinate, deflection angle, radius of the curve, stopping
sight distance, passing sight distance, and design speed as shown in figure (2-
11). Determinations of these elements are used to configure the alignment
and, consequently to derive the station distances along the center line of the
alignment. The design value of some of the geometric design elements are
constrained by the standard design requirements for safety (Al-Hadad, 2011).

Figure (2-11) typical layout of a horizontal curve

22
 Rather than designs, setting out of curves is an important aspect of the
engineers work. Setting out is the process of establishing the center-line of the
alignment on the ground point by point 10m to 30m intervals. The tangent
and intersection points must first be fixed on the ground in their correct
positions. The common methods for curve setting out are; Theodolite and
Tape, two Theodolites, and by coordinate (Schofield and Breach, 2007).
As known design and setting out of highway alignment are two
independent processes. Moreover, it was found that there is also an
intermediate stage between the design and the implementation, which is the
interpretation of the alignment geometric design by means of stations. This is
unavoidable by the traditional methods, so that the alignment meets the
requirements of implementation tasks. Therefore, the integration of all these
tasks may help reduce the time required for the entire processes and pose
simplification in order to switch between the design and implementation
tasks.
As general the traditional design method of highway alignment consists
of two stages, the first stage, deals with finding the values for the elements of
highway geometric design, and then in the second stage the design is
converted to stations along the alignment centerline (Al-Hadad, 2011).
The station point techniques try to combine the above two mentioned
stages in one development stage. The method tries to directly exploit the
requirement for the station points at the start of the design stage. It suggests
optimizing horizontal alignment of a highway through station points. Station
points along the centerline of alignment are used to define the alignment
configuration. It should be mentioned that the approach treats the bend
segments the same way as the straight segments are treated and should
provide the required bends without the need for any curve fitting process as
the traditional design method does.

23
 The traditional method is very expensive in terms of time. As stated by
AL-Hadad (2011) the station point approach for highway development is
inspired by technology advancement of surveying instruments and computer
software.
2.5 Highway Cost Component:
There are many cost items affecting the construction of new highway
alignment in order to formulate those factors as a function of optimization
problem, it is better to group those cost items according to their relations for
the alignment configuration (Jong et al, 2000).
Jong (1998) classified highway cost into five categories; location-
dependent, length-dependent, area-dependent, volume-dependent, and vehicle
miles of travel (VMT) dependent costs. Different type of costs will produce
different alignment configuration. For example, costs sensitive to alignment
length and vehicle miles of travel tend to favor straighter alignments whereas
costs sensitive to locations tend to favor more indirect or circuitous
alignments (Jha &Schonfeld, 2004).
Jong (1998) explained two terms in highway cost:1) dominating costs,
2) sensitive costs. Dominating costs are those which make up significant
fraction of the total cost of a new highway alignment. Alignment sensitive
costs are sensitive to design feature changes of the alignment configuration.
Dominating cost is not necessarily a sensitive cost. For example, in vertical
alignment optimization vehicle operating costs are dominant but not sensitive
to design changes since vehicle descents roughly compensate for climbs
provided no steep ascents or descents are involved (Jha &Schonfeld, 2004) .
Jong And Schonfeld (1999), Jha and Schonfeld (2000), Jong et at
(2000) classified the highway cost as follows:1) supplier cost include; length-
dependent cost, location-dependent cost, earth work cost; 2) user cost include;
vehicle operating cost, travel time cost, accident cost.

24
 Kim et al (2003) present table (2-2) that explains simple classification
of cost items with their sensitive for clarifying highway costs based on the
supplier cost and user cost.
Al-Hadad (2011) summarized the most common components of
highway cost items into: location dependent cost, length dependent cost, earth
work cost, user cost, social and environmental cost.

Table (2-2) Clarification of Highway Costs (Kim et al, 2003)

Main Sensitivity to
Sub specification Cost items
specification alignment

Administrative Planning consulting

Low
costs and supervision costs
Earthwork costs High
Right-of-way costs High
construction cost Pavement costs High
Hydrology (drainage) costs Low
Construction costs Low
Supplier
Guardrails and lighting costs Low
costs
Pavement gravel costs Low
Maintenance costs
Roadside mowing costs
Low
Low Guardrails and lighting
Intersections High
Bridges and tunnels High
Structure costs
Interchanges High
Overpass and underpass High
Travel time costs Vehicle mile traveled (VMT) High High
Accident costs Estimated accident rates High High

Vehicle operating Fuel, tire wear and depreciation of

High
costs vehicles
User costs
Noise costs Medium
Environmental Air pollution costs Medium
costs Impacts of environmentally and socially
High
sensitive objects

Location dependent costs are the costs associated with the acquired
land to build the new highway. Highway costs such as land acquisition and
soil stabilization costs that depend on the location of the alignment are
25
classified as location-dependent costs (Jong &Schonfeld, 2003). In additional
to right-of-way cost, the location dependent unit cost may include
environmental impact such as wetland and flood plain parcel (Jong et al,
2000). This cost is calculated by calculating area covered by the alignment in
which passes through land parcels multiple by land's unit cost.
Length dependent cost is defined as the cost proportional to the
alignment length such as construction cost (pavement, fences, guardrails
cost), maintenance cost. It is calculated by total alignment length by the unit
construction cost and maintenance cost.
User cost is the dominating cost and it is sensitive to alignment length
and location where the new highway is connected to existing road network.
User cost can be estimated as a life-cycle cost because it is occur throughout
the design life of the road (Kang et al, 2012). This cost comprises vehicle
operation cost, travel time cost, and accident cost (Jong et al, 2000). Vehicle
operation cost may include fuel consumption cost, vehicle wear and tear cost,
since fuel consumption cost is the dominating cost and others have less
impact on the vehicle operation cost (Jong, 1998; Jha &Schonfeld, 2000).
Travel time cost can be computed by multiplying vehicle hours by unit time
value. The accident costs estimated by multiplying accident rate and the
average cost per accident.
Building a new highway have a big significantly affect environmental
sensitive area, increase air pollution and noise level during human activity
(Kang et al,2012). Earthwork cost is related to the design elevations of the
vertical alignment with respect to the ground elevations. Area for cut/fill
calculates from each station. Afterwards, the earthwork volume quantities are
determined. This cost computed by earthwork quantities multiplies by unit
cost of cut and/or fill (Al-Hadad, 2011).

26
2.6 Genetic Algorithms (GAs):
Genetic Algorithms are numerical optimization algorithms inspired by
both natural selection and natural genetics. They represent an intelligent
exploitation of a random search used to solve optimization problems. Genetic
Algorithms were invented by John Holland in the 1960s and were developed
by Holland and his student and colleagues at the University of Michigan in
the 1960s and the 1970s (David, 1999). John Holland invented the method to
understand the “adaptation” phenomenon as it occurs in nature and to develop
ways in which the mechanisms of natural adaptation might be imported into
computer systems.
Genetic algorithms are capable of solving many large complex
problems (David, 1999). GA is capable to explore and exploit the entire
search space without getting stuck in local optima (Jha and Schonfeld, 2004).
Such characteristics led the researchers using the GA techniques in solving
sophisticated problems like highway alignment development. Figure (2-12)
explains the basic steps of Genetic Algorithms form and how it worked.
Genetic algorithms, as powerful techniques in the field of global
optimization (Davis, 1989), have been successfully applied to real-world
problems. GA has showed better search efficiency compared with the
traditional optimization search techniques. A genetic algorithm is used as an
object function for finding optimal solution, not derivative or other auxiliary
knowledge (Goldberg, 1989). While, Traditional technique was need
mathematical formula to get optimal solution for problems. However, in real-
life highway design project contain large number of feasible solutions which
cannot be easily quantified mathematically (Fwa et al, 2002). Genetic
Algorithms have been proven to be very effective to highway alignment
optimization problems (Kim, 2001).
Genetic algorithms start with an initial set of random solutions
(represented by chromosomes) called population. Each chromosome
27
represents a potential solution to the problem and it is evaluated through
successive iterations called generations to give same measure of its fitness.
Then, based on their fitness, solutions are selected to form new offspring. The
fitter the solutions the more chances these solutions will have to be selected
(Gen & Cheng, 2000).

ithPopulation

Chromosome
encoding Chromosome
Solution g
Chromosome

Chromosome

Evaluation

Selection

Crossover

Mutation

No
i=i+1
End?
yes

Best Chromosome

Best Solution decoding

Figure (2-12) Flowchart of Basic Genetic Algorithm Steps

28
 2.6.1 Genetic Encoding:
Encoding is a process of representing the solution of a problem into
chromosomes. The process can be performed using bits, numbers, arrays or
any other objects. The encoding system depends mainly on the nature of the
problem to be solved. Each individual encoded into a string of a given length.
The encoded strings refer to some characteristic of the solution but not
necessarily to be the best solution. Figure (2-13) shows two type of encoding.

Chromosome 1 1 1 0 0 01 1 001 Chromosome 1 1532647984

Chromosome 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 01 Chromosome 2 8567231495

a) Binary Encoding b) Real Number

Figure (2-13) Shows Two Type ofEncodingEncoding

Encoding

2.6.2 Population:
Traditionally, the population is generated randomly, allowing the entire
range initially many individual solutions are (usually) randomly generated to
form an initial of possible solutions (the search space). Occasionally, the
solutions may be "seeded" in areas where optimal solutions are likely to be
found. The population sizes depend on the nature of the problem. The large
the population is, the easier it is to explore the search space.

2.6.3 Fitness:
The fitness function is defined over the genetic representation and
measure the quality of the represented solution. The fitness of an individual is
the value of an objective function. Individuals are selected according to their
fitness for the production of offspring. The fitness value is not only indicates
for showing good solution, but also corresponds to how close the
chromosome is to the optimal.
29
2.6.4 Selection:
Selection is the process of choosing two parents from the population for
crossing. During each successive generation, individuals are selected for
breeding based upon their fitness value. Fitter solutions are more likely to be
selected to breed for the next generation.

2.6.5 Genetic Operators:

A genetic operator is an operator used in genetic algorithms to guide
the algorithm towards a solution to a given problem. Genetic operators are
used to create and maintain genetic diversity (mutation operator), combine
existing solutions (also known as chromosomes) into new solutions
(crossover).

2.6.5.1 Crossover:
It is the process in which two chromosomes combined their genetic
material to produce a new offspring to possess the characteristics of both.
Crossover makes clones of good strings but does not create new ones (Haupt,
2004). Figure (2-14) shows two types of crossover; single point crossover and
two point crossover.

a) Single Point Crossover b) Two Point Crossover

Figure (2-14) Shows Two Types of Crossover

30
2.6.5.2 Mutation:
Mutation is traditionally considered as a simple search operator. This
process is done by replacing the gen at random position with a new value by a
low mutation probability. If crossover is supposed to exploit current solution
to find better ones, mutation is supposed to help for the exploration of the
whole search space and find the global optimal solution. Normally, offspring
are mutated after being created by crossover (Eva Volna, 2013). Figure (2-15)
shows an example of mutation.

Figure (2-15) An Example of Mutation

2.6.6 Convergence:
Convergence criterion finally brings the search to a halt. This act is
happen when the specified number of generation's have evolved, or if there is
no change to the population's best fitness for specified number of generation.
Other criterion or techniques specific to the problem may also help.

31
 Chapter Three
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the steps considered for highway alignment
optimization. The first stage is devoted to specify an optimum path within a
defined study area with the aid of GIS then converting the path into a search
corridor in the second stage of the optimization process. The two dimensional
path (2D) is represented using x and y coordinates of points along the path.
The number of the points is problem specific and the desired accuracy. The
more the points the more is flexible representing the path. These points, in
this study, are referred to us Station Points. The station point approach for
highway alignment configuration has recently been introduced by AL-Hadad
(2011). Moreover; the second stage utilizes the Genetic Algorithms search
technique to manipulate the information gathered from the path‟s coordinates
for the development of a global optimum highway alignment within the
defined GIS search corridor. The output alignment must obey the
requirements defined by the geometric design standards. Thus a standalone
2D highway alignment is supposed to be obtained. Figure (3-1) explains the
stages of this research study for highway alignment development.

3.2 The GIS Model Formulation

GIS is a decision making tool that solves the problem of geographic
and environmental planning. In this study, the Least Cost Path (LCP) analysis
is used to find out the preliminary location where the best alignment solution
of the highway alignment is existed. .Figure (3-2) shows the steps sequentially
to define Least Cost Path (LCP) within a defined study area using GIS.

32
 First Stage
Using GIS Tools to
find a path as a
preliminary location
of the roadway.

Second Stage
Using GAs Model
to develop optimum
horizontal highway
alignment within a
defined search
corridor

Figure (3-1) Stages to develop optimum Horizontal Highway Alignment

33
 Study Area

Cost Raster

Source Cost Distance tool

Cost Distance Cost back-link

Raster Raster

Destination Cost Path tool

Optimal path raster

Figure (3-2) Flow diagram of the generation least-cost path to find

preliminary location of highway alignment

3.2.1 The Study Area in GIS:

Map digitizing process is needed to prepare a study area. To start with;
the paper map must be registered into real-world coordinates. This allows
digitizing the features directly in geographic space. To create a study area, a
new polygon shape-file must be created to represent the boundaries of the
study area.

34
 Several 2D study areas (worlds) have been extracted from GIS from a
very simple to complex ones. The simple areas with already known solutions
were used for visual inspection of the results and to make sure that the GIS
model and the formulation is correct and works for the aim of the study.
Different scenarios were prepared for each world. For each world, the width
and the length are defined. Features and land uses of the worlds are
represented through square grid cells (pixels). The size of the grid cells falls
within the user preferences and depends on the desired accuracy. Each grid
cell may handle one or more than one average value. World sizes of
6000mx9000m with grid cell sizes 200mx200m are defined for this research
study. Figure (3-3) is an example of study area representing area boundaries
of different land uses.

Figure (3-3) A Study Area Format with Grid Cells 200x200m

35
3.2.2 Cost Raster:
Cost raster can represent the combined effect of all the factors that may
influence the location determination of the desired optimum path. The study
area is divided into grid cells in which the relevant costs are calculated and
attached to each cell. For the path determination of this study the value of
each cell represents total unit cost per unit distance for moving through the
cells. The cost raster of this research study consists of 1) right-of-way cost,
and 2) length dependent cost. Raster calculator built-in function of GIS used
to create cost raster (figure 3-4). Land Parcel Cost Rasters and modified
attribute table Cost are shown in figure (3-5) and table (3-1).
The cost components are taken in this research such as, Right-of-way
cost, length dependent cost, which they are high sensitive for highway
construction costs according to Table (2-1). Those different type of the costs
leads to producing different alignment configuration, and it's a good way for
validation the proposed model, for example, costs sensitive to alignment
length and fuel consumption tend to favor straighter alignments whereas costs
sensitive to locations tend to favor more indirect or circuitous alignments.

Right-of-way cost Length dependent

(Unit cost/unit length) (Unit cost/unit length)

Raster calculator

Cost raster

Figure (3-4) Creating Cost Raster in GIS model

36
 Figure (3-5) Land Parcel Cost Rasters

Table (3-1) Modified Attribute Table Cost

Parcel No. Name Unit Cost/m2
0 Residential 600
1 Surface water 700
2 Institutional 700
3 Public 800
4 Commercial 500
5 Recreation 900
6 Industrial 1000
7 Open land 100
10 Utilities 780
11 Agricultural 680
12 Agricultural 680

37
 3.2.3 Source and Destination dataset:
Source is defined as a raster or feature dataset that identifies the cells or
locations to which the least accumulated cost distance for every output cell
location is calculated. Destination Refers to the end point for the proposed
path. Both are created in an individual layer.

3.2.4 Cost Distance tool:

Cost distance tool is used to calculate the least accumulative cost
distance for each cell to the nearest source over a cost raster. This tool creates
an output raster in which each cell is assigned the accumulative cost to the
closest source cell; the value of every cell is the minimum accumulated cost
from the cell where the least cost path started (source dataset). Two equations
calculates the least accumulative cost. Equation (3.1) is used to compute the
accumulated costs of four direct connections (horizontal and vertical
movement) and equation (3.2) to compute the four diagonal accumulated
costs.

A) Horizontal and vertical movement on cost raster B) Diagonal movement on cost raster

Figure (3-6) Type of Movement to calculate least accumulative cost

( )
(
......

38
 ( )
( √ ......

Where i= 2,4,5,7 in equation 3.1 and i= 1,3,6,8 in equation 3.2, ( is the

accumulated cost from cell S to cell . and are the costs for moving
from cell S to cell , is the width of each cell; is the accumulated cost
at cell S.
Two output cost rasters are produced from cost distance function
(figure (3-7)): cost distance raster and cost back-link raster. Cost distance
raster records the least accumulated cost of getting from each cell to the
nearest source while cost back-link raster tells us which way to go to get
there. The back-link raster contains values of 0 through 8 representing a road
map identifying the route to take from any cell along the least cost path back
to the nearest source. If the path is to pass into the right neighbor, the cell will
be assigned the value 1, 2 for the lower right diagonal cell, and continuing
clockwise. The value 0 is reserved for the source cell.

a) Cost DistanceFigure
Raster(3-5) Output Cost Distance
b) Costtool
Back-Link Raster

Figure (3-7) Output of cost distance function

39
3.2.5 Cost Path tool:
The Cost Path tool produces an output raster that records the least-cost
path or paths from selected locations to the closest source cell defined within
the accumulative cost surface in terms of cost distance. Figure (3-8) shows the
optimum path raster (cost distance) on a cost raster layer explaining how the
function finds the optimum path raster avoiding the grid cell parcels that have
higher cost values.

Figure (3-8) The Optimum Path Raster (Cost Distance)

The path raster is then converted to point shapefile from exist optimum
path raster as shown in figure (3-9). The point's shapefile are represented in x
and y coordinates and sorted in the order of their occurrence along the path
from the source to the end Figure (3.10). The point information can then be
stored in a specific (readable) file format (e.g. excel or text data format) so
40
that it is utilized in the second stage of the optimization process (GA
optimization stage).

Optimum Path Raster

Conversion Tool
(Raster to Point)

Create Point Shapefile

Figure (3-9) Conversion Process Raster to Point Shape file

Figure (3-10) The Preparation of Point Shape file from Raster Cell Size

Point Shape file is then converted to a user defined search corridor

using buffers around the path. Then the optimum highway alignment based on
41
the path is considered optimum, is expected to be around the path within the
search corridor. This search corridor is then used as a search area in the
second stage of the optimization process with the use of genetic algorithms.

3.3 The GA Model Formulation:

The GA model formulation of this research study is considered the
second stage of the optimization process. The model aims to develop a two-
dimensional horizontal highway alignment with the use of the newly
introduced approach of station point within a defined GIS search corridor
(optimized from the first stage) as shown in figure (3-11).
In the second stage of the GA model, the point coordinate data that are
inherited from the first stage are used as core information for the optimum
alignment search. These points are considered as the station points along the
centerline of the proposed alignment. The stored shapefile contains such
station points through which hundreds/thousands of candidate solutions (a
population of alternative solutions) are randomly generated within the
specified boundary of the search corridor. In this study as shown in figure (3-
11) start and end points are assumed known and the points (let it be N number
of station point) are numbered and interconnected sequentially in the order
that they appear. The GA-model tries to locate positions for the points at
which they together form best solution to the 2D problem as per the assigned
objective function.

42
Figure (3-11) The New Approach of Station Point for 2D Highway Horizontal
Alignment Configuration (Al-Hadad 2011)

3.3.1 The Study Area:

The study area that was used in the GIS model is re-represented in the
GA model to suit the case. Moreover, the GA and the GIS model are
integrated so that they interact in real time for exchanging data. The study
area must be prepared as triangular irregular network (TIN) surface and to be
read by the GA model. Therefore, Land parcel raster must be converted to
(TIN) surface which is produced from polygon, after that the polygon shape is
converted to raster with 1m mesh size (minimum cell size that GIS can
convert polygon shape to raster). The following steps in figure (3-12) describe
right-way (polygon shape file) for converting to TIN surface by using GIS
tools:

43
 Feature to Raster function
Converts Cost Raster to a Raster
Dataset with 1m Cell Size

Weighted Overlay function

It is used to apply cost (unit

cost/m2) per each cell raster
data cell

Raster to TIN function

Converts a raster to a
triangulated irregular network
(TIN) dataset, Elevation of each
point refers to cost for this land
at this location.

Figure (3-12) Steps of Producing TIN Surface from Cost Raster

3.3.2 The Cost Function:

Different types of costs will favor different alignment configuration.
GAs model evaluates the alignments based on the cost function. The lowest
cost is the best solution. The costs that are associated with road alignment
problem can be categorized as client and user costs. They may be formulated
and combined in a fitness function for alternative solution evaluation. These
costs are related to:
1) Client or General Cost:
 Location costs (land acquisition, special soil condition,
environmentally sensitive area).
 Length dependent cost (construction cost).

44
 2) User Costs:
 Fuel consumption cost.
 Travel time cost.
The following sections give details to the cost components that are benefited
in this research.

3.3.2.1 Length Dependent Cost (CLE):

In this study the highway alignment construction cost was considered
as length dependent cost. Equation (3.3) was formulated for this purpose.

......

Where:
Total length-dependent cost of an alignment (unit cost).
Pavement width (m).
Total unit-length-dependent cost, in term of pavementcost per unit length
(unit cost/m).
Total length of the alignment (m). It was calculated as follows:

∑ √( ( ......

Where:
(
Total number of the station point.
( The Coordinate of the station points along the alignment
configuration.

45
3.3.2.2 Location Dependent Cost (CLO)
In this study, right-of-way and environmental costs are treated as
location dependent cost. Environmental features like wetland, floodplain, are
considered by assigned them a relatively high unit price cost, which leads the
search algorithm to avoid such locations. Figure (3-13) explain the steps to
calculate location dependent cost.

Generate station point in GAs model

Create five points (P1, P2, P3, P4, P5)

for each intersection line with a grid in
GAs model and send to GIS ArcMap
10.2.2
Read cost values for (P1, P2, P3, P4, P5) in
the GIS ArcMap 10.2.2, cost raster prepared
for this purpose.

Compute location dependent cost use

equation (3.5) in the GAs model

Figure (3-13) Steps to Calculate Location Dependent Cost

∑ ......

Where
CLO = Total alignment location cost (unit cost)

46
Ln= Length of the segment located in a grid cell (unit length).
W = Width of the area covered by the road (unit length).
Maximum location unit cost of the Cell (unit cost)
P= Number of the segments of the alignment.
Figure (3-14) graphically explain equation (3.5).

Figure (3-14) The Explanation of the Total Alignment Length within the grid
Cells (K refers to cell position value).

∑ ......

Where L= total length of the alignment (Unit length).

47
 GAs model create five point for each segment length of the alignment
within cell, those points are help to find maximum location unit cost of the
cell( )that alignment passes through cells with a thickness equal to the
width of alignment . Figure (3-15) explains how to find max cell value for
segment (L7). Where K = cell position value (land location) that the
alignment passes through.

Figure (3-15) Max Cell Value determination ( ) for each segment Length
for Alignment within the Cells
The benefits of these points are to make the alignment avoid cells that
have high unit cost values according to the width of the alignment.

48
3.3.3 The Fitness Function:
The fitness of an individual is a measure of how good is the solution.
The formulation of the search model of this study is to minimize the total
cost. The lower the fitness the better is the solution. As stated in the sections
above, the cost components are summed up to minimize the total value of the
function as in equation 3.7:

......

Where:
CTOTAL = Fitness function for each horizontal alignment (total unit
cost/solution)
CLE = Length Dependent cost for each horizontal alignment (unit
cost/solution)
CLO = Location dependent cost for each horizontal alignment (unit
cost/solution)

3.3.4 Chromosome Representation (Encoding):

The station points are treated as decision variables for the horizontal
alignment configuration. This principle required location definition for the
station points represented by their X and Y coordinates. The number of the
station points may vary from a problem to another and it seems that it is
difficult to decide on the exact number of required points. AL-Hadad (2011)
stated that the number of station points is affected by three factors: 1) length
of the alignment; 2) the curvature required to produce a smooth alignment; 3)
grid cell size of the study area. Greater station point number may slow down
the model‟s process time and smaller number may not be enough to best
49
configure the solution. Al-Hadad set the lower and upper boundaries to
estimate the station point numbers to represent the solutions as in equations
(3.8) to (3.10).

......

......

......

Where
Nlower= lowest number of station point.
Nupper= highest number of station point.
LS = straight distance between two termini points.
N = average rate number of the number of the station point.
X = is a user defined number. Depending on the how best configuration of
alignment will be created.

The station point number of this research study is set based on the
length of the resulted GIS path and the grid cell size. The path raster defines
the number of points that is used to configure the 2D horizontal highway
alignment in the GA model. The number of the grid cells that the path passes
through determines the number of the points as each grid cell is set to be
represented by a point. Each point will then handle all the spatial and cost
information required to represent the solution to calculate the associate costs.

50
 In this study the genetic encoding of the chromosomes, same as made
by Al-Hadad (2011) is based on the station point‟s coordinates. Each station
point in the chromosome is considered as a gene encoded to X and Y
coordinates. The candidate solutions are represented in chromosomes as in
Figure (3-16). It contains the two dimensional coordinates of each station
point as shown in Figure (3-17).

Figure (3-16) Genetic representation of a chromosome for 2D highway

alignment

Figure (3-17) Graphical representation of a chromosome for 2D highway

alignment

51
3.3.5 Initial Population Generation:
The proposed model requires an initial point to start an initial
population of random individual in specified corridor to give enough space to
the points along the path to best configure the desired best alignment. Initial
point refers to point-shape (Xpi,Ypi) file that founded by GIS tools. Each
point-shape file created randomly one station point (Xi,Yi) within a boundary
of corridor that defined by users. Equation (3.11) and (3.12) used to produce
station point from point shape file within a boundary that denoted by (2Dx)
and (2Dy) in figure (3-18).

Figure (3-18) Preparing the creation of the decision variables at each point
shape file

(( ( ( (
......

52
 (( ( ( (
......

Where:
i = is the series of the station points in the order they occur in the solution
chromosome; i = 0,1, 2, … , N-1
Rnd ( ) = random function to create random point.
(Xi,Yi) = coordinate of ith station point.
(Xpi,Ypi) = coordinate of point's shapefile.
Dx = input variable to define buffer width in the X-axis direction.
Dy = input variable to define buffer width in the Y-axis direction.
N number of station points is created within the search corridor. In
order to keep the points within the specified search area they must meet the
specified criteria set by the user as:

Xmin ≤ Xi ≤ Xmax and Ymin ≤ Yi ≤ Ymax

Where i =1, 2, ..., n-1, Xmin and Xmax are the lower and upper limits of the
study area in X direction, and Ymin and Ymax are the lower and upper limits
in Y direction. An initial solution that is randomly generated in a 2D area
using the above procedures (figure (3-20)) may look like the one shown in
figure (3-19).

53
Figure (3-19) A Randomly Generated Possible Solution in the Initial
Population.

54
 Start

Read point-shape file from ArcMap 10.2.2

directly in table of content (Xpi, Ypi)
Start from i=0

Create station point (Xi, Yi) using both

equation (3.11) & (3.12)

No No
If If
Xi or Yi> Xmax Xi or Yi< X min
or Ymax or Ymin

Yes Yes

Xi=Xmax Xi=Xmin
or or
Yi=Ymax Yi=Ymin

No
Have all point- Next i
shape file read?

Yes

End

Figure (3-20) Flowchart to Create Station Point inside the Buffered area

55
3.3.6 Selection:
In this study, the lower values for the objective function (CTOTAL) have
a higher chance to get selected to reproduce offspring. There are various
methods to select chromosomes including Rank selection, Roulette wheel
selection, Tournament selection and Boltzmann selection. The selection
method in this research study is ranking based. Ranking selecting method
sorts the individuals based on their fitness values from the fittest to the worst.
Every two Parents are sequentially selected from top of the sorted population
down to the worst to breed and produce offspring. Each couple produces two
children then the population is doubled and re-sorted as per their fitness after
evaluation of the children has been made. The original size of the population
(half of the doubled one) is selected to go to the next generation based on
fitness and the rest will die off. Ranking selection method is used as it results
in slow convergence keeps up selection pressure when the fitness variance is
low, and preserves diversity and hence leads to a successful search.

3.3.7 Crossover Operator:

The crossover operator is analogous to reproduction. In this study more
than one parent is selected and one or more off-springs are produced using the
genetic material of the parents.
Crossover operation starts after the selection process is done. In the
crossover operation, the selected parents (solutions) are combined to form two
new solution or offspring. In this study two types of crossover are tested:
single point crossover and multiple point crossovers.

3.3.7.1 Single Point Crossover:

Single point crossover is the simplest crossover form of standard
genetic algorithm. In single point crossover one crossover position (R), is

56
selected uniformly at random and the decision variables coordinates (station
point) are exchanged between the selected individuals, then two new
offspring are produced. Figure (3-21) to (3-23) illustrates this process.

Parent A R; Crossover point

Index(i) 0 1 2 3 … i … N-1
X0 X1 X2 X3 Xi XN-1
Individual(A)
Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Yi YN-1

Parent B R; Crossover point

Index(i) 0 1 2 3 … i … N-1
Individual(B) X0 X1 X2 X3 Xi XN-1
Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Yi YN-1

Figure (3-21) Parent chromosomes A and B before one point crossover

Offspring Aˉ swap point between the two parts

Index(i) 0 1 2 3 … i … N-1
X0 X1 X2 X3 Xi XN-1
Offspring (Aˉ)
Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Yi YN-1

Offspring Bˉ swap point between the two parts

Index(i) 0 1 2 3 … i … N-1
Offspring (Bˉ) X0 X1 X2 X3 Xi XN-1
Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Yi YN-1

Figure (3-22) Offspring A and B after one point crossover

57
Figure (3-23) Graphical Representation of One Point Crossover on the Parent
Alignment Solutions

3.3.7.2 Random Multiple Point Crossover:

With the use of the newly introduced approach of station point, all the
points are linked to each other. This makes the alignment configuration
process more complex. Therefore, dealing with single or double point may
not always assists to produce a good solution especially when the
environment of a study region is complex (Al-Hadad, 2011).
As shown in Figure (3-24), Crossover positions (R) of an individual are
chosen at random with no duplicates and sorted into ascending order. Then,
the decision variables (station points) between successive crossover points are
exchanged between the selected parents to produce two offspring.
58
 Start

Read Value of Maximum Crossover

Point Number=CRP

Ri=Rnd (0, 1, 2... N-1)

Where i=1 to CPR
Without duplicates for all Ri

Ascending Sort
R1,Ri,......,RCPR

Crossover Operation

No
Have All Individual
Crossovers?

Yes

End

Figure (3-24) Flowchart of Random Multiple Point Crossover

3.3.8 Mutation Operator:

Mutation operator arbitrarily alters one or more genes of a selected
chromosome; by a random change with a probability called a mutation rate.
The purpose of mutation in GAs is preserving and introducing diversity.
Mutation process is done through altering the information of a
randomly selected gene or genes (station points) with a new value (new (Xi,
Yi)). It has always been suggested to apply low mutation probability. If it is
59
set too high, the search will turn into a primitive random search. In this study
two types of mutation are tested: uniform mutation and group point mutation.
Different mutation methods can be used from standard (uniform) to problem
specific ones. The number of station points and individuals that undergo
mutation operator is determined using the equations 3.13 and 3.14:

( ) ......

( ) ......

Where
SPM= number of the selected station points within the mutation process in an
individual.
IM= number of individuals that undergo mutation.
PSIZE= Population Size.
PMR= point mutation rate: is the selection rate of the number of station points
for mutation per each selected individual.
IMR=individual mutation rate: is the selection rate of the number of
individuals for mutation in a population size.
N= number of station points.

3.3.8.1 Single Mutation (SM):

This operator replaces the value of the chosen gene (PS) and replacing
its value (X and Y coordinates) with a uniform random new value (new X and
Y coordinates) for this position (PS). Number of individuals and station
points will be mutated are depend on the PMR and IMR rate. Equations (3.15)

60
and (3.16) used to find new value for randomly selecting position (PS) per
each selected individual.

̅ (( ( ( ( ......

̅ (( ( ( ( ......

This new value of station point ( ̅ ,̅ must satisfy two condition to

produce within boundary of corridor and study area figure (3. 19).

 In Case within Boundary of Corridor.

̅ <= Xpps+ DX and ̅ >= Xpps- DX

̅ <= Ypps+ DY and ̅ >= Ypps- DY

 In Case Within Boundary of Study Area.

̅ <= Xmax and ̅ >= Xmin

̅ <= Ymax and ̅ >= Ymin

Where:
PS = Randomly selecting a position (1 ≤ p ≤ N-1),
(XPS,YPS)= Coordinate values at PS position before uniform mutation method
is applied.
(̅ ,̅ =Coordinate values at PS position after uniform mutation method is
applied.
Dx = input variable to define buffer width in the X-axis direction.
Dy = input variable to define buffer width in the Y-axis direction.
(Xpps, Ypps) = coordinate of point shapefile at the position PS.
Xmin & Xmax= are the lower and upper limits of the study area in X direction.
Ymin &Ymax= are the lower and upper limits in Y direction.
61
Rnd ( ) = random function to create random point.

3.3.8.2 Group Point Mutation (GPM):

This mutation designed to select a group of points and moving them
together in one mutation step. This mutation is called segment mutation
because it moves a segment or segments of the alignment candidate (Al-
Hadad, 2011).
GPM, as with SM, randomly select gen position (R) and randomly
assigns new coordinate (x, y) value. Then from right and left of (R) randomly
select two gen position (L1& L2). Then, all the genes (station points) that
locate between L1and R on the left side of (R), and (R) andL2on the other side
are reallocated and put on a straight line connecting the newly generated gene
at R with the selected genes at L1 and L2. The following steps explain detail
mathematic equation of this mutation:
1-Let (R) be a randomly generated position along the chromosome of length
N, as in equation 3.17:

( ......

2-Assign new values to ̅ and ̅ coordinates at(R). Use both equation 3.15
and 3.16 and satisfy both condition 1 and 2 to remain this point within study
area and boundary of corridor.
3-Find two limit ranges for other two random positions (L1&L2) by using
Point Mutation Rate (PMR) that defined by user as in equation 3.18 and 3.19:

( ......

62
If

( ......

If (

4-Generate two more random positions L1& L2 as in equation 3.20 and 3.21:

( ) ......

( ) ......
5-Alter the location coordinates values of the points located between L1and R
as in equation 3.22 and 3.23:
̅
̅ * + (
......
( (

̅
̅ * + (
......
( (

6-Alter the location coordinates values of the points located between R and L2
as in equation 3.24 and 3.25:
̅
̅ * + ( ( ( ......

̅
̅ * + ( ( ( ......

63
 Start

Find Value of (R) use equation (3.17)

Use both equation (3.15) and (3.16) to find

̅ and ̅ respectively

Use both equation (3.18) and (3.19) to find

(L1range) and (L2range) respectively

Use both equation (3.20) and (3.21) to find

(L1) and (L2) respectively

Use both equation (3.22) and (3.23) to find

(Xi) and (Yi) respectively.
Start from i=L1+1

No
If i=R
Yes
Use both equation (3.24) and (3.25) to find
(Xi) and (Yi) respectively.
Start from i=R+1

No

If i= L2
Yes

No
Have All selected
individual mutated?

Yes

End

Figure (3-25) Flowchart to Explain Steps of Grouped Point Mutation (GPM)

64
Figure (3-26) An Offspring before Applying GPM

Figure (3-27) An Offspring after Applying GPM

65
3.3.9 Constraints and station point approach:
In the design of highway alignment, it is necessary to establish a proper
relation between design speed and curvature. Horizontal Curves are one of the
two important transition elements in geometric design for highways (along
with Vertical Curves). Horizontal curves occur at locations where two
tangents intersect, providing a gradual transition between the two tangents.
Radius and/or degree of the curve are used as a geometric design
element input to the design of a horizontal alignment curve. The curvature of
a horizontal curve is a function of the alignment‟s specified design speed. The
higher the design speed the flatter (larger curve radius) the curve is required
and consequently the smaller would be the degree of the curve. Degree of the
curve is calculated using either chord or arc definition.
With the newly introduced approach of station point for highway alignment
configuration the same geometric design criteria need to be achieved so that
the development is up to the standards. Therefore, a smooth and safe
curvature, as one of the most important requirements for alignment
development, need to be satisfied. In this research study the principles of
chord definition is adopted to configure the requirements of curve curvatures
with the station point approach. Thus, the method eliminates the need to use
the traditional geometric design elements such as horizontal curves, tangents,
and intersection points for curvature calculation. The proposed concept tries
to provide smooth transitions through the locations of the station points.
Chord definition defines the degree of the curve (Dc) as a central angle
(Dc) that is subtended by a 30.5m (100ft) chord length. The deflection angle
between any two successive chord lengths must not be greater than maximum
allowable deflection. This deflection is to make change in the horizontal
direction in which both a smooth and safe driving conditions are obtained.
The maximum allowable deflection (Dc) that can be produced between any

66
two successive chords (e.g. Lchord(i-1) and Lchord(i)) is calculated by equation
(3.26) as shown in figure (3.28).

Dc= 2 ( ......

Figure (3-28) Chord Definition Illustration for Degree of the Curve

From figure (3-28) and based on trigonometric identities the relationships in

equation 3.27 and 3.28 are produced:
The existing design method assumes equal chord length, so:

when Lchord.(i-1)=Lchord.(i)=Lchord.(i+1)=.......=Lchord.(n), then and for the same Rmin

values:
Dc.(i-1)=Dc.(i)=Dc.(i+1)=.........=Dc.(n) and;

67
Dc.(i-1)= allowable.Dc.(i-1)=Dc.(i)=allowable.Dc.(i) .......=Dc.(n), then;

( ( ( ( ......

While,
( ( (

( ( (

and when Dc.(i-1)= Dc.(i)=Dc.(i+1)=Dc.(n), then Dc.(i-1)= allowable.Dc.(i-1)

and the Total Length Of Transition equal to

( ( (
......
(

Where, Rmin is minimum radius of the curve, Dc is the degree of curvature,

is the total deflection angle, and Lchord is the length of a chord.
The station point approach treats the distances between the points
(actual chord lengths) as the decision lengths for the curvature configuration
and tries to provide smooth transitions through the locations of the station
points. The locations of the station points need to be orientated (positioned) in
such a way so that the deflection between any three successive station points
does not exceed the maximum allowable deflection defined by the distances
between the points (chord lengths according to the traditional design method)
and the defined radius.
The configuration of the alignment itself depends on the station points‟
positions; the distance inequality between the points might always be the
68
case. These distances could have lengths greater than 30.5m or conversely
have lengths equal to and even less than 30.5m; therefore. Individual
allowable deflections at each station point need to be determined. On the
other hand, the smoothness of the alignment at these points depends on the
deflection (curvature) that the position of any given three station points
produces. The following sections explain how maximum permissible
curvatures with station point will be founded.

3.3.9.1 Maximum Allowable Deflection Calculation:

maximum allowable deflection ( (i)) (see figure 3.29) is the
curvature that can be produced between any two successive chords (e.g.
Lchord(i-1) and Lchord(i)) to make a change in horizontal direction of which both a
smooth and safe driving condition are obtained. Equation (3.29) defines
maximum allowable Dc requirement as a function of variable chord length,
provided they are not greater than the maximum (30.5 m).

Dc= 2 ( ......

Figure (3-29) The Curvature Consideration with the Concept of Station Point

69
 Inequality of the chord distances between the successive station points
necessitates the calculation of deflection angle at each station point. for
example, taking the station point Si,Si+1,Si+2 and Si+3 into consideration, based
on equation (3.29) the Dc s are determined using equation (3.30), (3.31), and
(3.32), and ( (i)) using equations (3.33), (3.34), and (3.35).

(
Dc(i-1)= 2 ( ......

(
Dc(i)= 2 ( ......

(
Dc(i+1)= 2 ( ......

( ( ( ......

( ( ( ......

( ( ( ......

When any of the distances between two station points exceeds 30.5m,
the maximum chord length (30.5m), by definition, is used to determine the
maximum allowable Dc(deflection or curvature) at the specified station point
using equation (3.26). Meanwhile, when the chord length is less than30.5m,
where equations (3.30) to (3.35) are used, in this case the allowable maximum
curvature would become smoother than that being found by equation (3.26).

70
3.3.9.2 Actual Deflection Angle ( ) Calculation:
An algorithm was formulated to calculate the existing curvature
between any three successive points (between two chord lengths). The
following steps explain the procedures to calculate the existing curvature at a
station point:

Step1: From Figure (3.30) consider the station points Si-1, Si, Si+1.

Figure (3-30) Actual Curvature Calculation

Step 2: Determine the length of vectors (Si-1 Si)=Vi-1=Lchord.(i-1) and

(SiSi+1)=Vi= Lchord.(i)from Figure (3.30).

......

71
 ......
......
......

√ ......

√ ......

Figure (3-31) Considering Three Points to Calculation Actual Deflection

Angle (Bi)

Step 3: Determine the actual deflection angle (Curvature) ( ) between the

two vectors Vi-1andVi Figure (3.31).

( )
( ) ( ) ......

72
 Start

Input Rmin, Start from

rst
1 station point, i=1

Consider Si-1SiSi+1 as an independent

case for horizontal curvature.

Calculate the vector lengths Si-1Si(Vi-1)

and SiSi+1(Vi).
Dc(i)= 2

Dc(i)= 2
No No
if if
Vi-1>=30.5 Vi>=30.5
(

(
Yes Yes
(

(
Dc(i-1)= 2 ( Dc(i)= 2 (

Calculation the maximum allowable deflection angle at Si

( ( (

Calculation the actual horizontal curvature (Bi) between

Vi-1and Vi , use equation(3.42).

The alignment segment is Yes

if
smooth and no action is Bi <= (
No
required.
Apply Repair or penalty or both
No
all station point cheeked ? Next( i)

Yes
End

Figure (3-32) The Process of Horizontal Curvature Consideration with the

Concept of Station Points

73
3.3.10 Penalty and Repaired Approach:
The calculated deflection angle( is compared with the maximum
allowablecurvature ( ( . If the actual deflection angle is less than the
allowable curvature then the alignment at this point is smoother than
allowable smoothness and no action will be required. When the actual
curvature is greater than the allowable value it indicates that the alignment
violates the curvature requirements at the designated position therefore an
action or actions is (are) required. The sections below explain Penalty
Approach and Repair Approach.

3.3.10.1 Penalty Approach:

The model, besides the search for a suitable alignment location, also
tries to configure the alignment such that the requirements for safe and
smooth driving conditions are achieved. The defined transition in direction
change needs to be satisfied according to the criteria set by the standard
specification.
The search model of this study checks curvature along the alignment at
every station point and wherever curvature violation is discovered soft
penalty will be applied. Soft penalty is to make differentiation between two
station point loci and/or two different alternatives with different curvature
violation values.
The total value of violated curvatures along the alignment at all the
station points is calculated and multiplied by a penalty cost defined by the
user. Total horizontal curvature penalty cost (PCH-Curvature) is added to the
fitness function in order to minimize curvature violation using equation
3.43and 3.44.

74
 ∑( ......

......

Where;
N = the total number of station points. N-1 represents the end station and N-2
represents the point before the end station.
VHCVT= total violated horizontal curvature value.
UHPC = user defined unit horizontal penalty cost.
PCH-Curvature= the total horizontal curvature penalty cost.

3.3.10.2 Repaired Approach:

In specific cases the search model might fail or stuck configuring an
alignment with no curvature violation despite the application of penalty. In
such cases the search may need intervention by an assistant algorithm. The
assistant algorithm can get rid or reduce the curvature violations at the
specified station point loci. Such algorithms might also help speed up the
search process for an optimum solution.
The approach repairs the positions of the station points where the
curvature is violated. In this act at each generation the violated curvature
reduced by an amount and the candidate solution is re-evaluated and
reinserted into the population. In this research study Cartesian Repair
Approach techniques which was adopted and used by Al-Hadad (2011) is
tested. The following steps explain this technique.
Step 1: Find a new position ̅ midway on a straight line between Si+1 and Si-1
(figure 3.33) using equations 3.45 and 3.46.
(
̅ (̅ …...

75
 (
̅ (̅ …...

Step 2: Find a new position Si-new midway on a straight line between Si and ̅
using equations (3.47) and (3.48) as shown in figure (3-33).

( ̅
( ̅ …...

( ̅
( ̅ …...

Step 3: Calculate (Bi-new) as the new actual curvature at station point Si-new

Figure (3-33) Repair Approach in Horizontal Curvature

The chart show in figure (3.34) summerizes the steps of the GIS-GA model
for horizontal highway alignment.

76
 First Stage Second Stage
GIS GAs Model
Use GIS Tools to Find Optimum Path Use Point to Generate Initial
Figure (3-6) Horizontal Alignment population
in Specified Corridor Figure (3-
16)
Convert Optimum Path to Points Start from i=1
Figure (3-8)
No
Have all point shape-
file read?

Yes

Preparing cost raster To Reading in

Compute of Each Individual
GAs Model in Term of Cost ($/M2) Length Dependent Cost (Cle) Use
Figure (3-4) Equation (3.3)

Read Value of Lucn from GIS

Location Dependent Cost (Clo) Use

Draw Best Individual In GIS Equation (3.5)
Within A Specified Corridor Figure
( 3-1)

Compute Fitness of Each Individual

Test of
Stop termination

Select individuals to reproduce offspring

Create offspring by applying crossover and

mutation

Figure (3-34) Summaries Mainly Steps in Two Stages to Find Optimum

Highway Alignment

77
 CHAPTER FOUR
THE GA-GIS MODEL RESULTS
This chapter tests the model formulation validity and tunes the model‟s
input parameters for better results. Then the model results are verified with
the results of a previously developed model by AL-Hadad. Finally, the
proposed model (GA-GIS) model was tested in real world GIS map.

4.1 The GIS Model Test Results (Optimum Path Tools):

In this study, the GIS Model Builder is used to create a new tool called
optimum path tools based on the raster cell size equal to 200m Model
Builder is an application used to create, edit, and manage models. Models are
workflows that string together sequences of geoprocessing tools, feeding the
output of one tool into another tool as input. As result the benefits of Model
Builder is an easy-to-use application for creating and running workflows
containing a sequence of tools (GIS help 10.2.2).
To ensure that optimum path tool that produce from Model Builder to
found best path in GIS correctly created, the new tools undergo verification to
find best path at low construction cost and avoiding high unit parcels. The
new tool is tested in the three case scenarios.

Test No (1):
The aim of this test was to find best path between two termini points,
considering length and location dependent cost. The search space was made
unique with no high cost lands so that the result is already known for the
model formulation test. As expected, the result is straight, between the two
termini points as shown in figure (4-1).

78
Figure (4-1) The minimum distance between two points is straight line

Test No (2):
This test was prepared to test the capability of the GIS model in
establishing a path that avoid high unit cost areas as shown in figure (4-2).
The high cost area was positioned at the middle of the whoel study area.
The path, as shown, is winding around at the buttom of the high cost area
so that the cost path result is minimal.

Figure (4-2) Avoiding optimum path from high unit cost

79
Test No (3):
in this case,same study area as test no 2 above was used and the only
difference was that one cell of high unit cost was added at the bottom of the
high cost area as in figure (4-3). The result is winding around above the high
cost area just to minimise the total cost of the final path result.

Figure (4-3) Avoiding optimum path from one cell unit high cost

The results show that the optimum path tool can found best path at low
construction cost and avoiding high unit cost areas.

4.2 (GA-GIS) Model Verification Tests:

Verification of the model is the process of confirming that it is

correctly formulated and works according to the desired aims of alignment
optimization. This is to make sure that the math of the model and GAs
operators are correct. For this purpose the following tests scenarios are
prepared as in table (4-1).

80
 Table (4-1) Initial Test Parameter Set

N PSIZE CrO_Type MM IMP% PMP% SM T

10 500 2RSPCrO MSM 50% 30% RnKSS G=150

Test No (1):

The aim of this test was to connect known start and end points by an
alignment, considering length and location dependent cost in the
evaluation or fitness function. The study area (W_1) with a known
optimum solution was prepared as shown in figure (4-4). The study area
was made with unique location costs so that the alignment result is straight
between the terminal points as explained in figure (4-4). The model result
of this test scenario from both the GIS and GA is shown in figure (4-5) at
generation 150 within a corridor of 400m width. The results is as fit as
99.99 % of the known optimum solution.

Figure (4-4) Word W_1 set up with a known straight alignment solution

81
 a) The Best Alignment Solution at generation 2

b) The Best Alignment Solution at generation 8

c) The Best Alignment Solution at generation 150

Figure (4-5) The Best Alignment Solutions at different generations

82
 Test No (2):
This test was aimed at finding the ability of the search model to find
alignment solutions that require making jumps over high unit cost areas.
The tests were made for different alignment widths (0m, 30m, and 60m)
withwhich the land acquisition will also vary. Same W_1world was used
for this test except that four cells at the middle of the region were assigned
higher unit costs (W_2). The results of this tests and fitness values at
different generations are compared as showed in table (4-2) and figures (4-
6) and (4-7). The alignment development and the fitness over the
successive generations are showed in Figure (4-8).

Table (4-2) Test results of the initial tests at different generations of the
two W_1 and W_2scenarios

Width of land acquisition=0m Width of land acquisition=30m

World W_2 World W_2
G Alignment Fitness Value % of Global G Alignment Fitness Value % of Global
Length (m) (unit cost) optimum Length (m) (unit cost) optimum
Known Known
Optimum 1964.7686 21612.4546 100 Optimum
Solution Solution 1972.316 21695.476 100
0 2061.557 22677.14 99.95074 0 2084.172 22925.9 94.32869784
25 1968.931 21673.95 99.9978 25 1984.481 21829.3 99.38321243
50 1967.318 21640.5 99.9987 50 1981.329 21794.62 99.54302455
75 1966.496 21631.46 99.99912 75 1980.725 21787.98 99.57364844
100 1966.413 21630.55 99.99916 100 1980.703 21787.73 99.57476388
125 1966.405 21630.45 99.99917 125 1980.702 21787.72 99.57481458
150 1966.405 21630.45 99.99917 150 1980.7 21787.71 99.57491599
Width of land acquisition=60m Test Results with unique location costs (W-1)
World W_2 World W_1
G Alignment Fitness Value % of Global G Alignment Fitness Value % of Global
Length (m) (unit cost) optimum Length (m) (unit cost) optimum
Known Known
Optimum Optimum
Solution 1980.234 21782.574 100 Solution 1897.366 20871.026 100
0 2193.151 24124.66 89.24788687 0 1981.239 21793.629 95.57950337
25 2007.205 22079.26 98.63798925 25 1897.51 20872.61 99.99241053
50 2002.277 22025.05 98.88684873 50 1897.385 20871.235 99.99899861
75 1996.695 21963.65 99.1687346 75 1897.374 20871.114 99.99957836
100 1996.399 21960.39 99.18368233 100 1897.371 20871.081 99.99973648
125 1996.397 21960.37 99.18378333 125 1897.371 20871.081 99.99973648
150 1996.375 21960.12 99.18489431 150 1897.371 20871.081 99.99973648

83
 Figure (4-6) An Optimum Solution At Generation =150, When the Width
of the roadway is =0m

Width of the roadway =30m Width of the roadway =60m

Figure (4-7) Optimum Solutions At Generation =150

The test results above proves that the model formulation is correct.

84
 25500
25000
Fitness Value, (unit cost)
24500
24000 W_2 Width=0

23500 W_2 Width=30

23000
W_2 Width=60
22500
22000 W_1
21500
21000
20500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Generation Number

Figure (4-8) Fitness graph results of the two scenarios W_1 and W_2

4.3 Tests for the GA Parameters:

Tests were carried out to find the model parameters that result in better
highway horizontal alignment solutions. The analyses were made to include
the parameters of population size, individual mutation rate, type and rate for
both crossover and mutation. Different parameter values result in different
solutions. The parameter values have influence on the convergence of the
solution and finding the results. Improper combination of parameter values
may result in quick convergence and the result could stuck at local optima
while good combination and proper values of the parameters may result in
finding global optimum solution. In this section the GA-GIS model is run
with different population size, mutation and crossover operators. The
parameters are analyzed over better horizontal highway alignment. For this
reason, study area (W_3) as in Figure (4-9) is shown with the different land
unit costs.

85
 Figure (4-9) World W_3 set up

For a decision on a single parameter, 10 test runs as a minimum test

number were conducted to understand the behavior of the parameter in
directing the search towards the optimum solution. The evaluations and
judgments were then made based on the results obtained from the 10 test runs.
In this scenario, the path was established using the GIS model as in figure (4-
10). Then the path was converted to a buffered corridor (search corridor)
where the optimum horizontal alignment was configured. Figure (4-10) shows
the world (W_3) with different land configuration and costs, buffered search
corridor, best path results from the GIS model, and Point shape file.

86
 Figure (4-10) World3 and the best path result from the GIS model

4.3.1 Population Size Parameter Tests:

Population size is one of the most important parameters of GA. The

greater the population sizes the more diversity and genetic information in the
pool. To investigate the effect of different population sizes the other
parameters need to be fixed. In increments of 300 from 100 to 3100
individuals the study started the investigation for 11 different population
sizes. It can be observed from figure (4-11) that the total cost fell rather
quickly with greater population size until the population of 700. It was noted
that GA solution showed little variation beyond population size 1600. Max
generation number equal to 200 is considered for this tests scenario and the
other GA parameters are as in table Table (4-1). The tests to evaluate the
effect of different population sizes are as in table (4-3). These scenarios were
prepared based on the results shown in figure (4-11)

87
 113000

Best Fitness Value (Unit Cost) 112000

111000

110000

109000

108000

107000

106000

105000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Population Size

Figure (4-11) Sensitivity Study of Various Population Size

To test the effect of population size on stability this study has considered six
different populations (six scenarios) for each of the two mutation methods
(SM and GPM). The population sizes varied between 50 to 2000 individuals
as in table (4-3). The model was run 10 times for each population size. The
fitness results are summarized in figure (4-13) and table (4-4) for all 12
scenarios.
the results showed thatthe model are more stable with higher
population sizes,and in SM method is more clear that the number of solutions
within 95%-100% of the most optimum solution is increased with increase of
the population size figure (4-12). Because higher population size provides a
high diversity and therefore contains more sample solution, but smaller size
of population looses the diversity from early generations of the search process
before the solution is converged toward optimality. Figure (4-13) shows that
the solutuion fitness for GPM is better than SM, and the convergence with
greater population size is quciker, and indicates that search with GPM is more
effecince than SM. Population size 2000 obtained best results for both
mutation types. The resulted alignment of this case has sharp bends because

88
in this stage of search the optimum horizontal highway alignment was
produced without the constraint consideration to meet the standard
requirements for safe and comfort driving conditions (curvature
requirtement).
Table (4-3) Tests On Various Population Sizes

Scenario N Psize CrO_Type MM IMR% PMR% corridor width (M)

S1 43 50 single SM 10 5 800
S2 43 250 single SM 10 5 800
S3 - 500 single SM - - -
S4 - 1000 single SM - - -
S5 - 1500 single SM - - -
S6 - 2000 single SM - - -
S7 - 50 single GPM - - -
S8 - 250 single GPM - - -
S9 - 500 single GPM - - -
S10 - 1000 single GPM - - -
S11 - 1500 single GPM - - -
S12 - 2000 single GPM - - -

Less than 90% within 90% - 95% within 95% - 100%

12
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
No of good solution /10 test runs

10 9 9

8 7 7
6
6
4
4 3
2
2 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0

Different Set of Test Parametr

Figure (4-12) The effect of Psize and MM on the search stableness

performance
89
 S1,SPM,Psize=50 S2,SPM,Psize=250 S3,SPM,Psize=500 S4,SPM,Psize=1000
S5,SPM,Psize=1500 S6,SPM,Psize=2000 S7,GPM,Psize=50 S8,GPM,Psize=250
S9,GPM,Psize=500 S10,GPM,Psize=1000 S11,GPM,Psize=1500 S12,GPM,Psize=2000

140000

135000
Fitness Value,(Unit Cost)

130000

125000

120000

115000

110000

105000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Generation Number

Figure (4-13) The effect of Psize and mutation type on solution fitness and
convergence

Figure (4-14) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters

defined by S6 (blue color refers to curvature violate at that point)

90
Figure (4-15) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters
defined by S12

Table (4-4) Result comparison of S1 to S12

Scenario MM length of alignment(m) fitness value(Unit Cost)

S1 SM 11263.01 123893.1
S2 SM 9940.436 109344.8
S3 SM 10113.74 111251.1
S4 SM 9846.858 108312.8
S5 SM 9818.455 108003
S6 SM 9761.249 107373.8
S7 GPM 9864.691 108511.6
S8 GPM 9713.21 106845.3
S9 GPM 9676.371 106440.1
S10 GPM 9665.467 106320.2
S11 GPM 9651.494 106166.5
S12 GPM 9642.79 106070.7

91
4.3.2 Random Multiple Point Crossover Tests (RMPCrO):

This section compares recombination effect on pool convergence

toward optimality. First; the model was tested using population size of 2000.
This was proved an efficient input parameter to perform the search. Such a
population size provides a variety of genetic information during the search
process. However, the test results have shown little differences among the
different crossover methods. This is assumed that the greater population sizes
with greater genetic information compensate the lack of information when
less efficient crossover method is used. Thus, the validity and the better
performing crossover method disappear. For this purpose and in order to
exhibit the quality of each type it is suggested to reduce the genetic
information provision through population size and let the crossover do the
task. Table (4-5) lists the test parameters with multiple point crossover
methods that consist of seven scenarios.

Table (4-5) Test parameters for different crossover methods

Scenario N Psize CrO_Type MM IMR% PMR% Corridor Width (M)

S1 43 250 RSPCrO SM 10 5 800
S2 43 250 RMPCrO – 2P SM 10 5 800
S3 - - RMPCrO – 4P - - - -
S4 - - RMPCrO – 6P - - - -
S5 - - RMPCrO – 8P - - - -
S6 - - RMPCrO – 10P - - - -
S7 - - RMPCrO – 12P - - - -

The fitness values of the test results from the ten test runs show that the
search is stable for all types of the crossover methods (see Figure 4-16).the
results show that almost all of the ten test runs resulted in solutions with

92
fitness between 95%-100% of the most optimum solution. But based on the
least fitness results as in figure(4-17) it was found that the solutions that use
crossover with 4 points and upwards are fitter solutions. According to AL-
Hadad‟s model the crossover with 8 points and upward were the best knowing
that the whole study area were exploited and was not limited to a defined
search corridor as is the method in this research study. Therefore the
crossover type selected for this study is 8 points.

Number of solutions with fitness less than 90% of the most optimum solution
Number of solutions with fitness within (90%-95%) of the most optimum solution
No of good solutions/10 test

Number of solutions with fitness within (95%-100%) of the most optimum solution

15
10 10 10 10 10 10
runs

10
7

5
2
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
Single 2-Point 4-Point 6-Point 8-Point 10-Point 12-Point
Different crossover method

Figure (4-16) The effect of crossover methods on obtaining better

solutions
130000 RSPCrO
Minimum solution fitness,

RMPCrO-2 Point
RMPCrO-4 Point
125000 RMPCrO-6 Point
RMPCrO-8 Point
120000
unit cost

RMPCrO-10 Point
RMPCrO-12 Point
115000

110000

105000
0 50 100 150 200 250
Generation number

Figure(4-17) Minimum fitness graph obtained from each test scenario

93
Figure (4-18) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters
defined by S1 (blue color refers to curvature violation locations)

Figure (4-19) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters

defined by S5 (blue color refers to curvature violation locations)

94
4.3.3 Station Point Mutation Rate Tests (PMR %):

The test result in population size shows that GPM is more efficient than
SM based on the fitness values in figure (4-13). To illustrate this, and based
on the idea that "Mutation has traditionally considered as a simple search
operator and if crossover is supposed to exploit the current solution to find
better ones, mutation is supposed to help for the exploration of the whole
search space. Mutation is viewed as a background operator to maintain
genetic diversity in the population" (S.N.Sivanandam and S.N.Deepa, 2008).
Consider the situation shown in figure (4-20.a) and see that a candidate
chromosome passes through a high cost field.

Figure (4-20) The Search Performance of the Two Mutation Operators of

SM and GPM

95
 In case of S as shown in figure ( -20.b), suppose that point is
selected randomly to mutate and the resulting new position of the gene is .
The fitness of the resulting offspring is worse than their parents and dies off
before emerging in to the next generation. But with GPM as shown in figure
(4-20.c) a set of points are affected by the mutation method and provides
chances to avoid high cost or no go zones within the search space. This may
lead to producing offspring better than their parents.

Table (4-6) Different sets of parameters for PMR tests

Scenario N Psize CrO_Type MM IMR% PMR% Corridor Width (M)

S1 43 36 RMPCrO – 8P SM 10 3 1600
S2 43 36 RMPCrO – 8P SM 10 5 1600
S3 - - - SM - 10 -
S4 - - - SM - 15 -
S5 - - - SM - 20 -
S6 - - - SM - 25 -
S7 - - - SM - 30 -
S8 - - - GPM - 3 -
S9 - - - GPM - 5 -
S10 - - - GPM - 10 -
S11 - - - GPM - 15 -
S12 - - - GPM - 20 -
S13 - - - GPM - 25 -
S14 - - - GPM - 30 -
S15 - - - GPM - 35 -
S16 - - - GPM - 40 -
S17 - - - GPM - 45 -
S18 - - - GPM - 50 -
S19 - - - GPM - 55 -

96
 As with crossover test, the behavior of the search is tested with a
population size of 36 just to bring into view the sensitivity of how the point
mutation rate corresponds the development process. For this purpose,
nineteen scenarios are designed for this sensitivity analysis and the test
parameters are set as in Table (4-6).
From the test results, when Psize=36 it can be seen that the solutions
are affected by the mutation type and point mutation rate (figure 4-21 to 4-
25).With SPM the results show that the increase of PMR reduces the chance
of obtaining better solution Figure (4-23). This is besides that the qualities of
the solutions are deteriorated as in figure (4-21). Therefore, selecting one
point (PMR=3%) at most is considered a better option for SM mutation. On
the other hand, with GPM the results show that the behavior of the model is
more stable with the use of PMR from %15 to %55, see Figure (4-23) and the
solution convergence for most of the scenarios (except scenario 8&9) showed
little variation beyond generation 150. Studies suggest that lower mutation
probabilities may help not to deteriorate the search process and let the other
operators perform the exploitation of the whole identified search space (Eva
Volna, 2013). Therefore, the result of this study suggests PMR as (%15-%25)
for GPM.

415000
Fitness Value,(Unit Cost)

365000
SPM=3
315000 SPM=5
265000 SPM=10

215000 SPM=15
SPM=20
165000
SPM=25
115000
0 50 100 150 200 SPM=30

Generation Number

Figure (4-21) Best fitness obtained from SPM

97
 200000
GPM=3
190000
Fitness Value,(Unit Cost) GPM=5

180000 GPM=10

GPM=15
170000
GPM=20
160000
GPM=25
150000 GPM=30

140000 GPM=35

GPM=40
130000
GPM=45
120000
GPM=50

110000 GPM=55

100000
0 50 100 150 200
Generation Number

Figure (4-22) Best fitness obtained from GPM

10 Number of solutions with fitness within less than 90% of the most optimum solution
9
No of good solutions/10 test run

9 Number of solutions with fitness within (90%-95%) of the most optimum solution
8
8 Number of solutions with fitness within (95%-100%) of the most optimum solution
7 7 7 7 7 7
7
6 6 6 6
6
5 5 5 55 5
5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4
3 33 3 3 3 3
3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1 11 1 1 1 1 1
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0

Different test parameter

Figure (4-23) The effect of the rate of SPM and GPM on the search
performance

98
Figure (4-24) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters
defined by S1 (the blue color points refers to the curvature violation
locations)

Figure (4-25) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters

defined by S12 (the blue color points refers to the curvature violation
locations)
99
 4.3.4 Individual Mutation Probability Tests (IMR %)

In this section, different rates for individual selection to undergo

mutation are set in 12 scenarios as shown in table (4-7). During the tests, the
parameters that have been obtained from previous tests are kept fixed, where
as the IMR are made variable. Except population size set to 100 individuals
so that the influence of the different IMR are clear on the alignment output
and are not affected by the abundant of the genetic variety in the pool.
In general the results show that higher IMR enhances the performance
of the search model figure (4-26). In the previous tests we observed that SM
is less efficient than GPM. Therefore, it has been noted that the results with
SM, as in figure (4-27), can give a clearer vision on how IMR affects the
model performance.

Table (4-7) Test parameters of different IMR

Scenario N Psize CrO_Type MM IMR% PMR% Corridor Width
S1 43 100 RMPCrO – 8P SM 5 3 1600
S2 43 100 RMPCrO – 8P SM 10 3 1600
S3 - - - SM 15 3 -
S4 - - - SM 25 3 -
S5 - - - SM 50 3 -
S6 - - - SM 100 3 -
S7 - - - GPM 5 20 -
S8 - - - GPM 10 20 -
S9 - - - GPM 15 20 -
S10 - - - GPM 25 20 -
S11 - - - GPM 50 20 -

S12 - - - GPM 100 20 -

100
 less than 90 within 90% - 95% within 95% - 100%

12

10 10 10 10
10
9
8
8

6
6
5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4
4
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
IMP=5 IMP=10 IMP=15 IMP=25 IMP=50 IMP=100 IMP=5 IMP=10 IMP=15 IMP=25 IMP=50 IMP=100
SPM GPM

Figure (4-26) The effect of different IMR on the model performance using
SM and GPM (Psize=100)
SPM Psize=100 GPM Psize=100 SPM Psize=2000 GPM Psize=2000

150000

140000
Best Fitness Value(Unit Cost)

130000

120000

110000

100000

90000
IMP=5 IMP=10 IMP=15 IMP=25 IMP=50 IMP=100
Individual Mutation Probablity Rate

Figure (4-27) The effect of IMR on the best fitness value using GPM and SM
at generation 200

101
 (Al Hadad, 2011) stated that using high IMP contradicts with the theory
of GA, which suggested low mutation probability. So as to concur the
application of GA with the theory AL-Hadad suggested using higher
population sizes than increasing the rate of the selected individuals to undergo
mutation. Therefore, the results are bias of using the population size 2000 as
found with the earlier tests of this study. It can be noted that the fitness results
of both mutation types(SM &GPM) have little variations with population size
2000. The results of IMR tests suggest using %5 to %15.

Figure (4-28) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters

defined by S1 (blue color refers to curvature violation locations)

102
 Figure (4-29) Optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters
defined by S9 (blue color refers to curvature violation locations)

Table (4-8) below summaries the parameter values that have been
found so far, which hold promises for an efficient search model to find a
global or near global 2D horizontal highway alignment solution.

Table (4-8) Summary of the tuned parameters for a „good‟ 2D alignment

solution without constraint

Psize N CrO_Type MM IMP PMR

2000 43 RMPCrO-8P GPM 5%-%15 %15-%25
2000 43 RMPCrO-8P SM 5%-%15 %3(one point)

The alignment solution with the Station Point approach and with the
use of the parameters above is piecewise linear trajectory with sharp bends
and do not match the standard specification for a safe and driving conditions.
The solution must obey the geometric design criteria imposed on horizontal
highway alignment development. Such a solution requires handling the
103
problem with due consideration to the requirements and the constraints that
limits the violation of optimum solution being found. The following section
tries to highlight how the limits of the geometric design criteria are handled

4.4 Horizontal Alignment Curvature as a Constraint:

The aim of this section is to produce a smooth and realistic 2D highway
alignment."The key idea of this method is to repair (before the detailed
evaluation) any candidate alignment whose violations of applicable
constraints (here minimum radius) can be fixed with reasonable
modifications, but discard that alignment (by using a penalty method) and
avoid the detailed evaluation procedure if its violations of constraints are too
severe to repair" (Kang, 2008).Therefore horizontal curvature needed to be
observed and analyzed.
The input parameters and design criteria for the tests of this section are
listed in the Tables (4-9), (4-10), and (4-11). Description of the horizontal
alignment characteristics and output results for start repair and penalty are
listed in table (4-12) and (4-13). The fitness function of this test includes the
penalty costs whenever the horizontal curvature is violated. This is besides
the length and location dependent cost (equation 4.1).

Table (4-9) The base parameters for 2D highway alignment solution

Generation Psize N CrO-Type MM IMP PMR Corridor

width
1000 2000 43 RMPCrO-8P GPM 15% 20% 1600m

104
 Table (4-10) The design parameter values of the test scenarios
Chord length according to chord definition for degree of the curve 30.5 m
Minimum radius for horizontal curvature 150 m
UHPC 1000 unit cost
Length dependent cost 10 unit cost

Table (4-11) The parameters of the different test scenarios

Start generation number (g) for applying repair and
Test scenarios G penalize techniques for Horizontal Curvatures

S1:Repaire and panelize 1000 0 50 100 300 500 700

Table (4-12) Description of the horizontal alignment characteristics

No VHC Number of station points where horizontal curvatures are violated
Total Horizontal Curvature Measurement along the horizontal alignment
THC (degree).
HCI Horizontal Curvature Index: Is the ratio of the total horizontal
Maximum curvature value and its position. The position is the station point
Max_C_P Location where the maximum curvature occurs.
AHC Allowable Horizontal Curvature (degree).
TAOVHC Total Amount Of Violated Horizontal Curvature (degree).

Figure (4-30) shows how starts generation number to apply R&P

techniques affects the alignment curvature violation. It can be seen that the
degree of curvature violation increases fromR&P@100 to R&P@700,to about
50 degree. The search is deteriorated after the application of R&P at
generation 100and over. This explains that best solution is achieved with
parameters R&P@0 to R&P@100.

105
 60 56.127
48.76

Total Amount Of Violated Horizontal

50

40
Curvature (degree).
30
17.63
20

10
0 0
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-10
Generation Number (G) to Start Apply Repair and Penalise Techniques for
Horizontal Curvatures

Figure (4-30) The effect of start generation number to apply Repair & penalty
techniques

less than 90 within 90% - 95% within 95% - 100%

10 9 9
9 8 8
8
7 6
6
5 4 4
4 3
3 2 2
2 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
0
Start R&P at=0 Start R&P Start R&P Start R&P Start R&P Start R&P
at=50 at=100 at=300 at=500 at=700

Figure (4-31) The effect of different parameters on the stableness of the

solutions Obtained from 10 test runs

Total horizontal curvature (THC) is an indication for the winding

degree of the horizontal alignment. The THC of a straight line connecting two
termini points is equal to zero. The higher the THC value, the more winding
and curved sections along the alignment. THC of the alternative alignments
differentiates among the smoother and more curved alternatives. As a result
106
the smoother alignment with smaller THC value poses smaller curvature cost
on the alternatives, thus better solution is achieved.

Table (4-13) The results for horizontal alignment characteristics

Start R&P 0 50 100 300 500 700
No VHC 0 0 0 3 5 5
THC 475.543 475.543 475.54 477.07 466.62 478.482
Max_C_P 0 0 0 20 @p=15 29.7 @p=24 31.38 @p=15
AHC 11.67 11.67 11.67 11.67 11.67 11.67
TAOVHC 0 0 0 17.63 56.127 63.41
length 9642.45 9641.78 9643.59 9643.905 9635.8 9634

Figures (4-32) graphically shows the best results produced from

R&P@100. The alignment‟s fitness of the presented solution is 105911unit
cost. This solution is chosen based on the characteristics shown in Table (4-
9).

Figure (4-32) The optimum horizontal alignment obtained from parameters

R&P@100

107
Figure (4-33) The optimum horizontal highway alignment without constraint
consideration (the blue color points refers to the curvature violation locations)

Figure (4-34) Output curvature report for optimum 2D Highway alignment

without constraint consideration

108
 4.5 The Model Validation:
The model is validated throughout the comparison of a search result
using the model which was developed by AL-Hadad (2011) and the proposed
model of this research study. The same parameters and criteria are used as
input to both models to perform the search. The study area is the same as the
one that was introduced in chapter three of this study (see Figure 3-8).The test
parameters are as in Table (4-14).

Table (4-14) The input parameters of the two models

Al-Hadad’s Al-Hadad’s Al-Hadad’s
Proposed Model(GA-
Parameters Model Model Model
GIS)
First option Second option Third option
Generation 1000 1000 1000 1000
Population size 2000 2000 4000 3000
Number of Station Point 44 44 60 60
MM GPM GPM GPM GPM
PMP 20% 20% %20 %15
IMP 15% 15% %15 %10
CrO-Type RMPCrO-8P RMPCrO-8P RMPCrO-8P RMPCrO-8P
Whole Study Whole Study Whole Study
Search space Corridor width=1600 m
Area Area Area
Chord length according to
chord definition for degree of 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5
the curve
Minimum radius for
150 m 150 m 150 150
horizontal curvature
Length dependent cost 10 unit cost 10 unit cost 10 unit cost 10 unit cost
UHPC=Unit Horizontal
1000 unit cost 1000 unit cost 1000 unit cost 10 unit cost
Penalty Cost
Random
Ranking Ranking Ranking
Select method Selection

Repair and panelize 100 100 30

The validation tests and comparisons were made based on 10 test runs
for each model and for each input parameter case. The search was performed
109
with due consideration to the alignment output with and without curvature
constraints. Table (4-15) shows the output results where no curvature
constraints are handled and the alignment results are piecewise linear
trajectories with sharp bends (see Figures (4-35), (4-36) and (4-37). From the
alignment results it can be seen that the optimum solutions have common
locations and the search model of this research study could develop a solution
that is only 0.6% and 0.34% fitter in the total cost and the alignment length
respectively. This proves that the developed model of this study is powerful
and valid.

Table (4-15) Outputs record for both models at without constraint condition

Without Constraint
Proposed model(GA- Al-Hadad model First Al-Hadad model Al-Hadad model Third
GIS) option second option option

Best Best Best Best

Fitness Fitness Fitness Fitness
value(unit alignment value(unit alignment value(uni alignment value(uni alignment
cost) length(m) cost) length(m) t cost) length(m) t cost) length(m)
106822.1 9711.047 107531.48 9775.33 107482.3 9771.12 106951.9 9722.9

The models were also tested and compared for horizontal curvature
handlings as one of the most important criterion for horizontal highway
alignment safety and driving comfort. The results are tabulated in Table (4-
16). Despite that the search model of this research study has produced an
optimum feasible alignment solution with little more total cost, AL-Hadad‟s
model has recorded 10 and 1.0 horizontal violation loci when 44 and 60
station points are used respectively.

110
 Table (4-16) Outputs record for both models with constraint condition
Proposed Model Al-Hadad Model Al-Hadad Model
(GA-GIS) First option Third option
Fitness value(unit cost) 108845.9 366737.54 107545.85
Length of alignment(m) 9895.075 9765.38 9769.07
Total violate curvature(degree) 0 8.61
Total horizontal
curvature(degree) 333.43 330.409 345.159

Number of point that violate 0 10 1

To compare the configurations of the best solutions found by both

models, the optimal horizontal for both models are plotted in figure (4-35) to
figure (4-39) It can be seen that the best alignments found by both models are
very similar, for constraint and without constraint condition.

Figure (4-35) Output proposed model at without constraint condition (blue

color refers to violate curvature at that point), 44 station points

111
Figure (4-36) The alignment solution obtained by Al-Hadad‟s model without
constraint condition, 44 station points

Figure (4-37) The alignment solution obtained by Al-Hadad‟s model without

constraint condition, third option (60 station points)

112
Figure (4-38) Output result of this research study with constraint condition,
44 station points

Figure (4-39) Output the alignment solution obtained by Al-Hadad‟s model

with constraint condition, third option (60station points)

113
4.6 Real World Application Tests:
A real GIS map was extracted to test the applicability of the proposed
model (GA-GIS). The test was based on the fitness equation 4.1 with which
one case study were investigated. The tests were designed to make sure that
the search model can handle real world problems. Figure (4-40) shows the
digitized cost map. The input parameters of the (GA-GIS) models as same in
table (4-14) except number of station point equal to 51 points. The optimized
alignment obtained at the 1000th generation is shown in Figure (4-41). It is
notable that the optimized alignment is able to avoid expensive properties.

The optimized alignment obtained at the 1000th generation (Figure 4-

41) has smooth curves that satisfy the AASHTO minimum radius
requirements for safe movement of traffic at the specified design speed. It
also avoids high cost areas. The total optimized alignment length is 11755.88
meter.

The maximum number of generations is set at 1000 and population size

equal to 2000. The number of alternatives that produce in this process equal
to 2 million alternatives (generation number (1000) multiple by population
size (2000)) and the computation times for this process are about 2.30 hours.
A Core i3CPU computer with 6.00 GB of random access memory (RAM) is
used to run the proposed model.

114
Figure (4-40) Cost map of the study region with optimum path

Figure (4-41) Optimized alignment at the 1000th generation

115
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION and RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion:
Highway alignment development is a complex combinatorial
optimization problem. The planners, through a repetitive process, evaluate a
number of alternative solutions until coming up with the best alternative.
Planners/designers must select an economical alignment based on social,
economic, design, aesthetic, and environmental factors. This path must also
satisfy a set of design constraints and operational requirements.
The purpose of highway development models is to assist highway
planners and designers in evaluating a number of alignment alternatives
between any two end points. Selection of the best alignment is a very difficult
problem because there are infinite possible alternatives available to connect
the termini points in the defined search space.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) approaches allow designers to
easily identify suitable corridor location. Among the available GIS-based
techniques, least cost path (LCP) is particularly useful to this purpose. LCP
allows the user to find the “cheapest” path between two fixed points over a
cost or friction surface. The cost surface is represented by a raster map in
which each cell is given a cost that defines how “expensive” it is to pass
through that cell.
The analysis and the results of this research study show that using GIS
is very essential in horizontal highway alignment development problems and
therefore the following conclusions are drawn:

1. GIS can be used to represent areas of interest for highway alignment

problems.

116
2. GIS has capability and flexibility to represent study areas as search
spaces using different accuracy. This is represented by the grid cell
sizes.
3. GIS can be used to represent different land uses and special referencing
is one of the important features for object and location data
representation.
4. GIS is an efficient tool to formulate mathematical models for best path
determination between any two pre-defined termini points.
5. Information and data of point locations, land areas, land costs … etc
can easily be obtained using GIS.
6. Customized cost functions can be formulated with which the best path
is determined.
7. This research study has successfully depicted a path between two
termini points. This path describes that the best alignment, as per the
formulated cost function/fitness function, is located within an area
around the path. This is considered true when the cost function for the
GIS-path determination is the same as the objective of the highway
alignment development process. The difference between the path and
the alignment is that the path possesses no curvature requirements for
safe and comfort driving conditions as required by the geometric design
standards. This criterion is search and configured using the GA model.
8. The GIS model is capable to convert the path to point coordinate data.
9. The GIS is capable to narrow down the search space for the GA based
model for the horizontal highway alignment development. This is done
by defining a buffer width around the path. The buffered zone is then
so called buffered search corridor. This corridor is created so that the
global optimum horizontal highway alignment is developed.
10. The GIS model and the corridor search space increased the capability
and the efficiency of the GA search model through focusing on the
117
 horizontal highway alignment configuration within a less possible
search area rather than searching the whole study area.
11. The GA search model performed better than the previously developed
model for highway alignment development. The GA focused on less
search areas (corridor space) and consequently less processing time.
The study area out of the corridor space is overlooked.
12. The GA and the GIS models were integrated and data exchanges were
performed in real time. The GA was generating new point location data
and successfully transferring the data to the GIS model so that land
areas and costs are calculated and sending back to the GA model for
candidates‟ fitness calculation.
13. The GA-GIS model was able to deal with Right of Ways (RoW) and
avoid locations or land uses with respect to the defined RoW. This
means that the edge of the RoW is at the edge of the land use where the
alignment must avoid passing it through.
14.The GA-GIS model is capable to produce highway alignment solutions
as close as the solutions developed by Al-Hadad‟s model (2011) in less
time even with using less station points. Moreover, the fitness was still
better with no curvature violation at any station point location along the
alignment. This proves that the GA-GIS approach of this research study
is valid and more efficient.

5.2 Recommendation:

The application of geographic information system in the road alignment

is still in the development stage. More studies are recommended for using the
GIS least cost path (LCP) tools in route planning. It is essential to extend the
study to include vertical highway alignment so that the search is to develop a
3D highway alignment rather than 2D. It is also important to optimize the
horizontal and the vertical highway alignments simultaneously. Moreover,
118
GIS must be utilized to establish a road network definition so that a more
sustainable road network is optimized rather than a single alignment between
only two points.
More cost components can be tested and formulated and their effect on the
final alignment solution is determined. Components like soil type condition,
access costs, maintenance costs, environmental costs, user cost a … etc are
examples of such components.

119
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O‟Flaherty, C.A., (1991). Highways, Edward Arnold, Volume 2, UK.

Parker, N.A., (1977). Rural Highway Route Corridor Selection,

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Randy L. Haupt and Sue Ellen Haupt. (2004) Practical Genetic

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Robert Nash Parker and Emily K. Asencio, a (2009) GIS and Spatial
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Srirama, B., Bhatt, M.., Pathan, S.K., 2001. Least Cost Highway
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125
 APPENDIX A
Installation and windows form of the Module (GA-GIS)

First, visual studio software should be installed to the computer and for the
versions later than 2012; and then Arc GIS 10.2.2 must be installed. The following
presentations show the model interfaces form windows with the most input
options. They also illustrate how a test run was prepared using the developed
model interface options.

Figure (A-1) location of the (GA-GIS) tool in the ArcMap 10.2.2

A1
Figure (A-2) load (GA-GIS) Model in to ArcMap 10.2.2

Figure (A-3) the data input main interface

A2
 Figure (A-4) the data input window for horizontal curvature

Figure (A-5) optimum path and Point shape file that produces from least cost path

A3
Figure (A-6) highway alignment at gen 60 (land feature map) blue color refers that
curvature violate at that point.

Figure (A-7) Horizontal curvature report output

A4
 ‫ثوختة‬

‫ثسؤضةى ثةزةثيَدانى زيَسةوى زيَطاوباى لة زووى ئةنداشيازيى يةوة ثسؤضةيةكى ئالؤشو دوبازةو بة يةدةزدانى‬
‫كاتة‪.‬لةم ثسؤضةيةدا ئةنداشيازاى خويَهدنةوة بة غيَوةيةكى فساواى بؤ كازيطةزية يةوة جؤزةكاى و ذوازةيةكى‬
‫شؤزى جيَطسةوة دةكةى‪.‬بة جؤزيَك كةوا بيَويطتة زيَسةويَك دةضتهيػاى بكسيَت لة ضةز بهضيهةى تؤثؤطساف‬
‫وخاك و كازيطةزى ذيهطةى وةك بيظ بونى يةواو ذاوةذاوةى دةنط و ثةيوةندية كؤوةاليةتى يةكاى‪.‬‬

‫باوتسيو زيَطا بؤ دزوضت كسدنى زيَسةوةكاى بة غيَوةيةكى طػتى لة ضةند شجنرية يةنطاويَك بيَك ديَت‬
‫وةك‪,‬دةضت ثيَكسدى لة ناوضةيةكى فساواى ثاغاى بضوك كسدنةوةى بو ضةند زيَسةويَكى غياوى بضوكرت كة لة‬
‫كؤتايى دا تيػك دةخسيَتة ضةز ئاوادةكسدى و دزوضت كسدنى زيَطاكة بؤ ئةو زيَسةوةى كة دةضت نيػاى‬
‫كساوة‪.‬‬

‫ضيطتةوى شانيازى جوطسافى لة تواناى داية بة ئاضانى طؤزاوةكانى وةك تؤثؤطسافى‪,‬ذيهطة‪,‬دزوضتكسدنى‬

‫ناوضة‪ ,‬جيولؤجى بطسيَتة خؤ (ووديَن بكة)‪ .‬ضيطتةوى شانيازى جوطسافى تواناى دزوضت كسدى و يةك‬
‫خطتهى نةخػةكاى و جىَ بةجىَ كسدنى غيكازى تايبةت لة ضةز يةوة ضةغهةى شانيازى ضيهة جياواشةكانى‬
‫دوو دووزى و ضىَ دووزى يةية‪.‬شياد لة وةش‪,‬دؤشيهةوةى باغرتيو زيَسةو لة ضةز بهضيهةى شانيازى توزى‬
‫غيَوة ضوازطؤغةيى لة باوتسيو بة كازييَهانى ضيطتةوى شانيازى جوطسافية‪.‬يةزضةندة ئةم زيَطايةش تةواوى‬
‫بيَداويطتيةكانى ثالنى دزوضت كسدنى زيَطاوباى دةضتةبةزناكات‪.‬جونكة زيَطاى دةضت كةوتوو بة‬
‫بةكازييَهانى ضيطتةوى شانيازى جوطسافى لة ضةند ييَميَكى بةغكساوى شةبس بيَك ديَت‪.‬كة لة زاضتى دا ئةوة‬
‫زيَسةويَكة نةك دزوضت كسدنى زيَطايةكى ئةنداشةيى كةوا دةضتة بةزى ضةالوةتى غؤفيَس بكات‪.‬‬

‫لةم تويَريهةوةيةدا‪,‬ثةزة بة دزوضتكسدنى وؤديَميَك دزاوة كة لة تواناى دا يةية باغرتيو زيَطاى ئاضؤى لة‬
‫زيَسةويَكى ثيَهاضةكساو بدوشيَتةوة‪.‬كةوا ضيطتةوى شانيازى جوطسافى وةك ئاوساشيَكى يازيدةدةز بؤ دةضت‬
‫نيػانكسدنى باغرتيو زيَسةو بةكازياتوة‪,‬بة جؤزيَك كةوا لة يةك ثازضةى زوبةزى ثيَهاضةكساو باغرتيو ييَمى‬
‫ناوةزاضتى زيَسةوةكة بدؤشيتةوة‪,‬ثاغاى خوازشوى بؤواوةيى ئةم زيَسةوة وةك ناوضةى ثػكهني بؤ دؤشيهةوةى‬
‫باغرتيو زيَطاى ئاضؤى بةكازدةييَهيَت ‪.‬ووديَمى دزوضتكساو خاىل ئيصطةيى بؤ غيَوةى زيَطاى ئاضؤى‬
‫بةكازدةييَهيَت لة جياتى زيَطا باوةكاى‪.‬‬
‫زوونكسدنةوةى دةزئةجناوى غيكازى كازيطةزى وؤديَمى دزوضتكساو بؤ دؤشيهةوةى باغرتيو زيَطاى ئاضؤى‬
‫لة ناوضة تةواو ئالؤشةكاى لة طةه دةضتةبةزكسدنى شانيازى تةواو بؤ باغرتيو زيَطاى دةضتكةوتوو‬
‫دةزخطتوة‪.‬ئةجناوى ئةم تويَريهةوةية كازيطةزى دوشيهةوةى غياوتسيو زيَطاى ضةزةتاى بة بةكازييَهانى‬
‫ضيطتةوى شانيازى جوطسافى زونكسدؤتةوة‪.‬‬
 ‫خوازشوى بؤواوةيى)‪(GA‬‬

‫لةضةز بهضيهةى ضيطتةوى شانيازى جوطسافى )‪ (GIS‬بؤ ثسؤضةى‬

‫ثةزةثيَدانى زيَسةوى زيَطاوباى‬

‫تيَصيَكة‬

‫ثيَػكةغى ئةجنووةنى كؤليَرى ئةنداشيازى كساوة لة شانكؤي ثؤليتةكهيكى‬

‫يةوليَس وةكو بةغيَك لة ثيَداويطتيةكانى بةدةضت ييَهانى ثمةى واضتةز‬

‫لة ئةنداشيازى زيَطاوباى‬

‫لةاليةى‬

‫وزيا يادى نادز‬

‫بةكالؤزيؤع لة ئةنداشيازى غازضتاى_شانكؤى ضالح ديو‬

‫بةضةزثةزغتيازى‬

‫د‪.‬بؤتاى جميد ئةمحةد حداد‬

‫حوشةيساى‪7102-‬‬