The Gordon Approach: Music Learning Theory

Wendy Valerio, Ph.D.

Music Learning Theory, researched and developed by Edwin Gordon from the mid 1950’s to present, is a set of
ideas about how humans learn music through audiation. By breathing, moving, rhythm chanting, singing, and
playing instruments we develop audiation skills that allow us to give meaning to the combinations of rhythm
patterns and tonal patterns that make music a unique form of human communication. Moreover, audiation may be
expressed in a variety of ways that may be developed sequentially from before birth through adulthood (Gordon,
2007a; Gordon, 2007b; 2007d). Through audiation, we discover music learning as a never-ending, ever deepening
process for music expression and enjoyment. Following is an overview of key Music Learning Theory components.
This overview is not intended as an in-depth description. For in-depth study information please visit
http://www.GIML.org and http://www.sc.edu/library/music/spec_coll.html. (For further background, refer to
infomration at the end of this article.)"

Philosophy
Gordon bases Music Learning Theory on his extensive research in music aptitude, the potential each human has for
music achievement (Gordon, 1965/1995, 1979, 1982, 1989a, 1989b). Music aptitude and music achievement are
different, but are closely intertwined. Whereas music aptitude is the possibility for music achievement, music
achievement is the realization of that possibility. According to Gordon, we are each born with music aptitude. As
with other human learning potentials, there is a wide range of music aptitude levels distributed among the human
population. Moreover, both music aptitude and music achievement are dependent on audiation. That is, our music
learning potentials and our music learning achievements are based on our music thinking. Most importantly, that
music thinking goes beyond mere imitation and leads to music comprehension (Gordon 2007b; 2007d).

Through his research Gordon (2007b; 2007d) has determined that music aptitude is developmental, fluctuating from
birth through approximately age 9, and stabilized thereafter. The interplay between the music aptitude we receive at
birth and the music environments we experience during the first few years of life begins to account for the variety of
individual music differences teachers observe among students in their music classrooms. Teachers may use Gordon’s
music aptitude tests (Gordon, 1965/1995, 1979, 1982, 1989a, 1989b) to identify each student’s music aptitude and to
adapt music instruction to address each student’s individual music strengths and weaknesses.

Ideally, during the first years of life, before music aptitude stabilizes we each receive rich, sequential informal music
guidance followed by formal music instruction that allows our music potentials to stabilize as high as possible, and
sets the stage for music achievement. Gordon (2003, 2007a, 2007b, 2007d) explains that through informal music
guidance and initial formal music instruction we develop music vocabularies. Gordon likens the development of
music vocabularies to initial language vocabulary development.

Music and Language: Parallels and Differences

Think about how a child learns a native language by developing five vocabularies: listening, speaking, thinking,
reading, and writing. In utero, the typically developing fetus begins building a listening vocabulary by perceiving
and reacting to sounds. When out of the womb, the infant continues to deepen and expand the listening vocabulary
as adults and children speak to the infant and to each other in the infant’s presence. The breadth and depth of the
infant’s listening vocabulary depends on the breadth and depth of language in the environment. The combination of
heard language variety and repeated language exposure allows the infant’s listening vocabulary to expand and
become the foundation for all other language vocabularies (Gordon, 2007a, 2007b).

As the infant hears the sounds of language spoken in context and syntax, the infant begins to make vocalizations. At
first, adults and children in the infant’s environment may interpret those vocalizations as random noises. But with
continually increasing expectancy that the infant wants to and will communicate using language, adults and children
who try to communicate with the infant, interpret those vocalizations as intentional language babble, language
approximations, language imitation, and language improvisation through conversation (Reynolds, Long, Valerio, in
press). As the infant becomes a toddler, preschooler, and school-aged child, he uses language interactions with others
to develop a thinking vocabulary, while continuing to absorb listening vocabulary, to expand the speaking
vocabulary, and to develop language reading and writing language vocabularies (Gordon 2007a. 2007b). By
experiencing and making language meaning through listening and speaking, the child gives meaning to notated
language when reading and writing.

Gordon (2007a, 2007b, 2007d) posits that the types of music vocabularies a child develops are similar to those
developed in language. In music, however, a child audiates music, rather than thinks language, to develop those
vocabularies. As a result the five music vocabularies are listening, performing, audiating/improvising, reading, and
writing. Before birth, a child begins to develop a listening vocabulary of music in the environment. When out of the
womb, the infant continues to deepen and expand the music listening vocabulary as adults and children sing and
chant to the infant and to each other in the presence of the infant. The more repeated and varied music the infant
hears, the deeper and richer the music listening vocabulary may become, and the greater is the foundation for all
other music vocabularies (Gordon 2007a. 2007b, 2007d).

As the infant hears the sounds of music performed in music context and syntax by adults and children, the infant
begins to make vocalizations. At first, adults and children in the infant’s environment may interpret those
vocalizations as random noises. But with continually increasing expectancy, adults and children who try to
communicate musically with the infant interpret those vocalizations as intentional music babble, music
approximations, music imitation, that leads to music improvisation and music conversation (Reynolds, Long,
Valerio, in press). As the infant becomes a toddler, preschooler, and school-aged child, he may use music
interactions with others to develop an audiation/improvisation vocabulary, while continuing to absorb a music
listening vocabulary, to expand the music performing vocabulary, and to develop music reading and music writing
vocabularies. By experiencing and making music meaning through listening and performing, the child gives
meaning to music notation when reading and writing (Gordon 2007a. 2007b, 2007d).

Preparatory Audiation and Audiation

Though children not may be born audiating, they are born ready to audiate. Ideally, the adults and peers in children’s
environments nurture their audiation, music aptitudes, and music achievement, from at least birth (Gordon, 2003,
2007a, 2007b, 2007d; Reynolds, Long, and Valerio, in press). Similar to language learning, as adults and peers guide
children’s language learning through interactions (Bruner, 1983; Vygotsky, 1978), children are dependent on those
adults and peers to guide their music learning through music interactions. Initial music learning, like initial language
learning, is informal, yet sequential. Gordon (2003; 2007b, 2007d) theorizes that there are three types and seven
stages of preparatory audiation hough which children progress as they are guided on the path to audiation. The types
and stages of preparatory audiation are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary Outline of the Types and Stages of Preparatory Audiation. Adapted from Learning Sequences in
Music (Gordon, 2007b, p. 256).

1. ABSORPTION - Each child hears and aurally collects the

sounds of music in the environment.
ACCULTURATION
2. RANDOM RESPONSE - Each child moves and babbles
From birth to age 2-4, each child engages with
in response to, but without relation to, the sounds of music
little consciousness of the environment.
in the environment.
3. PURPOSEFUL RESPONSE - Each child tries to relate
movement and babble to the sounds of music in the
environment.

IMITATION 4. SHEDDING EGOCENTRICITY - Each child recognizes

From ages 2-4, each child engages with
conscious thought focused primarily on the
environment.
that his or her movements and babbling do not match the
sounds of music in the environment.
5. BREAKING THE CODE - Each child imitates tonal
patterns and rhythm patterns and other sounds in the
environment with some precision.
 6. INTROSPECTION - Each child recognizes his or her
ASSIMILATION
lack of coordination between singing and breathing and
From ages 3-5 to ages 4-6, each child engages
between chanting and movement, including breathing.
with conscious thought focused primarily on
7. COORDINATION - Each child coordinates his singing
himself or herself.
and chanting with breathing and moving.

Valerio, Reynolds, Taggart, Bolton, and Gordon (1998) describe informal music and movement
activities that adults may use to guide children in the types and stages of preparatory audiation.
As with initial informal language learning, initial informal music learning takes place most
naturally in child-centered, playful environments where music is a verb to be experienced
through sound, body and multiple human interactions (Reynolds, Long, Valerio, in press). When
children are progressing through the types and stages of preparatory audiation, they engage in
tonal and rhythm music babble and music interactions. Through those interactions, adults and
peers help children shape their music babble into objective music syntax. As a result, what may
seem to be the meaningless or random vocalizations and movements from infants, become
recognizable rhythm chants and songs due to the music interactions children encounter with
adults and peers as they progress through the types and stages of preparatory audation. If guided,
but not rushed children will typically exit the types and stages of preparatory audiation as they
begin coordinating their singing and chanting with their breathing and moving at approximately
age 6 or 7.

Types and Stages of Audiation

As children develop their audiation skills, they may engage in music imitation as they learn
rhythm chants, songs, rhythm patterns, and tonal patterns, but they also engage in music
comprehension as they compare the music they are hearing or performing to music they have
heard or music they are predicting they will hear. Gordon (2007b) states, audiation is, “hearing
and comprehending in one’s mind the sound of music that is not, or may never have been,
physically present. It is not imitation or memorization,” (p. 399). That is, audiation is music
thinking, and music thinking may be expressed in several ways that may involve, but go beyond,
mere imitation.

When audiating, children and adults may engage in eight audiation types and six audiation
stages. Whereas the stages of audiation are sequential, the types of audiation are not. The types
and stages of audiation are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.

Table 2. Types of Audiation (Gordon, 2007b, p. 15).

Type 1 listening to familiar or unfamiliar music
Type 2 reading familiar or unfamiliar music
Type 3 writing familiar or unfamiliar music from dictation
familiar music from memory
Type 4 recalling and performing

Type 5 recalling and writing familiar music from memory

Type 6 creating and improvising unfamiliar music while performing or in
 silence
Type 7 creating and improvising unfamiliar music while reading
Type 8 creating and improvising unfamiliar music while writing

Table 3. Stages of Audiation (Gordon, 2007b, p. 20).

Stage 1 momentary retention
imitating and audiating tonal patterns and rhythm patterns and recognizing and identifying a
Stage 2
tonal center and macrobeats
Stage 3 establishing objective or subjective tonality and meter
Stage 4 retaining in audiation tonal patterns and rhythm patterns that have been organized
Stage 5 recalling tonal patterns and rhythm patterns organized and audiated in other pieces of music
Stage 6 anticipating and predicting tonal patterns and rhythm patterns

Music educators who use Music Learning Theory to inform their understanding of how humans
learn when they learn music realize that the types of audiation are the bases for audiation
expression and may be used the bases for music assessment. When students express what they
are audiating, that expression can be measured as a type or types of audiation with varying
degrees of music achievement. The challenge for the music teacher is to combine her knowledge
of audiation with appropriate, sequential activities that promote the development of the types of
audiation.

Music Learning Sequences

Gordon (2007b, 2007d) recommends using several learning sequences for optimal formal music
instruction. Those learning sequences are: music skill learning sequence, tonal learning
sequence, rhythm learning sequence, and pattern learning sequence. Through music skill learning
sequence students learn to discriminate among tonal patterns and rhythm patterns through
imitation. As they do so, they gain the readiness for inferential music thinking. Gordon outlines
discrimination learning and inference learning in Table 4.

Table 4. Skill Learning Sequence. Adapted from Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary
Music Learning Theory (Gordon, 2007b, p. 101).

DISCRIMINATION LEARNING INFERENCE LEARNING

Aural/Oral Generalization
Aural/Oral - Verbal - Symbolic
Reading - Writing
Verbal Association

Partial Synthesis Creativity/Improvisation

Aural/Oral - Symbolic
Reading - Writing
Symbolic Association
Reading - Writing
 Theoretical Understanding
Composite Synthesis Aural/Oral - Verbal - Symbolic
Reading - Writing Reading - Writing

For tonal audiation development, skill learning sequence must be combined sequentially tonal
content and tonal patterns. For rhythm audiation development, skill learning sequence must be
combined sequentially with rhythm content rhythm patterns. Gordon prescribes specific and
separate sequences for tonal content and rhythm content learning. Within each type of
development, however, patterns of sound, not individual pitches or durations, are the focus. By
audiating patterns of sound, students comprehend music context and syntax. Through the
interaction of music skill learning sequence, tonal learning sequence, rhythm learning sequence,
and pattern learning sequence students give meaning to music as they engage in the types and
stages of audiation.

According to Gordon (2007b, 2007d) learning sequence activities are the essential tools for tonal
audiation development and rhythm audiation development. As outlined in the tonal and rhythm
register books that accompany, Jump Right In, The Music Curriculum, Reference Handbook for
Using Learning Sequence Activities (Gordon, 2001) and in Jump Right In, The Instrumental
Curriculum, Band, Strings, and Recorder (Grunow, Gordon, Azzara, Martin, 1999-2002),
teachers who use Music Learning Theory should engage their students in tonal pattern or rhythm
pattern instruction during 5-10 minutes of each class period. As they do so, they will take their
students through an audiation skill learning sequence involving a continual, sequential interplay
between imitation learning and inference learning, and introducing sound-before-symbol as
suggested by Pestalozzi, Dalcroze, Kodály, Orff, and Suzuki. As they proceed through learning
sequence activities, students gain skills in major, harmonic minor, Dorian, and Mixolydian
tonalities, and duple, triple, combined, and unusual meters.

Classroom Activities
As might be expected, learning sequence activities need to be coordinated with classroom
activities where students are introduced to tonalities and meters, as well as other music elements.
Classroom activities may be of any type, including those from Dalcroze, Kodály, Orff
Schulwerk, and Suzuki traditions, which allow teachers to introduce students to a variety of
tonalities and meters.

With all classroom activities, some general considerations are necessary for students to reap the
benefits of audiation. First, for understanding and internalizing meter, tempo, and rhythm,
continuous movement activities, rather than beat-keeping activities, are most beneficial. Many
continuous movement activities that emphasize the use of flow, weight, space, and time may be
found in Jump Right In, The Early Childhood Music Curriculum, Music Play (Valerio, et al.
1998), Guiding Early Childhood Music Development: A Moving Experience (Reynolds, 2005),
Jump Right In, The Music Curriculum, Teacher Editions, Book 1(2000), Book 2(2001), Book
3(2004), Book 4 (2006), and Buffalo: Music Learning Theory/Resolutions and Beyond (Gordon,
2006a). By participating in such activities over time, students become adept at fluently
measuring the space and time in and between beats in the music they are listening to or
performing. Second, proper vocal technique is necessary for the expression of tonal audiation.
For all children, therefore, proper use of head voice must be emphasized, especially for tonal
audiation development. Third, teachers must not assume that students will automatically
demonstrate proper breathing and posture. Above all, the teacher must model proper breathing,
posture, and singing. Proper breathing and posture will enhance students’ singing voice use and
audiation.

Teachers and students who engage in sequential audiation development through learning
sequence activities and classroom activities find themselves eager to participate in music
improvisation as a natural outgrowth of their music thinking interactions with each other.
Through music improvisation, they own their music thoughts, express their music individuality,
and deepen their music understanding and enjoyment. For those purposes, Gordon’s (2003)
Improvisation in the Music Classroom and Developing Musicianship through Audation (Azzara
and Grunow, 2006) are useful resources.

Combining Learning Sequence Activities and Classroom Activities:

Whole-Part-Whole
To combine learning sequence activities and classroom activities, a three-stage,whole-part-whole
process is used so that students 1) experience music holistically, 2) examine the parts through
tonal patterns and rhythm patterns, and 3) experience music holistically again with increased
understanding and comprehension (Bolton, et al., 2000, 2001; Taggart, et al., 2004, 2006). When
combining learning sequence activities and classroom activities, tonalities and meters are
introduced in classroom activities, tonal patterns and rhythm patterns are examined and practiced
with regard to skills learning sequence in learning sequence activities, and tonalities and meters
are experienced again in classroom activities. The three-stage, whole-part-whole process,
adapted from Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum (Bolton et al., 2000, 2001; Taggart, et al.,
2004, 2006) is outlined in Table 5.

Table 5. Whole-Part-Whole Learning Process. Adapted from Jump Right In: The Music
Curriculum (Bolton et al., 2000, 2001; Taggart, et al., 2004, 2006).

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

WHOLE PART WHOLE
Experience the Whole with Increased
Experience the Whole Study the Parts
Understanding and Comprehension
LEARNING SEQEUNCE
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
(Skill Learning Sequence)
Singing Discrimination Inference Singing
(Students (Students
Imitate) Infer) Chanting
Chanting
Aural/Oral Generalization Moving and Dancing
Moving and Dancing Aural/Oral
Verbal Playing Games
Playing Games Association Generalization
Verbal Play Parties
Partial
Play Parties Synthesis Creativity/ Instrument Performance
 Reading & Improvisation
Instrument Performance Writing Creativity and Improvising
Generalization
Symbolic Symbolic Reading and Writing Music
Creativity and Improvising Association
Theoretical
Reading and Writing Music Composite Understanding
Synthesis
Reading &
Writing

Solfege
When using Music Learning Theory tenets to help students learn music, Gordon (2007b, 2007d)
recommends using two types of solfege: tonal solfege and rhythm solfege. Each type is used to
assist students as they compare, categorize, and classify tonal patterns and rhythm patterns,
respectively, while using their audiation skills.

Because comparisons between tonalities are basic to tonal audiation development, Gordon
recommends using movable-“do” tonal syllables with a “la”-based minor, “re”-based Dorian,
“mi”-based Phrygian, “fa”-based Lydian, “sol”-based Mixolydian, and “ti”-based Locrian. This
tonal system allows students to recognize and audiate the characteristic patterns of each tonality
without prematurely resorting to notation and theoretical understanding.

When students audiate rhythm, they compare rhythm patterns and meters, not individual
durations. For that reason, Gordon recommends using rhythm solfege based on beat functions,
rather than note values. The macrobeat and microbeat rhythm solfege used in learning sequence
activities is outlined in Table 6.

Table 6. Macrobeat and Microbeat Rhythm Solfege Based on Beat Functions. Adapted from
Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum (Bolton et al., 2000, 2001; Taggart, et al., 2004, 2006),

Meter Macrobeat Microbeats

Usual Duple DU DU DE
Usual Triple DU DU DA DI
DU DA DI, DU DE or
Usual Combined DU
DU DE, DU DA DI
DU BE DU BA BI or
Unusual Paired DU
DU BA BI DU BE
DU BE DU BE DU BA BI or
DU BE DU BA BI DU BE
Unusual Unpaired DU
or
DU BA BI DU BE DU BE

Theory, Method, Techniques and The Gordon Approach

According to Gordon (2007b), “The Gordon Approach” must not be confused with Music
Learning Theory, method, or technique. Music Learning Theory is not a method, nor is it a set of
techniques, but teachers and curriculum administrators may use Music Learning Theory to
develop their own music education methods, techniques, and curriculums grounded in audiation
development.

Methods and techniques are unique to each teacher. Though teachers may align themselves with
one or more music education approaches, they must, in the end, define their music education
practices individually. “The Gordon Approach”, therefore, is unique to Gordon himself. Teachers
who use Gordon’s Music Learning Theory must examine and develop their music education
practices and lead their students to independent musicianship through audiation. As they do so
they refine their music teaching and learning methods while using developmentally appropriate
techniques.

Summary
Each human has the potential to learn music through audiation. Ideally, informal music guidance
and audiation development begin as early in life as possible. Teachers who practice Music
Learning Theory must be aware that students, regardless of age, need guidance through the types
and stages of preparatory audiation before they are ready for formal music instruction based on
skill learning sequence, tonal learning sequence, rhythm learning sequence, and pattern learning
sequences. As children exit the types and stages of preparatory audiation and begin to function in
tonalities and meters, school music instruction may be approached as a period of developing
music listening, performing, and audiation/improvisation vocabularies through movement,
rhythm, speech, singing, and percussion instrument activities as children progress that lead to
meaningful music reading and writing.

When using Music Learning Theory, teachers assist children in becoming independent musicians
through audiation. Audiation is music thinking. When children audiate, they do more than
remember pitches, intervals, durations, or rhythms. They think tonal patterns and rhythm patterns
in the contexts of tonalities and meters, respectively. Through a whole-part-whole learning
process, children develop movement, rhythm, and tonal vocabularies as they are guided through
sequential audiation processes of music imitation, generalization, creativity, improvisation,
reading, writing, and composition through learning sequence activities and classroom activities
(Gordon, 2007b, 2007d). Throughout music skill development based on the tenets of Music
Learning Theory, the focus is music learning processes, rather than music products.

Background
After playing tuba and string bass in the Army, playing string bass with the Gene Krupa Band,
earning a bachelor’s and master’s degrees in string bass performance from the Eastman School
of Music, and earning a second master’s degree in from the Ohio University College of
Education, Edwin E. Gordon accepted a fellowship at the University of Iowa. When first arriving
in Iowa, Gordon taught music, early childhood through grade 12, in The University Laboratory
Schools while completing graduate studies and teaching undergraduate music methods courses at
the University of Iowa during the 1950s. While doing so he became extremely interested in how
humans learn when they learn music. For 16 years at Iowa, first as a doctoral student, and then as
a professor, Gordon investigated music learning processes and developed the Musical Aptitude
Profile (Gordon, 1965/1995), the Iowa Tests of Music Literacy (1971/1991), and The Psychology
of Music Teaching (1971), where he first introduced Music Learning Theory (Gordon, 2006,
2007b, 2007c, 2007d).

From 1972-79 Gordon (2007b) taught and conducted research at the State University of New
York in Buffalo. During that time he continued his investigations of music learning processes
and developed Learning Sequence and Patterns in Music (1976), the Primary Measures of Music
Audiation (1979) and the Intermediate Measures of Music Aptitude (1982).

After leaving SUNY-Buffalo, Gordon (2006b) became director of the doctoral program at
Temple Unviersity in Philadelphia, PA where he held the Carl E. Seashore Chair for Research in
Music Education from 1979-1997. While in that position Gordon continued his objective study
of music aptitude, publishing the Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (1989), and Designing
Objective Research in Music Education (1986). He also extended his interests in early childhood
music development, publishing A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children
(1990/2003) and Audie (1989).

Gordon currently collaborates with several authors who develop the practical application of
Music Learning Theory for a variety of music education settings from early childhood, Jump
right in: The early childhood music curriculum: Music play (Valerio, et al., 1998), through
elementary classroom, Jump Right In, The Music Curriculum (Bolton, et al. 2000, 2001; Taggart
et al, 2000, 2006) and instrumental, Jump Right In, The Instrumental Curriculum, Band, Strings,
and Recorder (Grunow, Gordon, Azzara, Martin, 1999-2002). Though retired, Gordon maintains
a rigorous international lecture schedule and continues to publish, most recently releasing,
Discovering Music from the Inside Out: An Autobiography (2006), Awakening Newborns,
Children, and Adults to the World of Audiation (2007a) and Learning Sequences in Music: A
Contemporary Music Learning Theory (2007b, 2007d).

For Further Information

Persons who are interested in more information about Music Learning Theory may visit
http://www.GIML.org, a website maintained by the Gordon Institute of Music Learning (GIML),
a professional organization that
is dedicated to advancing the research in music education pioneered by Edwin E. Gordon. The purpose of
the Gordon Institute for Music Learning is to advance music understanding through audiation. We
believe in the music potential of each individual, and we support an interactive learning community with
opportunities for musical and professional development. (http://www.giml.org/aboutgiml.php).

The website contains information about Gordon’s lecture schedule, workshops, conferences, resources, publications,
and GIML certification. GIML certification is available for early childhood (levels 1 and 2), elementary general
(levels 1 and 2), and instrumental.

The Edwin E. Gordon Archive is located in the Special Collections of the Music Library at the University of South
Carolina at the following website:
(http://www.sc.edu/library/music/gordon.html/). The collection maintains copies of most of Gordon’s publications,
dissertations he advised, and recordings of his lectures and seminars.