CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
The geotechnical engineers for tall earth dams sometimes come across with
problem such as excessive settlement after construction. Although it is a timely
process with slow straining, but it still brings problem, for instance crack on
earth dams which can cause damage and in more extreme cases, it can trigger
disaster. The root of this problem is the soil particles break because down
below the structure, the confining pressure is very high and it can be up to 70
MPa (Yamamuro and Lade, 1996). This phenomenon is closely related to
creep behavior and particle breakage is the cause of creep.

This research focused on particle breakage on granular soils. Granular soils can
be found in natural slope, foundation base and embankments. It is subjected to
static and dynamics loads and the loads can cause particle breakage. Particle
breakage is a phenomenon where the soil particles transform to finer state due
to slippage, dilation and creep. It is an important parameter in soil mechanics
as it can affect the permeability behavior especially under the earth dams.
Moreover, particle breakage can affect the stress-strain curve and this is the
main focus in this study. The behavior of stress-strain curve is no more typical
if particle breakage commence. It is still not well understood. The most
important effect of particle breakage is it maybe reduces the soil strength.
Hence it is vital to understand this behavior; therefore it can enhance the
knowledge on the effect of particle breakage to the stress-strain curve.

1
 The particle breakage problem is modeled on laboratory via triaxial test. The
test is conducted on compacted sands in order to replicate the possible soil
condition below the earth dams. The consolidated isotropically drained (CID)
triaxial test is used in this study. The specimens are made up of quartz sand
with diameter 600µm, 1.18mm and 2 mm. The applied effective stresses are
50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa. Sieve analysis is conducted
before and after the test in order to observe the particle breakage. During
shearing stage, microphone is installed at the cell body to record the breakage
sound. The data is analyzed based on the particle size distribution, breakage
indicator (sound recorded), stress-strain curve, volume change during shearing
stage and the shape of shear strength failure envelope in Mohr circle due to
effect of breakage.

1.2 Problem Statement

There is not much research has been conducted in order to understand the
effect of breakage to the stress-strain curve. The effect of particle breakage
during shearing in triaxial test has a direct effect on the resultant stress-strain
curve. This effect is still less understood since the deviator stress still
continuously increase with shear strain when high confining pressure is
applied. Moreover, it influences the Mohr circle in the way that the resultant
shear strength failure envelope curve is less steep compared with Mohr circle
without effect of particle breakage. The decrease in friction angle will cause
decrease in strength too. Hence, it is essential to conduct a study on the effect
of particle breakage on the stress-strain behavior which will in turn affect the
shear strength behaviour. This research is intended to study on how particle
breakage affects the shear strength of soil. Hence, this research will enhance
the understanding on the effect of breakage on the stress-strain curve that may
be related to the settlement and creep behavior.

2
1.3 Objectives
The aim of this research is to study on how particle breakage affects the shear
strength behaviour. The specific objectives of the research are
1. To conduct CID triaxial tests on course grained soils at low (< 300 kPa)
and high (> 300 kPa) confining pressures.
2. To determine the shape of the shear strength envelope in effect of
particle breakage.
3. To justify particle breakage through particle size distribution curve
before and after triaxial test.
4. To detect particle breakage using Sony Sound Forge software.

1.4 Scope of Work

This research is based on laboratory test. The test is conducted at Advance Soil
Mechanics Laboratory, UiTM Shah Alam. The scope of work is given in
Figure 1.1. The research starts with problem formulation in order to find out
the problem statement and objectives of the research. The literature review,
methodology, data gathering, data analysis, discussion and conclusion are the
body of the report.

3
 PROBLEM FORMULATION
Problem statement

LITERATURE REVIEW

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Triaxial test
Breakage sound recording
Dry sieve analysis

DATA GATHERING

DATA ANALYSIS

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Figure 1.1: The Scope of Work

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The study on particle breakage of soil is so significant in understanding
geotechnical problems, such as dilatancy and creep of soil. The particle
breakage or known as grain crushing is always related to the granular type of
soil. The particle arrangement in granular material is vulnerable to particle
breakage if high confining pressure is imposed on the soil. Research also found
out that the particle breakage is common in all sands (Coop, 1999). It is
because particle breakage can happen due to the angularity, coarseness and
uniformity of gradation (Bohac et.al, 2001). The granular material has these
properties; hence it is exposed to the particle breakage phenomenon compared
to clay soil. In describing the phenomenon of particle breakage, there are two
important terms governing the principle of particle breakage. There are
dilatancy and creep.

2.2 Dilatancy
Dilatancy is defined as the expansion of specimen due to the particles that
move over to each other during shearing. Dilatancy is an important term in
understanding particle breakage. The term dilatancy was coined out by
Reynolds in year 1885. He said that in the process of plastic deformation, the
dense granular material will increase their volume and dilate. But for loose
material, there will be decreased the volume in the plastic deformation process.
This can be described as the specimen will ‘enlarge’ due to the void that
appeared between the soil particles. The effect will be obvious in the stress
strain curve. When the sand specimen is loaded in the triaxial test, the

5
specimen will increase the volume because of increasing volume of void
between the sand particles. It is explained by Oda et.al (1998) and Descrues
et.al (1996) that there is particle rotation and it increases the volume of void. It
resulted from the process of particle rearrangement including rolling and
translation (Wan and Guo, 2004). The process of dilatancy is illustrated in
Figure 2.1. When the sand specimen is undergoing shearing process in triaxial
test, the soil particles will rearrange themselves to denser state. The void in the
specimen is reduced. At this point, the particles only fill the void, but when
dilation happened in dense sand, the soil particles will roll over to each other. It
cause greater strength must be reached before the sand particles rearranged
back to stable state. This is where the peak strength is achieved in the stress-
strain curve that cause by shearing. The degree of dilation is higher just before
the peak strength. The strength is reduced after the peak strength because the
sand particles are compressed until shear stress become constant. Figure 2.2
shows the stress-strain curve for loose and dense sand. The different between
dense and loose sand specimen are the arrangement of the sand particles, hence
they will exhibit different behavior. For dense sand, there is an obvious peak
strength point, whereas for loose sand, the peak strength is not clear. This is
because when the specimen is loaded, the loose sand will shrink. It does not
experience dilation process. Therefore, the peak strength achieved by these two
soil condition is different. Dense sand will produce higher peak strength due to
resistance provided by dilation. The behavior of dense and loose sand also will
be different as different stress level is imposed to the soil. High stress level will
diminish the dilatancy effect. Particle breakage will take place in this plastic
deformation process. Particle breakage is a unique mechanism of deformation
instead of simple slip. It cause reduction in angle of friction and also affects the
shear strength of soil (Simonini, 1996).

6
 Loose sand Dense sand

Axial load

Dense sand DILATION

Axial load

Figure 2.1: The Process of Dilation

7
Deviator
stress, Δσd Dense sand

Loose sand

Axial strain, ε a

High rate
of dilation
region

Figure 2.2: The Stress-strain Curve for Loose and Dense Sand

In the stress-strain, the dilatancy is denoted by the peak point of the curve.
However, for the test that involved high confining pressure, there is continuous
increase of shear strain. There are some researches encounter this problem, but
particle breakage is not proved yet to be the cause of the continuous increase of
shear strain. Hence, this study will prove the particle breakage by recording the
sound produce when soil particles break.

8
2.3 Creep
Creep is again a reduction in volume under constant stress. When soils
experiencing constant state of load or stress, the soil continuously deform and
move. It is known as viscous creep behavior. Creep can cause failure if three
stages of deformations took place. They are sequential primary, secondary and
tertiary periods. However, soil is rarely experiencing secondary period. The
strain rate of soil is either decrease continuously after first loading is applied or
increase at the onset of failure. It is term as creep rupture (Kuhn and Mitchell,
1993).

Creep gives a long term effect to the soil and structures. It cause long term
deformation and pressure on the building structures, bridge abutments, earth
retaining structures and earth slope. If excessive deformation with time occurs,
then it can cause failure (Lade and Liu, 1998). From previous researches
conducted, it can be seen that all soils creep, but the amount of creep is
different depending on the type of soil (Lade and Liu, 1998). According to
Muruyama et.al (1984) and Lade et.al (1997), sands creep less than clays at the
same stress states. The amount of creep increases with confining pressure, most
importantly when particle breakage happened at high stresses (Yamamuro and
Lade, 1993).

Nowadays, creep can be accounted by laboratory test, field test or using Finite
Element Method. However, it is more reliable to conduct field test because the
test is more representative of the actual creep behavior. But there is no specific
apparatus to measure the rate of creep in field. There were some attempts, for
instance, Baguelin et.al (1978), Ladanyi and Johnston (1973), Kjartanson et. al
(1990) and Bahar and Cambou (1995) have quantified creep in field by using
pressuremeter. Bahar and Cambou (1995) have conducted pressuremeter test
and the data is compared with computer program generated by Finite Element
Method. Figure 2.3 shows the comparison between predicted creep settlement

9
 and in-situ measurement for building (Bahar and Cambou, 1995). From the
result obtained, there was only a slight agreement between field data and
prediction from Finite Element Method. However, at least it is still a useful
tool to predict creep behavior.

Figure 2.3: The Comparison between Predicted Creep Settlement and In-situ
Measurement for Building (Bahar and Cambou, 1995)

2.4 The Particle Size Distribution

The particle size distribution is carried out before and after triaxial test. The increase
in the percentage of finer particle after the test will indicate that the particle breakage
occur during the test. This is a suitable measurement to justify the particle breakage
(Hardin, 1985). Figure 2.4 shows the example of particle size distribution graph for
specimen that experience particle breakage (Feda, 1971).

10
Figure 2.4: The Example of Particle Size Distribution Graph For Specimen That
Experience Particle Breakage (Feda, 1971)

From Figure 2.4, it can be seen that the curve 1 represented the particle size
distribution before particle breakage occur while curve 2 is the particle size
distribution after particle breakage occur. The different of these curves is that
the particle size distribution on curve 2 is less steep compared to curve 1. It
indicates that the finer particles are produced in the particle breakage process.

2.5 Factor Affecting Particle Breakage

Particle breakage is affected by several factors. There are the effect of the
stress, size, angularity, grade and hardness of granular material (Lade et.al,
1996). Factor affecting particle breakage is tabulated in Table 2.1.

11
 Table 2.1: Factor Affecting Particle Breakage
Stress level Higher stress level produce more breakage

Size Stress
1 Breakage decreases with time under constant
Stress magnitude
stress magnitude (known as creep)
Larger size Larger particle produce more breakage
2
Smaller size Smaller particle produce less breakage
Hardness Grade Angularity

More angularity More angularity sand produce more breakage

3
Less angularity Less angularity sand produce less breakage

Well graded Well graded not break easily

4
Uniform Uniform graded breaks easily

5 Hardness increase, rate of breakage will decrease

The particle breakage is affected by the stress level and magnitude. The higher
stress level will cause more breakage as more energy is transmitted through the
sand particles. Particle breakage is a function of time. The breakage is
continuing under constant stress but in decreasing rate. It is also known as
creep. The varying particle size produce different amount of breakage. Larger
particle will break easily compared to smaller particle. This is due to the
existence of flaws or defects that might be the cause of breakage in large sand
particle. The smaller particles are the result of the breakage, hence it has fewer
defects. So the smaller particle become tougher as breakage continues for
subdivided particles.

In term of angularity, the angular particle will break easily compared to the less
angular particle. It is because the concentrated stress will occur along their
narrow dimension and at the angular contact. It cause fractured to the particle.
Another factor is the grade of the soil. The uniform soils will break easily than
well graded soils. It is because the relative density of uniform soils is lower
than well graded soils. In well graded soils, there is more contact between

12
 particles, hence the average contact stress will lesser. The uniform soils are
more vulnerable to breakage because it has less contact; hence the average
contact stress is higher. In term of hardness, the harder the sand particle, the
lesser breakage will be experienced by the sand particle. The hardness will
exhibit how strong the particle will be due to stress (Lade et.al, 1996).

The particle breakage is also affected by the condition of soil whether it is in

loose or dense state. The loose sand exhibits higher breakage than dense sand.
It is due to the slippage of the sand. The particle of loose sands is unstable and
slippage can occur easily, hence produce more breakage (Lade and Liu, 1998).
Another factor is the test condition. The undrained and drained condition also
affected breakage. Drained test is observed to produce more particle breakage.
This is because the undrained shearing stage will maintain the void ratio and
the volume. Therefore, there is not much room for the particle to dilate and
break. On high pressure test, the undrained test produces less breakage too
compared to drained test. This is due to the fact that the average mean normal
effective stress is lower in the undrained test. It is because of the development
of large positive pore pressure, therefore the normal effective stress will be
lower (Lade et.al, 1996).

A study conducted by Ramil and Miura (2004) shows that there is effect on
particle breakage due to the degree of saturation. The study is done on volcanic
soils that composed of sand. The particle breakage is more dominant in wet
sand. However, the result seems to be different to other types of sand,
especially quartz sand. It is because the physical properties of volcanic soils are
different as water can enervates volcanic soils and this cause the sand particles
to break easily.

2.6 The Effect of Particle Breakage

13
 The effect of the particle breakage according to Billam (1971) includes the
principle effective stress ratio at failure decreases with the increasing confining
pressure. Moreover, there is a large volume reduction especially during shear.
It causes the increase in axial strain to reach failure. Also, the particle breakage
will result finer particle, hence reduce permeability. The grain distribution after
particle breakage will show a mix of fine and medium sized soil particles. An
important point highlighted by Billam (1971) is the larger grains experience
less breakage compared to the finer soil particles, even at high pressure.
According to the study done by Indraratna and Salim (2002), the particle
breakage also happened in low confining stresses especially to the courser
grain. It is because fewer contact between soil particle cause high interparticle
stresses and asperity breakage.

Particle breakage was understood to stop after stable grading is achieved

(Baharom and Stallebrass, 1998). However, a study done by Luzzani and Coop
(2002) revealed that particle breakage will only stop as a result of
counteracting components of volumetric strain and not because stable grading
is achieved. This conclusion is made as the test conducted by Luzzani and
Coop (2002) used ring shear tests that able to reach higher stress level than one
did by Baharom and Stallebrass (1998) who used triaxial test. But it is still not
justify whether particle breakage will stop after stable grading is achieved as
the ring shear tests unable to reach to that extent. However, Hardin (1985)
suggested that particle breakage will only stop when stable grading and
volumetric strain ceased. The improvement work was made then by Coop et. al
(2004) to reach higher level stress in order to achieve stable grading. The
conclusion pointed out by Coop et. al (2004) is at high pressure, particle
breakage continues to very large strain. The particle breakage is accompanied
by volumetric compression. A constant grading is achieved at very large strain
but it is dependent on normal stress applied and uniformity and absolute
particle size of the initial grading.
2.7 The Past Researches on Particle Breakage

14
The study on particle breakage was started since 1920. Blackwelder (1920)
conducted compression test on deeply buried oil-field sand. He concluded that
particle breakage is not significant even at stresses much higher than 7MPa.
Terzaghi (1925) said particle breakage not occurs in natural sand and no
engineering problems encountered such high stresses. However, in the extreme
technology engineering nowadays, everything is possible. The engineering
applications demanded research on particle breakage as it is important to solve
problems such as settlement of tall earth dams, which involved pressure as high
as 70MPa (Yamamuro and Lade, 1996).

Particle breakage indices have been introduced by Marshal (1967), Lee and
Farhoomand (1967) and Hardin (1985) to quantify amount of breakage. These
indices are emphirical and depend on the changes of particle sizes. The
important of the researches are to solve permeability of sand under tall earth
dam. Moreover, the small particles resulted from the breakage will clog in the
filter material, hence it demanded for researches on quantification of the
particle breakage. Research on particle breakage have been conducted by
Harireche and McDowell (2003) to prove that plastic hardening under
monotonic loading is due to particle breakage. The research examines the
discrete element modeling of cyclic loading on aggregate.

The researches on particle breakage are closely related to creep of soil. In fact,
creep is cause by particle breakage. The researches mainly intended to
formulate the equation for creep. Findings showed that creep strain is
proportional to the logarithm of time [McDowell and Khan (2003); Lade and
Liu (1998); Atkinson (1993); Powrie (1997)]. It is given by:

ε = C log t/to …. (2.1)

15
 where to is the time of measurement begin. Kuhn and Mitchell (1993) proved
that creep behavior is also cause by viscous and frictional particle sliding. The
work is conducted via rate process theory. These researches on creep
implemented one dimensional normal compression test.

The investigation on pile tips also takes into account the effect of particle
breakage to the pile settlement. The test were carried out by BCP Committee
(1971) and Mazzucato and Ricceri (1986). The study by Simonini (1996) has
incorporated Finite Element Method to analyze the problem related to particle
breakage on the pile tips. The research can help in prediction of strength,
dilatancy and particle breakage in the soil surrounding the pile base.

2.8 The Effect of Particle Breakage on the Stress-Strain Curve

The effect of particle breakage to the stress-strain curve is significant as it will
affect the strength of soil. The stress-strain curve is observed to be in different
state for the test conducted for low and high stresses. The test on low stresses
exhibit peak strength for dense sand and a constant state without peak strength
for loose sand. The test involve high stresses demonstrate the behavior as loose
sand even the sample is prepared in dense state. It is because the effect of
dilation is diminished as high stress is imposed on sample.

16
Figure 2.5: The Effect of Particle Breakage on the Stress Strain Curve
(Bohac, 2001)

Figure 2.5 shows the effect of particle breakage on the stress strain curve. The
graph represented dimensionless shear stress versus displacement. The result is
taken from oedometer test conducted on granular soil. From the graph, it can
be seen that the soil experiencing failures at the same shear stress. However,
the displacements are varied because of the different values of normal stress.
There is the increase of displacement value with the increase of normal stress.
It is expected that the specimen is having particle breakage stage after high
confining pressure is applied. The effect of breakage will give effect to the
value of displacement as the soil particles structure changed after the soil
particles break into smaller grain. The constant-volume state can be seen in the
test. It is a result of counteracting dilative strains from particle rearrangement
and compressive strains from particle breakage (Coop et.al, 2004).

17
According to Simonini (1996), there are significant changes in the stress-strain
curve in triaxial compression due to particle breakage. The sharpness of the
peak-softening behavior diminished and the stress-strain behavior become
strain-hardening type only. That is why the stress will continuously increase at
high stress level. As dilation is vanished because of high stress level, dense
sand also will exhibit the same shape of stress-strain curve as loose sand. The
study conducted by Yamamuro and Lade (1996) has revealed that in high
stress, the stress strain curve will continuously increase without dilation effect.
Moreover, increasing confining pressure will cause initial slopes of the stress-
strain curve to flatten, the maximum principle effective stress ratios decrease,
the amount of volumetric compression increase and axial strain at failure
increase. The flatten section is contributed by particle reorientation and
breakage during loading (Billam, 1971). Figure 2.6 shows the stress-strain
curve at high pressure (Yamamuro and Lade, 1996).

Major principle strain (%)

Figure 2.6: The Stress-Strain Curve at High Pressure

(Yamamuro and Lade, 1996)

18
However, there is not much work have been conducted regarding to the effect
of particle breakage to the stress strain curve. It is important to understand the
effect of particle breakage to the stress strain curve because particle breakage
affected true strength value of the sand (Whitlow, 2001; Ramil and Miura,
2004).

Figure 2.7 shows the consolidation isotropically drained test under applied
pressures. The major stresses acting on specimens are deviator stress (denoted
by force/ ram area), cell pressure and pore water pressure. From the test, the
result is analyzed to produce stress-strain curve and Mohr circle graph. The
calculation of major principle effective stress, σ’1 is given in Equation 2.2.

σ1 ' = ∆σ d + σ 3 − u w …(2.2)

where:-
σ1 = major principle effective stress
Δσd = deviator stress
σ3 = minor principle effective stress
uw = pore water pressure

19
 Deviator stress,
Δσd

Cell
pressure,σ3

Pore water
pressure, uw

Figure 2.7: The Consolidation Isotropically Drained Test under Applied

Pressures

20
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research is based on laboratory test. The tests conducted in this research are
consolidation isotropically drained (CID) triaxial test on quartz sand with different
grain size. The diameter of the specimen is 0.6mm, 1.18mm and 2mm. There are 15
specimen tested. Confining pressure 50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa are
applied on each grain size. The specimen is undergoing dry sieve analysis before and
after the test in order to quantify particle breakage. The particle breakage is also
detected via sound recording during shearing stage. Then the results are analyzed and
the stress-strain curve is plotted. Besides that, the Mohr circle is plotted in order to
identify the strength characteristics. Figure 3.1 shows the methodology of the
research.

21
 METHODOLOGY

Breakage sound
Dry sieve analysis CID test
recording

It is conducted The sound

before and after 15 specimens, 5 recording is
test specimens for conducted via
0.6mm, 1.18mm Sony Sound Forge
and 2mm each. software during
The confining shearing stage
pressure applied
are 50kPa, 100kPa,
200kPa, 300kPa
and 400kPa

DATA ANALYSIS

Particle size Stress-strain curve Breakage indicator

distribution Mohr circles are during shearing
plotted for each stage
specimen

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Figure 3.1: The Methodology of the Research

22
3.1 Specimens
The specimens used in the research are made of quartz sand. Quartz sand is
identified through physical characterization. It has glassy, lusty and grey in
colour. The sand is undergoing sieving process in order to obtain the uniform
size of 600µm, 1.18mm and 2.0mm.Appendix A shows the particle size
distribution of raw samples. The quartz sand is selected because it has better
strength, hence the particle breakage can be easily identified through sieve
analysis. Moreover, the strength of this sand will produce higher frequency of
breakage sound. Hence, it made easier for breakage sound detection. Plate 3.1
shows the specimen for the test.

Plate 3.1: The Specimens for

the Test

3.2 The Consolidated

Isotropically Drained Triaxial
Test
The consolidation isotropically drained test (CID test) is conducted to the
specimens. Plate 3.2 shows the test set up and Figure 3.2 shows the schematic
diagram of consolidation isotropically drained triaxial test (CID test). These

23
specimens are imposed with effective stresses 50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa, 300kPa
and 400kPa. The triaxial test is conducted in accordance with BS 1377 (1990).

Plate 3.2: The Test Set Up

Soil specimen
Deviator stress
∆ σ=q
Specimen volume
change unit

24
Load cell
attached
to ram

Acoustic
sensor
installed on the
cell wall

Filling with de-aired

Pore water pressure
and de-ionised water
measurement

Figure 3.2: The Schematic Diagram of Consolidation Isotropically Drained

Triaxial Test (CID Test)

The consolidation isotropically drained triaxial test (CID test) consists of four
main stages. The first stage is the preparation stage. In this stage, the specimen
is installed on the base. The rubber membrane is stretched to form cylinder
shape by the help of split former. It is important to ensure that there is no
trapped air between the rubber membrane and the split former wall. Then, the
sand is poured in the stretched rubber membrane. The sand is poured in five
layers. Each layer is compacted by using wood compacter and a steel rod. For
the first time of the test, the specimen is taken out for sieving test. It is to
ensure that there is no particle breakage caused by the compacting effort. It is
observed that 10 numbers of blows for each layer not caused breakage to the
sand specimen. The compaction work is conducted in order to exhibit dense
sand specimen. After the specimen is set up, cell body is installed and water is

25
drained into the cell body. Then, the second stage which is saturation takes
place.

The saturation stage is conducted by applying pressures to the specimen. B-

value is checked and a minimum value of 0.97 indicates full saturation. Cell
pressure and back pressure is applied until the required effective stress is
achieved. Then the specimen has undergone consolidation stage. After
sufficient consolidation is achieved, the shear stage commenced at speed 0.03
mm/min. At this stage, the acoustic sensor is installed on the cell wall to record
the sound produced due to particle breakage. After the sheared specimen oven
dried, the dry sieving is conducted to the specimen. It is to indicate that there is
particle breakage occur during shearing stage, besides recording the sound
produce during shearing.

Consolidation isotropically drained triaxial test is selected because many

engineering problems deal with drained condition, such as building, bridge
abutments, earth retaining structure and earth slope (Lade and Liu, 1998).
However, undrained condition can exist in case that permeability of
cohesiveless soil is relatively low in fine sands or silts (Lade and Yamamuro,
1996).

The specimen is prepared to exhibit dense sand. In doing so, the specimen is
carefully compacted in five layers. Precaution is taken while compact the
specimen as particle breakage is prohibited at this stage. To replicate the dense
sand condition, the specimen is compacted using a wood compacter and a steel
rod. Plate 3.3 shows the compaction equipments. Then the specimen is taken
out for dry sieving in order to verify whether there is breakage occur cause by
compacting effort. The test proceeds after no breakage is detected and the 10
number of blows per layer in uniformly applied for other specimens.

26
 Plate 3.3: The Compaction Equipments

3.3 Particle Breakage Sound Detection System

In order to measure the sound produce when breakage commence, acoustic
sensor is placed at the cell body of the triaxial equipment. The acoustic sensor
is connected to the computer and the sound recorded by using Sony Sound
Forge software.

3.4 Dry Sieve Analysis

The specimens undergo dry sieve analysis process before and after the triaxial
test. It is to identify the difference of the particle size distribution before and
after the test. Sieve analysis will be conducted and it is in accordance with BS
1377 (1990). The data is gathered and analyzed. The results justify on the
particle breakage of the specimen after the test.
CHAPTER 4

27
 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Particle Size Distribution

For all specimen tested, all of them experience particle breakage. Before test,
all of the specimens consist of uniform graded sand. Figure 4.1 shows the
particle size distribution for size 600µ m with effective stress 50kPa. Appendix
B-1 shows the particle size distribution for size 600µ m with effective stress
100kPa, 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa respectively, Appendix B-2 show the
particle size distribution for size 1.18mm with effective stress 50kPa, 100kPa,
200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa respectively and Appendix B-3 show the particle
size distribution for size 2mm with effective stress 50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa,
300kPa and 400kPa respectively. The raw data for particle size distribution
after test is given in Appendix C.

28
4.2 Stress-Strain Curve, Volume Change Behavior and Particle Breakage
Indication via Sound Recording
The breakage indicator, stress-strain curve and volume change behaviour
during shearing for size 0.6mm are given in Figure 4.2 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e)

29
with effective stress 50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa respectively.
Figure 4.3 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) show the breakage indicator, stress-strain
curve and volume change behaviour during shearing for size 1.18mm with
effective stress 50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa respectively.
Figure 4.4 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) show the breakage indicator, stress-strain
curve and volume change behaviour during shearing for size 2mm with
effective stress 50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa respectively.
Appendix D shows the deviator stress with membrane penetration correction
while Appendix E shows the specimens after test.

From the results obtained, it can be seen that there is particle breakage occur
before peak strength. This is due to the dilation process in which the angular
sand particles roll to each other to accommodate the load applied. The particles
break into smaller grain during dilation process. The particle breakage
continues after the peak strength until constant stress is achieved. The stress-
strain curve strained under constant stress and particle breakage will continue
and this is a form of creep deformation. This is where the settlement occurs in
slow strain. It is a problem faced in tall earth dam construction in a long run.
Besides settlement problem, it also gives effect on the permeability under the
earth dam. When finer particle produced due to breakage, the permeability
under the dam will be less.

The breakage indicator makes possible to identify the particle breakage

behaviour during shearing stage. The breakage sound recording work is not an
easy task because it required expect who really understand about sound
recording. It involved a lot of preliminary works in order to get the best setting
before the breakage indicator can be presented effectively on paper. In doing
so, there are some specimens which cannot get the best sound recording results.
For instance, specimen with effective stress 50kPa for size 0.6mm has very
little signal to be analyzed because the setting on the software is not really

30
good. However, it still can give breakage indications in certain part of the
stress-strain curve. There is a different problem faced for specimen that
recorded high frequency throughout the test. The breakage indications are not
really clear because of the noise resulted from the triaxial machine. However,
after analysis is made on the sound, it is clear that the breakage sound produced
higher frequency than the triaxial machine sound. So, the particle breakage still
can be observed.

Breakage
indicator

31
 Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

100
90
Deviator stress (kPa)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

14

12

10
Volume change (ml)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.2 (a): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 0.6mm with Effective Stress 50kPa

Breakage
indicator

32
 Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

300

250
Deviator stress (kPa)

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

14

12

10
Volume change (ml)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.2 (b): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 0.6mm with Effective Stress 100kPa

Breakage
indicator

33
 Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

800
700
Deviator stress (kPa)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (%)

14

12

10
Volume change (ml)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.2 (c): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 0.6mm with Effective Stress 200kPa

Breakage
indicator

34
 Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

900
800
Deviator stress (kPa)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (%)

14

12

10
Volume change (ml)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.2 (d): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 0.6mm with Effective Stress 300kPa

35
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

1200

1000
Deviator stress (kPa)

800

600

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

15

10
Volume change (ml)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

-5

-10
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.2 (e): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 0.6mm with Effective Stress 400kPa

36
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

250

200
Deviator stress (kPa)

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

20
18
16
Volume change (ml)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.3 (a): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 1.18mm with Effective Stress 50kPa

37
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

250
Deviator stress (kPa)

200

150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

12.0

10.0
Volume change (ml)

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-2.0
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.3 (b): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 1.18mm with Effective Stress 100kPa

38
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

600

500
Deviator stress (kPa)

400

300

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

14.0

12.0
Volume change (ml)

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
-2.0
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.3 (c): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 1.18mm with Effective Stress 200kPa

39
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

900
800
700
Deviator stress (kPa)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

20
18
16
Volume change (ml)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.3 (d): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 1.18mm with Effective Stress 300kPa

40
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

1400

1200
Deviator stress (kPa)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

10.0

8.0
Volume change (ml)

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2.0
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.3 (e): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 1.18mm with Effective Stress 400kPa

41
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

160
140
Deviator stress (kPa)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

36

31
Volume change (ml)

26

21

16

11

-4 0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.4 (a): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 2mm with Effective Stress 50kPa

42
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

350

300
Deviator stress (kPa)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

16.0

14.0

12.0
Volume change (ml)

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2.0
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.4 (b): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 2mm with Effective Stress 100kPa

43
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

600

500
Deviator stress (kPa)

400

300

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

16.0

14.0

12.0
Volume change (ml)

10.0

8.0
6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
-2.0
Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.4 (c): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 2mm with Effective Stress 200kPa

44
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

900
800
Deviator stress (kPa)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

16.0
14.0
12.0
Volume change (ml)

10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.4 (d): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 2mm with Effective Stress 300kPa

45
 Breakage
indicator

Dev.stress(kPa) vs Axial strain(% )

1600
1400
Deviator stress (kPa)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Axial strain (%)

Vol.change(ml) vs Axial strain (% )

16.0
14.0
12.0
Volume change (ml)

10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Axial strain (%)

Figure 4.4 (e): The Breakage Indicator, Stress-Strain Curve and Volume Change
Behaviour during Shearing for Size 2mm with Effective Stress 400kPa

46
 The stress-strain curve is calculated with membrane penetration correction. The
correction must be done because the actual deviator stress given by the data
logger is based on the initial specimen area, which is 50mm. However, the
deviator stress must be calculated based on the area of specimen before the
shearing stage, which is the area during consolidation stage. During
consolidation stage, the specimen experiences contraction which results
membrane penetration. Hence, correction must be done to the deviator stress.
The sample calculation of corrected deviator stress for size 0.6mm with
effective stress 400kPa is given below.

Deviator Stress Correction Due to Membrane Penetration

Mass of soil = 299.53 kg

Membrane thickness = 0.2 mm

Average diameter of specimen, D0 (ave) = (dtop + dmidheight + dbase) / 3

= (50.3 + 50.4 + 50.45)/3

= 50.4 mm

Initial diameter of specimen, Do = D0 (ave) – (2 x Membrane thickness)

= 50.4 – 0.4

= 50.0 mm

Initial area of specimen, Ao = (π/4)(D02)

= (π/4)(50.02)

= 1963.5 mm2

= 1.9635 x 10-3 m2

47
Initial length of specimen, Lo = 99.9mm

= 0.0999m

Initial volume of specimen, Vo = A0 x L0

= (1.9635 x 10-3) x (0.0999)

= 1.9615 x 10-4 m3

Membrane Penetration Correction

Length of specimen at the end

of consolidation, L end consolidation = L0 – Vertical displacement, ∆L

= 99.9 – 0.016

= 99.884 mm

= 0.09988 m

Initial volume, Vo = (A’end consolidation x L end consolidation) + Volume change

A’ end consolidation = (Initial volume,Vo - Volume change)/ L end consolidation

= [1.9664 x 10-4 – (1.97 x 10-6)] / 0.09988

= 1.949 x 10-3 m2

48
Area Correction, A”

A’ x L end consolidation = h’ x A” ± ΔV

A’ x L end consolidation = (L end consolidation -Δh) x A” ± ΔV

A” = (A’ x L end consolidation ± ΔV)/(h- Δh)

where:-

A” = Area correction

h’ = Height of specimen during shearing stage

Δh = Change in height

ΔV = Volume change during shearing stage

A” = [(1.949 x 10-3 )(0.09988) + (2.91x10-6)] / (0.09988-0.0084)

A” = 2.16 x 10-3 m2

Force, P = A’ x ∆σ

= (1.949 x 10-3 )(1212.6)

= 2.36 kN

Deviator stress corrected, ∆σc = Axial Load/ Corrected area

= P/A’’

= (2.36) / (2.1 x 10-3)

= 1127.02 kN/m2

49
 Hence, from the calculation, it can be seen that the corrected deviator stress
due to membrane penetration is 1127.02kN/m2, which is 85.58kN/m2 lower
than the actual deviator stress. It is approximately 10% reduction from the
actual deviator stress.

4.3 Strength Characteristics

The strength characteristics are gathered from Mohr circle plot. Figure 4.5(a)
shows the Mohr circle plot for sand with size 0.6mm, Figure 4.5(b) shows the
Mohr circle plot for sand with size 1.18mm and Figure 4.5(c) shows the Mohr
circle plot for sand with size 2mm.

For grain size 0.6mm, it can be seen that there are only specimen with effective
stress 300kPa and 400kPa touch the failure envelope. Other specimens are
lying under the failure envelope. The same situation happened for grain size
1.18mm, where only specimen with effective stress 50kPa, 200kPa and 300kPa
touch the failure envelope. For grain size 2mm, all specimens touch the failure
envelope except specimen with effective stress 400kPa. There is an abnormal
result gathered for this specimen, where the deviator stress that forms the Mohr
circle radius is too high. From the graph plotted, the internal friction angle for
size 0.6mm, 1.18mm and 2mm is 30o, 33o and 32o respectively.

50
51
52
53
 CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

5.1 The Significant of Particle Breakage Research

The significant of particle breakage research is that it affected the soil strength.
Although it is considered as not so important because the effect is in a long
term and quite visible, but it is actually an important aspect when it comes to
strength factor. It is a matter of safety as if the strength decrease, it will cause
decrease in safety too. For instance, stability of tall earth dams rely on the
safety of the earth dams to support the hydrostatic pressure. In a long run, there
is possibility of failure if a precise analysis is not conducted on the dams.
Moreover, many of the existing analysis models do not consider the effect of
particle breakage; hence it is important to study this aspect so that the existing
analysis can be improved in the future.

The objective of this research is to study the effect of particle breakage to the
stress-strain curve. The study covers consolidated isotropically drained (CID)
triaxial tests on course grained soils at low (< 300 kPa) and high (> 300 kPa)
confining pressures. The scope of work for this study is to detect particle
breakage using Sony Sound Forge software and through particle size
distribution curve after triaxial test. Furthermore, this research is intended to
determine the shape of the shear strength envelope in effect of particle
breakage. After completing this research, all of the objectives have been
successfully fulfilled.

54
5.2 Particle Breakage Indications
The particle size distribution is conducted to the specimen in order to identify
the particle breakage. It is a mean to quantify finer particles produced after
shearing stage in triaxial test. However, particle size distribution is not a best
solution to identify particle breakage especially in the test which involved very
fine soil. It is because the fine particles produced after shearing can be
diminished due to transportation from triaxial machine to the sample box, then
it will be transferred to the sieving pan. It involved very careful handling and it
is quite impossible to achieve. Hence, a better solution in identifying particle
breakage is by recording the sound produced during shearing stage. It is a way
to identify breakage and a more comprehensive way in order to identify which
part in the shearing stage recorded breakage.

The sound detection is conducted in order to know which part of the stress-
strain curve experience particle breakage. The sound is gathered via
microphone which mounted on the cell body. The microphone is connected to
laptop and the frequency produce in the cell body is recorded by Sony Sound
Forge software. The sound produce in the cell body not solely comprised of
particle breakage sound. There is also noise produce by the triaxial machine.
The noise is detectable since the breakage sound produced higher frequency
than the noise. However, the plain test in conducted in order to record the
machine sound alone. Figure 5.1 shows the sound produce with no specimen.
There is no specimen installed in the cell body. Therefore, it is easier to
distinguish between the particle breakage sound and the machine sound.
Actually it is a challenge to publish sound on the paper. However, the Sony
Sound Forge software made possible to present the breakage sound via
frequency recorded.

55
 Figure 5.1: The Sound Produce without Specimen

From the entire specimen tested, all of them experienced particle breakage. The
amount of finer particle produced is quite small, but it is enough to prove that
breakage happened even for tests which involved low effective stress.
McDowell and Khan (2003) stated that there is limited evidence on particle
breakage during creep. It is difficult to identify breakage due to the fine particle
produced is really small. This research has proved that particle breakage occur
during creep by recording the sound produced when the soil experience
straining under constant stress at the end of the test. However, the sound wave
generated may also due to friction between the sand particles during shearing
process. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a test to determine the intensity of
wave generated due to friction alone.

56
The test of determining the friction frequency is conducted by rubbing sand
particles using fingers. The sound of frictions between sand particles and sound
indication during shearing are given in Figure 5.2. It can be seen that the
frequency produced due to friction is quite small. By comparing friction sound
and the sound produced during shearing process, it can be seen that there are
sounds which exceeded the friction sound. It is suspected breakage sound has
higher frequency than friction sound. So, breakage is still proved to take place
during shearing process.

Friction indicator 1 Friction indicator 2

Friction indicator 3 Sound indication (i.e size 0.6mm;

effective stress 200kPa) `

`Figure 5.2: The Sound of Frictions between Sand Particles and Sound
Indication during Shearing

57
5.3 Particle Breakage during Dilation
Dilation is a process where soil particles roll to each other and cause the
specimen to expand. Particle breakage can be identified at this stage. The
process of dilation can be detected just before the peak strength through the
sound recorded. The dilation process influenced the magnitude of the peak
strength; hence it is an important process to be focused in order to predict the
peak strength.

Dilation process is a boundary to be reached by the soil particles before it

achieved the peak strength. The soil particles have it own grain strength,
whether it is hard or weak. It will break easily if it is a weak particle and has
angular shape. The condition of soil particles arrangement also influences the
particle breakage. The dense sand dilates while the loose sand shrink, hence the
peak strength characteristics between these two soils states are slightly
different. The peak strength can be higher if the sand consists of a hard,
rounded shape and in dense state.

5.4 Particle Breakage and Stress-Strain Behaviour

The stress-strain behaviour of the specimens tested is according to the typical
shape of stress-strain curve. The stress-strain curve is steeped before the peak
strength and it form a concave after peak strength. The shape of the stress-
strain curve is influence by the relative density of the specimen. The denser
state specimens will exhibit dilation while loose state specimens only show
constant straining immediately after the peak strength.

The particle breakage indications can be detected through the sound recorded.
There is also an obvious indication of particle breakage in the stress-strain
curve as the respective axial strain at failure for the specimen with the same
size but with different confining pressure is not coincide on the same axial

58
strain. The particle breakage activity has shifted the peak strength to the right
as confining pressure increase. The explanation for this phenomenon is that
while breakage commence, the soil particles are breakdown to finer state. It
results different shear plane for the specimen, although the specimens
constitute of the same size. The specimen with higher confining pressure
recorded higher degree of particle breakage while those with lower confining
pressure show lower amount of particle breakage. The shear plane with finer
particles will result lower friction angle. This is why in Mohr circle, the shear
strength envelope at failure tends to curve at higher confining pressure. Hence,
from this situation it can be concluded that the shifted axial strain is due to the
different patent of particles structure on the shear plane.

Figure 5.3 (a) shows the deviator stress versus axial strain for size 0.6mm.
From the stress-strain curve, it can be seen that there are some specimens
exhibit loose sand and some are in dense state. The variation is given by the
way of compaction while in preparation stage. The specimen is prepared to
exhibit dense state. However, there are some specimens do not achieved dense
state such as specimens with 50kPa and 100kPa. Other specimens with higher
confining pressure illustrate dense sand. There is obvious peak strength in the
stress-strain curve for these specimens. The specimens dilate before reach the
peak strength.

Figure 5.3 (b) shows the volume change behavior for size 0.6mm. From this
graph, it can be seen that there are dilation process occur on specimen with
effective stress 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa. The dilation process is denoted by
the increase in volume change on the early stage and formed peak strength at
certain axial strain. The dilation process involved expansion of specimen,
which is why the volume increases.

59
 Deviator stress vs axial strain for size 0.6mm

1200

Eff.stress = 50kPa
Eff.stress = 100kPa
Eff.stress = 200kPa
Eff.stress = 300kPa
1000 Eff.stress = 400kPa

800
Deviator stress (kPa)

600

400

200

0
0
Figure 5.3(a): The 5Deviator Stress
10
versus Axial15Strain for Size
20
0.6mm 25
Axial strain (% )

60
 Volume change vs axial strain during shearing for size
0.6mm
16

Eff.stress=50kPa
14
Eff.stress=100kPa
Eff.stress=200kPa
12
Eff.stress=300kPa
10
Eff.stress=400kPa
Vol.change(ml)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

-2

Axial strain (% )
Figure 5.3(b): The Volume Change Behavior for Size 0.6mm

Figure 5.4 (a) shows the stress-strain curve for size 1.18mm. From the graph
plotted, it can be seen that specimen with low confining pressures (50kPa and
100kPa) exhibit loose state sand while specimen with high confining pressures
show dense state sand. It is observed that the specimen with low confining
pressures also dilate but it is not so obvious. The rate of dilation for specimen
with high confining pressures is more obvious because when shearing stage
commence, these specimens are imposed with high confining pressure, hence
the sand particles have higher resistance to dilate. Therefore the peak strength
will be higher and the stress will decrease steeply after the peak strength.

61
 Deviator stress vs axial strain for size 1.18mm

1400

Eff.stress = 50kPa
Eff.stress = 100kPa
Eff.stress = 200kPa
Eff.stress = 300kPa
1200
Eff.stress = 400kPa

1000
Deviator stress (kPa)

800

600

400

200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 5.3 (a): The Stress-Strain Curve for Size 1.18mm
Axial strain (% )

62
 Volume change vs axial strain during shearing for size
1.18mm
20
Eff.stress=50kPa
Eff.stress=100kPa
15 Eff.stress=200kPa
Eff.stress=300kPa
Eff.stress=400kPa
Vol.change(ml)

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

-5

Axial strain (%)

Figure 5.4(b): The Volume Change Behavior for Size 1.18mm

Figure 5.4 (b) shows the volume change behaviour for size 1.18mm. The
specimens with high confining pressure dilated, while the specimens with low
confining pressure shrink. The curve for specimen 100kPa is actually move
towards volume change curve of 200kPa and it is intersecting the curve. That is
why the curve is plotted until axial strain 6% only. It is observed to be an error
that can be due to the volume change unit apparatus. The volume change unit
gathered the volume of water that flowing in and out of the specimen. The
curve for specimen 100kPa is flattening due to the failure of the volume change
unit to record the volume of water going out of the specimen. Actually the
curve must be situated between 200kPa and 50kPa.

63
 Deviator stress vs axial strain for size 0.6mm

1600

Eff.stress = 50kPa
Eff.stress = 100kPa
Eff.stress = 200kPa
1400 Eff.stress = 300kPa
Eff.stress = 400kPa

1200
Deviator stress (kPa)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 5.5(a): The Stress-Strain Curve for Size 2mm
Axial strain (% )

Figure 5.5(a) shows the stress-strain curve for size 2mm while Figure 5.5(b)
illustrates the volume change behaviour for size 2mm. From the result
obtained, almost all of the specimens exhibit dense state sand. Specimen with

64
 confining pressure 50kPa shows low rate of dilation while specimens with high
confining pressures have more obvious peak strength resulted from the dilation
process. Moreover, the peak strength for different effective stress is not
coinciding on the same axial strain. This is due to the effect of particle
breakage. The other grain size sand also experiences this and it is proved that
particle breakage has direct effect on the stress-strain curve. Figure 5.4(b)
shows the volume change behaviour for size 2mm. The specimen with
confining pressure 200kPa, 300kPa and 400kPa show that there is dilation
process happened during shearing. The higher confining pressure results flatter
curve.

Volume change vs axial strain during shearing

25
Eff.stress=50kPa
Eff.stress=100kPa
20
Eff.stress=200kPa
Eff.stress=300kPa
Vol.change(ml)

15 Eff.stress=400kPa

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-5
Axial strain (%)
Figure 5.5(b): The Volume Change Behaviour for Size 2mm

5.5 Particle Breakage Effects on the Shear Strength Failure Envelope

The strength characteristic is given by the friction angle in the Mohr circle. The
internal friction is the resistance to shear stresses which generated by the

65
 interlocking of the soil particles. From the graph plotted, the friction angle for
size 0.6mm, 1.18mm and 2mm is 30o, 33o and 32o respectively.

The shear strength failure envelope is identified to be curved at low effective

stress and form a straight line at higher confining pressure. The curvature of the
shear strength failure envelope is influenced by the relative density of the
specimen. The denser sand results more curvature than the loose sand.
However, there are some Mohr circle do not touch the failure envelope line.
For instance, for size 0.6mm, the Mohr circle for effective stress 50kPa,
100kPa and 300kPa are not touching the failure line due There is also
possibility of the highest effective stress, which is 400kPa results higher
deviator stress. Hence, the Mohr circle is bigger and it gives effect on the
failure envelope. So, the friction angle will be higher due to this situation.

5.6 The Effect of Particle Breakage to Strength

The effect of particle breakage to the strength of soil is still less understood. In
theory, particle breakage resulted higher deviator stress in the stress strain
curve when particle breakage commence. The stress-strain curve will
continuously increase with the increase of axial strain. However, this
phenomenon can only happen in a very dense specimen. It is because when the
specimen is in very dense state, the soil particles will have little room to move.
Dilation is diminished at this point, where the strain-strain curve of very dense
sand tends to exhibit like in loose state. The increase in deviator stress will
only stopped at certain axial strain which is abnormally higher than usual.

The continuous increase in deviator stress cannot be seen in this study. It is

hard to replicate very dense sand state. It involved modification on the
membrane rubber used and also the ability of the pressure pump to supply

66
 enough pressure. Moreover, the packing of soil when in preparation stage can
cause initial particle breakage before the test commence. For this study,
breakage is prohibited during preparation stage because the objective of the
study is to prove that breakage occur during shearing stage. Particle breakage is
proved in the particle size distribution besides sound recording. Hence, initial
breakage can influence the resulted particle size distribution graph.

5.7 Future Development In Soil Mechanics Model By Considering Particle

Breakage Effects
Many of the existing soil mechanics model do not consider the effect of
particle breakage. The effect of particle breakage is significant as it maybe
results lower peak strength. Therefore, the predicted peak strength by existing
model might be higher than the actual results. Hence, it is quite unsafe to use
this predicted result.

The dilatancy and compressibility concept that related to Mohr-Coulomb

friction angle is introduced in soil mechanics by Taylor (1948), Bishop (1954)
and Rowe (1962). This concept which based on energy theory of stress
dilatancy studied the additional strength that can be deduced due to volumetric
dilation. However, the concept does not consider particle breakage. Bolton
(1986) developed dilatancy index, which suggested that there is relationship
between strength and rate of volume change. It is also not considering particle
breakage effect. But one thing can be highlighted here is it is actually not the
volume change govern the strength, but it is the mobilized shear strength that
influence the strength.

67
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The particle breakage is a factor that must be considered in design. It is because

particle breakage has direct effect to the stress-strain curve. Particle breakage occurs
not only in soil with high confining pressure. This study proved that particle
breakage happened even in low confining pressure (i.e. 50kPa).

The particle breakage can be easily detected in stress-strain curve through the peak
strengths that do not coincide on the same axial strain. The shifted axial strain is due
to the different patent of particles structure on the shear plane, which is due to
particle breakage. Higher confining pressure results more breakage, hence the peak
strength tend to shift to the right with increasing confining pressure. Therefore,
particle breakage is the dominant factor that cause failures occur at different axial
strain in the stress-strain curve.

Particle breakage results curvature on the failure envelope in Mohr circle. The failure
envelope is well known to be curved at low pressure, but due to particle breakage,
the failure envelope tends to be curved at high pressure too. The curvature is due to
reorientation of particle when breakage commence.

Particle breakage also influences the strength of soil. In theory, particle breakage
causes the deviator stress to continuously increase. Hence, the strength will increase
if particle breakage commence.

68
The results obtained from the test have proved that particle breakage had occurred
during dilation. This is due to slippage of soil particles to accommodate the applied
load. The dilation process is detected via sound recording during shearing stage.
Particle breakage is more prone to the angular shape sand particles. This research
used quartz sand with angular shape, hence the dilation process has resulted more
breakage.

This study can be improved if the breakage indicator can measure the frequency
produce in real time. Hence, the data can be clearly interpreted for certain important
part on the stress-strain curve that experience particle breakage.

The continuous increase in the stress-strain curve cannot be shown in this study
because the specimen is not dense enough. Hence, it is recommended that the
specimen must be compacted very well and double membrane rubber must be used in
order to avoid leakage.

69
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