CHAPTBR I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Plasma motions in the equatorial F - region

1.1.1 Introdu~tion

1.1.2 Electrical conductivity of the ionosphere

1.1.3 Dynamo theory

1.1.4 Electrodynamic plasma drifts

1.1.5 Neutral wind induced plasma drifts

1.2 Methods of plasma drift measurement

1.2.1 Ionosonde and Phase Path Technique

1.2.2 Incoherent Back scatterTechnique

1.2.3 Radar Interferometry and Ion Cloud Technique

1.2.4 Horizontal plasma drift by Spaced-Receiver Technique

1.3 Equatorial spread - F (ESF)

1.3.1 Observations of ESF

I 1.3.2 Theory of ESF

1.4. Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) and Equatorial Ionosphere

1.5 Magnetospheric substonns and F layer motion

1.6 Scope of the present study

 2

1.1. Plasma motions 1n the equatorial F- region

1.1.1 Introduction

Electric fields play an important role in shaping the electron

distribution in the equatorial F region. The main source of the electric field
in the equatorial ionosphere is the E-region dynamo driven by tidal winds.
The occurrence of significant dynamo effects depend on the existence of a
sufficiently conducting region in which currents can flow. The region
where substantial cunent flows is called the dynamo region which extends
from 90 to 160 km. In the dynamo region, the ion gyrofrequency is smaller

than the ion neutral collision frequency while the electron gyrofrequency is

larger than eledi'on neutral collision frequency. Consequently the ions are

carried along the wind but the electrons move across the wind. This
relative movement between the ions and the electrons constitute an

electric current, most of it being carried by the ions. This current is in

general divergent, so polarization fields build up almost instantaneously to
force non divergent current flow. This polarization fields drive Hall
currents and Pedersen currents. In a magneto plasma, with the mutually

perpendicular electric(E) and magnetic (B) fields, Pedersen currents flow

parallel to E and I-Tall currents perpendicular to both E and B. In the
presence of an almost non-conducting boundary above and below the
dynamo region, the flow of Hall currents are inhibited. Under these
conditions, the EaSt West condlictivHies are enhanced, increasing the flow

of currents, causing the equatorial electrojet.

The E region field is communicated to the F region along the highly

conducting geomagnetic field lines. The E region at the dip equator, where

the intense vertical polarization field that drives the elcctrojet is located, is
not magnetically coupled to the F region [Baker and Martyn, 1952], so the
electrojet field should not appear at the r region heights. Rishbeth [1971]
and Heelis et al. [1974] have discussed the importance of winds in

generating electric fields at F region altitudes. Electric field is often

enhanced near sunset, an effect that is caused by a polarization electric field

induced by r region neutral winds. It is apparent that raising of the

equatorial F layer causes the mean neutral ion colllsion frequency of a

given magnetic tube of F region plasma to decrease. The eastward electric
field that raises the F layer can also appreciably decrease the Pedersen
conductivity in the E region; both of these effects will contribute to the

destabilisation toward convective overturning and enhance the onset of

spread F conditions.

Ionospheric conductiVity, dynamo theory, electrodynamic plasma

drifts and neutral wind induced plasma drifts are briefly discussed in the
following sections.

1.1.2. Electrical conductivity of the Ionosphere

The electrical conductivity of the ionosphere, as it contains free

electrons and ions, is much greater than that of the lower atmosphere. The
geomagnetic field inhibits the motion of charged particles in directions

normal to the fIeld lines, and the conductivity is thus anisotropic. The

anisotropic nature of ionospheric conductivity was taken into account in

the developments made by Hirono [1952], Baker and Martyn [1952, 1953],

Fejer [1953], Maeda [1955] and Kato [1956). The conductivity varies with

altitude both in magnitude and direction. Due to the horizontal and

vertical variations of conductivity, current cannot flow freely and

polarization charges are set up which modifies the flow of current.

 4

The current densily 'j' can be expressed as a function of the electric

field E by using the generalized fonn of Ohm's law as

j=O".E (1)

where 0" is the tensor conductivity. Combining the contributions from the
ions and electrons, the direct conductivity tensor 0" is given by

Ne
0" = O"i + 0" e = I f [vi - vel (2)

If the magnetic field is oriented in the z direction and the electric field is

applied in the x direction, there are x and y components of the conductivity

corresponding to the components of velocity in the x and y direction. The
conductivity in the direction of the applied electric field is the Pedersen
conductivity given by

2 2
Ye y.
Ne Nj 1
0"1 +-_.- 2 (3)
lel
meY e 2 2 mjYj Y2 + O)j2
Ye + we i

The conductivity in the direction perpendicular to the applied

electric field is the BaH conductiVity given by

(4)

Here both the conductivities and the applied field are perpendicular to the
magnetic field. The conductivity along the magnetic field due to a paral1el

electric field is the direct or longitudinal conductivity given by

O"(J:-:-: (5)
Here N, m and v represent the number density, mass and col1ision

frequency of the charged particles. 0> = eBjm is the angular gyrofrequency

of the particle and the subscript e and i indicates electrons and ions,

respectively. The conductivity tensor 0' can be represented by a 3x3 square

matrix.

The form of the conductivity tensor can be altered by rotating the x

and z axes about the y-axis. The x axis then assumes a southerly direction

and z axis is vertical. If the ionosphere is supposed to have two separate

slab-like layers, the ionization is comparatively weak in the inbetween

regions. The charges will therefore accummulate at the boundaries of the

conducting layers because the current cannot flow into the region of low

conductivity. The polarization charges at the top and bottom of the

conducting layer wiII modify the electric field E. Under equilibrium
condition, ie when there is no vertical current component, the vertical

eleclric field can be eliminated. Then the 3 x3 tensor 0' can be replaced by a
2 x 2 tensor cr', called layer conductivity, whose components depend on the

magnetic dip angle I. Using co-ordinates x, y for magnetic southward and

eastward directions, the layer conducllvity is given as

where O'xx =

0'0 0'2 Sin I

O'xy =
O"nSin2 I+ 0"1 Cos2 I
 6

0/ Cos21 (6)
Cfyy -= O"n Sin2 1 -I- 0"1 Cos2 1 I- (11

At the magnetic equator 1=0, and the components of 0" simplify to

O"xy = 0

(7)

where 0"3 is called the Cowling conductivity.

The conductivity has variation with respect to day and night.

During daytime the conductivity in the E region is very high and in the
nighttime it decreases to 1/50 of the daytime value [Rishbeth, 1971]. The
transverse conductivities 0"1 and 0"2 are important primarily below 200 km,

where the electron and ion densities behave in a fairly regular manner and

are governed mainly by a simple balance between production and loss

[Davies, 1965; Ching and Chiu, 1973; Torr and Harper, 1977]. The
conductiviLies a;'c calculated from given electron and ion densities, neutral

densities [CIRA,i 972; I-Icdin et a1., 1977a, b] and experimental or theoretical

effective electron-neutral and ion-neutral collision frequencies [Manson,

1970; ltikawa, 1971; Hill and Bowhi1l, 1977] using standard formulae [Bauer,
1973]. Unlike daytime conditions, the relative importance of 0"1, above 200

km to that below 200 km, can be substantial at nighttime [Harper and

Walker, 1977].

1.1.3 Dynamo theory

The dynamo theory was first proposed by Balfour Stewart in 1882,

and developed CJuantitalively by Schuster in 1908 and Chapman [1919]. A
 7

good account of the early developments of the theory has been given by
I-lines [1963] and Maeda and Kato 11966]. Various aspects of the dynamo
theory has been dealt with in a number of review papers [Matsushita, 1977;

Blanc, 1979; Richmond, 1979, 1989; Wagner et aI., 1980; Forbes, 1981]. The
sun and moon produce tidal forces In the atmosphere which result in air
motions. As a result of the motion of the air across the geomagnetic field, a
ClllTent is induced as in a dynamo. Those parts of the ionospheric region
where this current is produced is called the atmospheric dynamo.

At low and middle geomagnetic latitudes (below 60°) the dynamo

mechanism is believed to be the primary source of ionospheric currents
and electric fields as well as ground level magnetic variations on
geomagnetically quiet days. The main sources that have been identified for

electric field induced motion of E and F region ionization are

1. E-region dynamo- Tidal and planetary wave motions of the lower

thermosphere produce dynamo current system in that region. The

resultant electric fields conducted along the geomagnetic flux tubes to the F
region produce vertical and horizontal F layer motions. The E region

dynamo is a constant voltage generator.

2. F-region dynamo- Winds in the upper thermospherre, produced by the

diurnal bulge in thermosphere density, which through collision can

interact with F region ionization to induce fields that in turn can add to
dynamo region currents and their effects. During daytime, the F region

dynamo fields driven by r region winds are largely short circuited by the

highly conducting E region. At night, when the E region conductivity

drops by a factor of about 50, the F region dynamo can develop an

appreciable eledic field. The Ii region dynamo is particularly effective after

sunset when the thermosphere winds are slrong and lhe F region electron
 H

density being quite high [Rishbeth, 1977]. The F region dynamo behaves
like a constant current generator with high internal impedance.

The basic idea of the dynamo theory of the geomagnetic daily

variation is that the wind velocity V causes an electric current responsible

for the variation. The central equation connecting Winds, electric fields and
electric current is a form of ohm's law and is given as

J= [a) (E+ V x B o ) = [a) E' (8)

J and E are required to satisfy the relations

div J = 0 (9)

curl E = 0 (10)

The relation between V and E or V and J can be written as

div ( [a) (E + V x Bo ) } = 0 (11)

curl { [ar 1 J} = curl E' = curl (V x Bo ) (12)

The electric field, E, and the current density, J, can be determined by

using (11) and (12), if V is known by some means, and many investigators

have followed this line of approach [Baker, 1953]. The results obtained

from their studies proved that a proper combination of the diurnal and
semi diurnal winds can explain the observed geomagnetic variations.
When considering the equations of motion of the atmosphere, the diurnal

or semidiurnal wind contains an appreciable amount of the rotational part

contributed by the Coriolis force which strongly affects the wind motion.

Detailed studies on these aspects revealed that the diurnal wind

predominates over the semi diurnal one [Maeda, 1955]. If the wind is of

tidal origin, the semidiumal component was expected to be greater by

 9

considering its resonance amplification in the upper atmosphere [Wilkes,

1949J. However the wind deduced from the Sq variation indicated the

importance of the diurnal wind which is very probably excited thennally

[Mac Donald, 1963J.

1.1.4 Electrodynamic plasma drifts

The relative motion of charged particles with neutral particles in the

direction of (J x Bo ) is given by

J x Bo
Vd=---- (13)
I:nimivi

The velocity V d is common to all kinds of charged particles arising

under the balance between the Ampere force (J x Bo ) and the collisional
friction force with neutral particles (I:nimiViVi) which are taken to be at

rest.

In the F region, where the collision frequencies are much smaller

than the electron and ion gyrofrequencies, an electric field E causes the
plasma to drift with velocity Vd given by

Ex Bo
Vd --- --.-.._--
2 (14)
Bo

The velocity is always perpendicular to the magnetic field. It is

possible to esti . .n ate the electric fll11d in the F region from that in the

dynamo region. The E field in the dynamo region can be found from the

geomagnetic daily variations on the ground using the dynamo theory. As

seen from (13) and (14), Vd is determined by the geomagnetiC field Bo and

by the current density J or the electric field E, thus relating the charged

particle motion in the ionosphere closely to the geomagnetic variations.

 10

The electrodynamic drifts have a direct bearing on almost all

important processes governing the F region at the magnetic equator. The
equatorial anomaly (crests of ionization located about 20° dip on each side

of the magnetic equator) has been explained on the basis of plasma drifts.
Martyn [1947] suggested that the E x B drift would lift the F region
ionization vertically upward over tho equator and ionization thus lifted
would diffuse along the magnetic field lines producing the crests. The
lalitudinal asymmetry of the equatorial anomaly along with some
observed features has been explained by taking transequatorial neutral
wind effects into account along with drift and diffusion [e.g. Hanson and
Moffett, 1966; Bramley and Young, 1968; Abur - Robb and Windle, 1969].

Vertical plasma drifts and the post sunset height rise of the F layer

also play an important role in creating the conditions necessary for the

onset of equatorial spread-F [Lyon et al., 1961; Farley et al., 1970; Chandra

and Rastogi, 1972a, b]. Electron density changes in the F region are

significantly influenced by vertical plasma drifts [Rishbeth, 1977]. The

downward electromagnetic drift during nighttime tends to hasten the

decay of the layer l1nd, therefore, very low electron density values are seen
in the early morning hours, prior to sunrise, both in theoretical models

and actual r layer observations. However, the plasma drifts by themselves

would not be sufficient to account for certain complex features such as the
nighttime anomalous enhancement in not only the peak electron density
but ionospheric total electron content as well [Balan and Rao, 1987].

The basic characteristics of zonal plasma drifts at the equator have

been presented by Fejer et al. [1981, 1985] using Jicamarca data. A

characteristic feature of the equatorial F region plasma dynamics is the

large increase ill the observed eastward drift shortly after local sunset.
 11

Rishbeth (1971] has qualitatively explained the enhanced nighttime

eastward plasma drifts at low laliludes. He suggested that an eastward,
zonal neutral wind at F region altitudes electrically polarises the

ionosphere producing a downward directed polarization electric field. This

mechanism can operate only at night when the E region conductiVity is
low and is unable to short out the electic field. As a consequence of the
polarization field, F region plasma drifts eastward. If no current flows

between the E and the F region then the eastward plasma drift is just equal
to the zonal neutral wind which sets up the polarization field. The zonal

winds are the ones responsible for the global scale dynamo action, which in

turn results in the generation of electric fields that are primarly responsible

for the various electrodynamic processes. The zonal plasma drifts also play
a significant role in the generation of spread F. Recently, Vyas and
Chandra (1991] have shown tha t there is a consistent delay in the reversal
time of zonal drift in the ionospheric F region from westward to eastward

on spread F days compared to non spread F days.

Dickinson et a1. [1971) and Dickinson and Roble [1972) have studied

the neutral thennospheric response to the interaction of a global wind with

anomalies of ionization. Such ionization anomalies, defined as departures
from a mean global scale vertical distribution, are commonly found at F
•
layer heights where the ion drag on the neutral motions is linear in the ion

concentration. Global scale winds flown past these ionization anomalies

experience an acceleration where the ion drag is typically less than its global

scale smooth value, and likewise, they experience decceleration where the
ion drag is locally greater. A number of numerical experiments have been
- ---
performed to investigate the interaction of the E x B drift and resultant

variations of ion drag with the zonal winds ISiplor et al., 1983]. The reStllts

indicate that this interaction has a strong influence on the winds and that
 12

the magnitude and direction of the wind velocity depends upon the height
to which the F region is raised by the E x 13 drift, as well as the lime

variation of the drift pattern, both of which are highly variable. Thus some
of the variability of zonal winds in the equatorial region is probably related
to variations in ion drag caused by dynamic interactions with the E x B

drifts in the equatorial ionosphere.

1.1.5 Neutral Wind induced plasma drift

The thermal expansion of the atmosphere during day time forms

the so-called diurnal bulge which is, in general, centered on the equator at

about 14.00 LT. This bulging of the atmosphere gives rise to horizontal

gradients of air pressure which can drive horizontal winds. The winds

blow away from the hottest part of the thermosphere, which is in the

afternoon sector, and towards the coldest part in the early morning sector.
They therefore blow across the polar regions and zonally around the earth
in low latitudes. Unlike winds in the lower atmosphere, thermospheric
winds are strongly influenced by frictional forces due to viscosity of the air

and to collisions between the neutral air particles and the positive ions.

The ions exert a drag on the air because their motion is strongly impeded
by the earths magnetic field. This frlctlonal force or Ion drag is generally
the major factor limiting the wind speed in the thermosphere. The winds
can freely move the F region ions and electrons in the direction of the

magnetic field. If the field lines are inclined, this ion motion has a vertical

component which can affect the ion and electron concentration, mainly

because the loss coefficient has a significant height dependence. The effect

of the wind depends on its orientation With respect to the geomagnetic

field, poleward wind causes downward drift and tends to reduce the ion

concentration while cqualorward wind causes upward drift and tends to

increase the ion concentration. These effects being dependent on the
geometry of the magnetic field vary with latitude and with magnetic
declination. At the magnetic equator since the field lines are perfectly
horizontal the plasma is transported with the same velocity as the neutral
wind. Hence the plasma drift in the N-S direction at the magnetic equator
can be taken to represent the meridional neutral wind velocity.

Ionospheric F region is much Influenced by the thermospheric

neutral winds. Apart from electromagnetic drifts the neutral wind systems
in the thermosphere also contributo to the ionization distribution pattern
in the equatorial ionosphere [Bramley and Young, 1968]. The effect of

neutral wind on the diurnal variation of the F layer has been explained in
a number of papers [Rishbeth, 1967; Bailey et al., 19691. The occurrence of
an evening maximum in fo F2 in summer mid-latitudes has been

attributed to the reversal of the neutral wind [Kohl and King, 1967]. The
thermospheric '.-\lind system is one of the factors which cause seasonal
asymmetry in the electron density distribution in the equatorial region.
The wind components, in the magnetic meridian have the greatest direct

influence, though more subtle effects result from the dynamo action of F
region wind bloWing across the magnetic field [Rishbeth, 1977]. The effect
of meridional wind depends on whother it is transequatorial or it has an
appreciable divergence or convergence at low latitudes. At the magnetic
equator transequatorial winds appear to be able to give rise to the
asymmetries that are observed in the equatorial anomaly [Hanson and

Moffett, 1966; Bramley and Young, 1968; Abur- Robb and Windle, 1969].

1.2 Methods of plasma drift measurement.

Many of the experimental methods for the observation of the F

region depend on the ability of free electrons to reflect, scatter, polarise or
 14

absorb radio waves [Rajaram, 1977). Principal methods of measuring

ionospheric drifts are given in tablc 1.1. The simplest and earliest method

of measuring the drift velocity of the irregularities was developed by Mitra

[1949).

1.2.1 Ionosonde and phase path technique.

The pulse method of ionosphorlc sounding was first used by Breit

and Tuve [1925). The principle of ionospheric sounding is to transmit a
pulse of radiowaves vertically and to measure the time which elapses
before the echo is received. The standard piece of equipment using these

principles is the ionospheric sounder, or ionosonde. Ionosonde consists of

a pulse transmitter and receiver having an operating frequency that is

swept or stepped over the range of 1-20 MHz. The echo time delay, being

recorded as a function of the radio frequency, represents propagation to and

from, including retardation within, various levels of the ionosphere.

Ionogram, the output from the ionosonde, can be interpreted as a profile of

eqUivalent height of reflection (h') against frequency (t). From the
ionogram or h'f curve, it is possible to compute the electron density as a

function of height and so obtain an olectron density profile or N(h) curve.

A detailed description of the conventional ionosonde technique and data

analysis is given by Rishbeth and Garriott [1969].

In the ionosonde method, the vertical drift is assumed to be equal to

the time derivative of h'F2, the virtual height of the bottomside of the F2

layer. Ionograms can be conveniently used to determine the vertical

plasma drift velocity in the equatorial F region [Abdu et al., 1983). Using

Widely spaced ionosondes, it is possible to study the horizontal motions of

the large scale ionospheric disturbances [Cooper and Cummack, 1986] and
ncutral winds I Krishnamurthy et aI., 1990].
Method of Region Phenomenon
observation obsetved observed

Meteor trail 85-100 km Neutral air movements

Luminescent trail from

rockets 80-150 km Neutral air movements

Mitra spaced receiver 100-130 & Small ionospheric

160-350 km irregularities

Radio star scintillation F region Individual irregularities

Backscatter & Sporadic E & Large irregularities and

Doppler shift F region patches of irregularities

Spacedionosondes Sporadic E & F Patches of irregularities and

region travelling disturbances

Table 1.1
 15

The phase path technique offers a particularly good advantage for

the study of vertical motions of the ionospheric regions in detail because

vertical displacement of the reflection level equivalent to a phase path

change of even A/4 of the exploring waves can be determined. The phase

path technique employs continuous recording and fluctuations of small

lime scales can be studied with this technique.

The technique involves the measurement of charges in the phase

path P of a radio wave reflected frorn the ionosphere. The phase path is

defined as

P= J IJds

where l.l is the phase refractive index and P' is the ray path. The

derivative of P with respect to time provides a measure of Doppler

frequency shift. In the phase path technique developed by Findlay [1951]

and modified by Reddi and Ran [196'7], the phase of the reflected signal of

nominal frequency (J) from the ionosphere is compared with that of a local

oscillator of frequency (J)/-L\co, which is phase coherent with the transmitted

pulse. Changes in the phase of the rl)flected signal produce movement of

the beat pattern of the phase compared signal along the time base of an

oscilloscope display. The signal at the output of the phase detector is a low

frequency sinusoidal wave of angular frequency ~ro and its phase is given

roP
<PO = Amt -I C

The beat frequency sinusoidal waves occur during the time interval

P' I c < t < (P' I CI ~), where S is the received echo pulse width. Changes in
 16

P and / or P' cause corresponding changes in the position of the beat

maximum along the time base displaying the phase detector output. Since

the operating frequency 0) is much greater than the beat frequency .1.00, it is
taken that the movement of the beat maximum along the time base is
entirely due to changes in P.

liF Doppler technique has proved valuable for studying small

perturbations of the reflection layer. In this technIque, the ionospherically
reflected signal is compared with a local oscillator signal of high frequency
stability [1 part in 108 per day] [Chan and Villard, 1962; Davies et a1., 1962].
A beat frequency of few Hz is produced and recorded on magnetic tape
moving at a rate of about 1 inch/minute. It is then analysed by standard

spectral techniques. Ionospherically produced frequency variations will

appear as changes in the beat frequency. An important advantage of this

technique is that it permits the various components of the composite

Doppler signal to be separated and identified. The liF Doppler radar make
use of phase coherent receiver with quadrature channels to detect the
Doppler shifled received signal [Balan et aI., 1979; Jayachandran et a1., 1987].

1.2.2 Incoherent Backscatter Technique.

Incoherent Scatter Radar (lSR) has served as an indirect but powerful

tool for studying Lhe LIpper atmosphere as a whole. The radar depends on
the scattering 01 1cdio waves by the free electrons in the ionosphere. The

ground was broken for the first incoherent scatter radar site in Arecibo,
Puerto Rico in 1959.. The first major incoherent scatter facility was
constructed at Jicamarca, Peru in 1960·'61.

The basic principles of the derivation of the bulk parameters of the

ionospheric plasma from the spectral characteristics of the backscattered

 17

signal can be found in a number of papers [Evans, 1969]. From the

spectrum or autocorrelation function of the received radar signal, the
plasma drift velocity, electron density, electron and ion temperatures, ion
composition, electric field-aligned current density and ion-neutral collision

frequency can be measured directly. In addition, some other parameters

can be derived indirectly which include neutral air density, temperature

and velocity, heal flux, Pedersen and Hall conductivities, horizontal

electric current density, photoelectron flux and energy spectrum of

precipitated particles. The radar can yield values of the directly measured
parameters as a function of height and time. Not all the parameters can be

measured at all heights and all times, and compromises exist between the

accuracy with which different parameters can be measured simultaneously.

Incoherent radars detect and analyse weak echoes scattered from the
ionosphere. The effective target area of the ionosphere is so smal1 « 1
sq.cm) that powerful transmitters and large antennas are needed. In

monostatic case, the height of the scattering volume is chosen by

transmitting radio pulses and selecting echoes with appropriate delay times

and in the bistatic case by changing the elevation of the highly directive

transmitting and receiving antennas, 100-300 km apart. Rishbeth and

Lanchester [1992] have recently outllned the principles of the incoherent

scatter t~chniques and briefly reviewed the ways in which it has been used

to study the ionospheric E and F regions.

An account of the backscatter technique, as developed for plasma

drift measurements at the magnetic equatorial station of Jicamarca was

given by Woodman and Hagfors [1969]. For the drift measurements the

system can be operated in two ways. In both, two pulses are transmitted:

one at time t and the other al t + s. In one of the techniques both pulses are
 lH

transmitted with the same polarization and is referred as the

autocorrelallon technique. In the other, each pulse is transmitted with a
polarization corresponding to the two normal modes of propagation of the
medium, and is termed as cross-con'elation technique. If G1 and GZ denote

the (complex) signal returned from a given height corresponding to the

first and second pulse respectively, the autocorrelation function of the

signal is

where a(s) is a proportionality factor and Pk is the autocorrelation

function of the electron concentration fluctuations for wave number

2roO
k =c for the height D. A drift with a velocity component v in the

direction of the wave vector k will cause the correlation function to be of

the form

where Pko is the real electron concentration correlation function in

the absence of drifts and the angular Doppler frequency rod is determined by

rod = kv

The factor a(~) can be real or complex; if complex its phase is

independent of~. Therefore the phase of the autocorrelation function
<Gl G2"'> at a giv.en S, minus its phase for S = 0, is a measure of the velocity

v along the direction of k. The phase of a(s) being independent of S, can be

calibrated out. Employing a 50 MHz incoherent scatter radar with the

above technique, extensive plasma drift observations have been conducted

at ]icamarca.
 19

1.2.3 Radar Inted~rometryand Ion Cloud Techniques.

The radar interferometry technique by Kudeki et al. [1981] proved to

be a suitable method for the measurement of the drift velocity. In this
technique, two spaced antennas are Llsed to receive scattered signals from
the ionospheric irregularities. In addition to the individual power spectra,
the cross spectrum [S(o»J of the returned signal is also formed. The
magnitude of 5(00) gives the angular size of the scatterers, while its
argument yields infonnalion on the angular position of those targets. The

drift velocity of the scatterers in the direction perpendicular to the radar

beam can be derived by observing the changes of angular position with

time.

Another important technique was developed by Haerendel et al.

[1967) using chemicals released from rockets. They released a few

kilograms of barium which rapidly lead to the formation of a few grams of

Ba+ ions. To track the neutral atoms, a small amount of Strontium which
helps in making them visible is also add~d. A sequence of twilight
photographs at various ground location allows the motion of each cloud to
be determined by triangulation. Tho neutral cloud is roughly spherical and
the ion cloud is elongated along the magnetic field direction. It is observed

that near 200 km, motions of both clouds parallel to the earth's magnetic
field are roughly the same, but they differ significantly in the direction

perpendicular to ille magnetic field. This technique offer a valuable means

to determine neutral winds and plasma drift motions in the lower F region
under twilight conditions IRaghavarao et aI., 1987].
 20

1.2.4 Horizontal Plasma Drifts by Spaced-Receiver Technique

When a radiowave is reflected from an irregular ionosphere it

produces an irregular diffraction or shadow pattern on the ground. If the
ionosphere is moving, the pattern moves as well. By observing the
amplitude fluctuations at a number of points on the ground, some
information can be deduced about the horizontal drift and spatial
properties of the irregularities themselves.

One of the methods used for determining the horizontal drifts in the
ionospheric region consists of recording the fading of ionospheric echoes at

three spaced receivers [Mitra, 1949). The method uses a pulse transmitter

working at a frequency of a few megahertz. The fading records of the

ionospherically reflected signals were obtained using three spaced receivers

arranged a few wavelengths apart in the configuration of a triangle. Using

the time delays measured between similar fades observed at the three
receivers, drift velocities of the irregularities are determined.

Figure 1.1 gives an idealized situation in which three receivers

undergo fading owing to the drift of ionospheric irregularities in the

direction shown. ]f the drifting irregularities have no change, the record

will produce a same pattern. From the figure it is clear that for the

receivers A and X there is a set of equal delays,

and for the receivers A and Y

 \
A \
\
ty
\
~ \ \ Direction of
\ y \ \ drift
x
\ \
\ \
\
\ x

" X\V\
\ tx \
y
ty
II.
~
Time (s)
(a ) (b)

Figure 1.1 a. Idealized signal amplitudes obtained from

three receivers of a Mitra drift experiment,
showing time delays. (b) The assumed layout
in which A is the apex of a right angled
triangle with sides Ax = x, Ay = y. The
dashed line indicate three positions of a
cross section of the amplitude pattern,
which takes time tx to drift from A to x and
time ty from A to y.
 21

Then t x (x Cos8)/V

ty = (y Sin8)/V

where 'V' is the drift speed and 8 is the drift direction.

The reflection method of Mitra has been used to study drifts in many
parts of the world. The principal difficulty with the above technique seems
to be in the interpret?tlon of the properties of the diffraction pattern in
terms of the properties of ionosphere.

1.3. Equatorial Spread - F [ESF]

Equatorial ionosphere has been found to be a region of plasma

irregularities and discontinuites. Several types of ionospheric irregularities
are there, but the one which is most interesting and has received much
attention is spread - F. It is often observed that the echo pulse reflected
from the F2 layer has a much longer duration ( - 10 times) than the

transmitted pulse and this phenomenon is called spread-F. Spread- F is

caused by the scattering of the signal from irregularities embedded in the
ionosphere. The presence of plasma irregularities in the equatorial
ionosphere during the night lime was first observed by Booker and Wells
[1938]. The term spread was first lIsed by Meek in 1949 to describe the

diffuse echoes on the ionograms at high altitudes.

Equatorial spread - F [ESF] is confined in a belt of width of about 4°

centred on the geomagnetic equator [Wright, 1959; Shimazaki, 1959]. ES F
is known to be due to the generation of irregularities in electron and ion

densities [McClure and Hanson, 1973] and also in electric fields [Kelley and
Mozer, 1972]. Woodman and LaI-Ioz [1976] and McClure et at. [1977] using

the Jicamarctl radar data showed eVidence of the f01mation of depleted

 22

regions in the vertical electron density at the onset time of ESP. The
inference of a large-scale quasiperiodic ionization structure in the evening
equatorial ionosphere added a new dimension to the discussion of the

nature of the physical mechanism underlying the onset of spread- F

[Rottger, 1978; Woodman and LaHoz, 1976; Tsunoda and White, 1981].
Recent studies using ionosonde data demonstrated a significant influence
of local ionospheric parameters in the generation and sustenance of spread-
F, and it is inferred that the collisional Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) instability

[Haerendel, 1974) piays a prominent role in the initiation of spread-F [Abdu

et al., 1982; 1983; Sastri, 1984).

A detailed study of the characteristics of spread - F traces on

ionograms revealed the existence of three types of spread - F.

1. Range spread F - When the diffuseness is along the horizontal part of the

trace but the critical frequencies are identifiable, spread is classified as range

type.

2. Frequency spread - F - When the spreading is maximum at frequencies

close to the penetration frequency while the trace is comparatively clear
and sharp at )ow0r frequencies, the spread is called frequency spread.

3. Complete spread - F- On some occasions spreading is seen to be equally

prominent in the height scale in the entire frequency range of the observed

ionogram and is classed as complete spread.

1.3.1. ObselVations of ESF

Equatorial spread- F has been a subject of intensive investigation by

ground-based experiments and rocket-and satellite-borne probes. Spread-F

has been extensively studied at eqttatorial stations Singapore [Osborne,
 23

1952], Kodaikanai [Bhargava, 1958], Tbadon [Lyon et a1., 1960] and Thumba

[Chandra and Rastogi, 1972a]. Rastogi [1986a] suggested that the necessary

conditions for the formation of spread - F irregularities are

1. there must be a region of strong plasma density gradients at the base of

the F region,

2. existence of east-west electric field in the F region, and

3. continuation of the above conditions for a period large enough for the
irregularities to grow strong.

Vertical plasnla drifts and the postsunset height rise of the F layer

play an important role in creating the conditions conducive for the onset of
ESP. Several studies have been carried out on the relationship between the

occurrence of the ESF and the post sunset F region height rise [Lyon et a1.,
1961; Krishnamurthy and Rao, 1963; Farley et a1., 1970; Skinner and

Kelleher, 1971; Rastogi, 1978; Abdu et a1.,1983; Rastogi, 1983]. Comparing

the nocturnal and seasonal variations of spread-F at Waltair and

Kndaikanal, Rao and Ran [1961) concluded that the equatorial spread- F

activity is positively correlated with F region height changes. The

isoelectron density contours observed at Jicamarca by Woodman and

LaI-Joz [1976) show that the contours rise at all altitudes upto the peak

electron density level. The rapid rise of the evening F layer is associated

with the prerev..~rs;;d enhancement in the F region vertical plasma drift

velocity [Woodman, 1970; Fejer et aI., 1979a; Abdu et a1., 1983], which is

found to be an essential feature associated with the occurrence of ESF

[Rastogi, 1978; Vikramkumar et aI., 1985]. McClure and Woodman [1972]

showed that in spread- F regions the vertical velocity is enhanced and

turbulent, reaching values more than 3 to 4 times the normal background

 24

value. Sastri [1984J reported that the ESF onset as observed on the
ionograms occurs usually around the time of reversal of the plasma drift
from upward to downward, which means, when the layer is lifted to its

maximum altitude.

Comparing the average nocturnal variation of h'F dUring spread F

and non-spread P nights, Rao [1966) Inferred the presence of a threshold
height for the occurrence of spread . F. Rao's [1966J observtions showed

that the average height during non"spread F nights are lower than those

during spread- F nights. When Individual heights are considered,

however, some deviations are observed. From the VHF backscatter
observations, Farley et al.[1970J showed that for the occurrence and
sustenance of equatorial spread - P, the bottom of the F region must be
above some threshold height. Sastri and Murthy [1978] found that no

particular threshold height is required for the onset of ESF under high

solar activity conditions. Using the lonogram data at Kodaikanal under

low solar activHy conditions, Sastrl et al. [1978J observed a considerable

scatter in the value of h'P at the time of the onset of spread -F. From a

comparative study of the h'F variations under non spread - F, short

duration spread - F, spread with subsequent disappearance and

reappeareance, long duration spread - F at Ibadan, Trivandrum and

Singapore, Subrahmanyam and Rao )1978J showed that there does not

seem to be any threshold height for the occurence of spread - F.

The ionogram data at Jlcamarca and VHF scintillation records at

Huancayo showed that the occurrence of spread- F irregularities depend on

the time of reversal of the Sq electric field [Rastogi 1986b]. If the reversal
I

precedes sunset , th~!l1 there is no chance of spread -F generation and if it

 2.')

remains eastward for even an hour after sunset, then there is a very good
chance of sprcad - F gcncration .

Raghavarao et aL [1988] have examined the electron density profiles

over Ahmedabad and Waltair on days with equatorial spread-F and on
days without equatorial spread- F. The ratio of the electron density at fixed
real heights over Ahmedabad to over Waltair, in the altitude region

between 270 and 300 km, was shown to enhance considerably at around
1900 hrs on days of cquatorial spread- F. Magnetic activity is known to
produce significant cffccts on ES F [Lyon ct al. ,1958; Somayajulu and
Krishnamurthy, 1976]. The results obtained from the ionogram data at

Huancayo, Subbarao et aL, [1986J showed that the percentage occurence of

spread - F decreases with magnetic activity in the sunspot maximum year,

whereas in the sunspot minimum year no significant effect is seen.

Spread- F at equatorial stations Ibadan , Djibouti and Kodaikanal is shown
to increase with increasing solar activity , while for the stations in the

American zone, the occurrence of spread - F is least for years of high solar

activity. Besides this, various other factors, such as neutral winds and

gravity waves also influence thc onset of ESF significantly [Klostermeyer,

1978; Booker, 19'19, Kelley et al., 1981 l.

Farley et aL [1970J pointed out that the post midnight onset of

spread - F does not seem to be correlated either with the height or vertical

velocity of the F layer. From this it is clear that the mechanism responsible

for the production of the irregularities causing spread - F dUring pre- and
post-midnight is different
 26

1.3.2 Theory·of ESF

The idea that ESF could be initiated on the bottomside of the F-

region by Rayleigh-Taylor instability was first proposed by Dungey [1956].
Dagg [1957) suggested that ESF phenomena was caused by irregularities
produced first in the E region and then coupled, by the high conductivity
along the magnetic field, up to the F region. Martyn [1959] suggested that
ESF was a manifestation of ExB gradient drift instability. It should be
noted that all of the preceeding linear instability theories could usually
only explain the formation of ESF irregularities on the bottomside of the F
region. These theories were dismissed as inadequate by Farley et al. [1970]

because they could not explain the wide variety of 3m coherent radar

backscatter measurements made at }icamarca.

In an effort to address the fact that ilTegularities were observed on

both the bottomside and topsidc of the F region, the collisional Rayleigh-
Taylor instability with field line averaging was proposed [Balsley et a1. 1972;
Haerendel, 1974]. By averaging (integrating) the density along the magnetic
field, the total electron content profile becomes steeper on the bottomside
of the F region and its peak is raised in altitude with respect to the local
electron dcnsity peak. Consequently this allows the linear mcchanism to
operate to slightiy higher altitudes, -100 km greater altitudes, but still
would not explain the occurrence of Irregularities above this new peak. In
the wavelength regime 30-100 m, I-Judson and Kennel [1975) pointed out

the importance of the collisional drift mode in ESF. This mode had the

advantage that it could occur on both the top and bottomside of the F

region~ but still would not explain the longer wavelength irregularities.
 27

Because of the inability of linear theory to explain most ESF

phenomena, several non - linear theories have been set forth in an attempt
to explain the various observations. Haerendel [1972; 1974] was the first to
suggest that the range of wavelengths (many kilometers down to
centimeters) observed dUring ESF was due to a hierarchy of processes. The
picture portrayed was as follows: (1) the collisional Rayleigh-Taylor (RT)
instability Wit:l horizontal wavevectors is driven by gravity and the

vertical background, zero order elecLron density gradient scale length on

the bottomside; then (2) the E x B gradient drift instability with vertical
wave vectors arises due Lo the horizontal density, large amplitude
variations (With shorter scale lengths than the original zero order vertical

density gradients) set up by the collisional RT instability; then (3) the

inertia (collislonless) dominated RT instability arises; and finally (4)

kinetic drift waves grow off these irregularities after they reach large

amplitudes. Because each succeeding process is driven by smaller and

smaller plasma density gradient scale lengths, all scale size irregularities
will appear almost simultaneously. Scannapieco and Ossakow [1976]
performed the first numerical simulation of the long wavelength

collisional RT instability mechanism In the night-time equatorial F region

ionosphere. The simulation was two dimensional in the plane

perpendicular to the ambient geomagnetic field, using only gravity and the

vertical plasma density gradient (with an actual ionosphere electron

density profile) as drivers of the instability. The simulation results showed
that the collisional RT instability generated irregularities and plasma
bubbles (plasma density depletions) on the bottomside of the nighttime F

region which then rose beyond the F peak by nonlinear polarization

induced ExB motion. This was Lhe major break through as it represented

Lhe first theoretical resull to explain how long wavelength irregularities

 28

could appear on both the bottom side and top side of the equatorial F
region. The bubble phenomena was in accord with many observations
[Kelley et al. 1976; Woodman and LaHoz, 1976; McClure et al., 1977].

1.4 Intetplanetary Magnetic Field (IMp) and Equatotial Ionosphere

The equatorial ionosphere is fiee from field-aligned currents and is

very sensitive to the changes of the electric field due to greatly enhanced
conductivity in the equatorial electrojet region. The two outstanding
features of the equatorial ionosphere are the intense currents flowing
during daytime and the generation of cross-field instabilities which are
detected as Es -q by normal ionosphelic sounders and as type II irregularity

by Doppler shift record of VHF backscatter radars. [Rastogi and Krochl,

1978]. The equatorial magnetic effects are due partly to magnetospheric

ring currents and partly to changes in the worldwide E region current

system [Fejer et aI., 1979b]. Several studies have been carried out to
investigate the effect of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) on the

electromagnetic state of the ionospheric and magnetospheric plasma

[Mozer et aI., 1974; Wolf ,1975]. The magnetospheric phenomena which

directly affect the ionosphere at high latitudes are ultimately driven by the
solar wind, some aspects of which can be monitored by observing the IMP.

The relationship between the IMF and high latitude geomagnetic

phenomena has received considerable attention in recent years [Nishida,
1975 ; Mishin, 1977). The high latitude ionospheric electric field has been

obseIVed by satellites and rockets [Maynard and Johnstone, 1974].

The preliminaly work on the possible effects of the IMF on the low-

latitude ionospheric field was done by Patel and Rastogi [1974] and Rastogi

and Patel (1975). Frorn the observations made by Rastogi and Patel [1975] , it

is found that there is a close correlation between electric field reversals at

 29

the equator and south -to-north reversals of the vertical component of the
IMF. The disappearance of Es - q provides an interesting clue to the

interplanetary ionospheric coupling processes [Rastogi and Patel , 1975;

Patel, 1978). The statistical studies of Sengupta and Krishnamurthy (1975)
showed that the Es -q disappears for a period of time that may range from a

few minutes to hours. From the sirnultaneous study of the IMF and low
latitude geomagnetic field [Patel, 1978J, It is shown that the changes from

a negative to positive value of the north-south component of IMF

corresponds to a reversal of the electric field from east to west direction,
just before the disappearance of equatorial ionospheric Es -q .

The east-west electric field which drives the equatorial electrojet

current is also responsible for the F region vertical drift, which can be

measured accurately with the large 50 MHz radar at the Jicamarca Radar
Observatory in Peru [Woodman and Hagfors, 1969) . At the equator ,the
ionospheric easl:-west electric field is typically of the order of O.5mV 1m and

is eastward during the day and westward at night. This value of field
corresponds to an E region electron drift velocity of about 400 mls and an F

region vertical velocity of about 20 m I s. The dependence of hourly average

of Jicamarca vertical drifts on the IMF [Fejer et a1., 1979b) shows that the
average velocities are essentially unaffected by changes in the azimuthal
component (By) , but the north - south component (Bz) appears to have a
slight effect. When Bz is southward (Bz < 0), the average vertical drift is

slightly larger than when it is northward (B z > 0).

Rastogi and Chandra [1974) concluded that an increase in the

southward component of Bz causes a decrease in the normal (east-west)

equatorial electric field. Rastogl and Patel [1975) and Patel [1978) suggest that

strong IMF reversals from southward to northward impose an electric field

 10

on the ionosphere opposite to the normal Sq field, thereby decreasing or

even reversing the normal ionospheric drift direction . This induced

electric field is E= -VxB, where V is the velocity of the solar wind and B is
the component of IMF in the solar ecliptic plane.

1.5 Magnetospheric Substorms and F layer motion

The amount of solar wind energy transferred to the inner

magnetosphere duc to solar wind-magnetosphere coupling during
geomagnetic storms and substorms has been the topic of intense study
during the past two decades. The cause of the substonn is closly related to

the southward turning of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field OM F)

[Akasofu, 1968; Kamide, 1980J. Substorms are viewed as the fundamental

energy release element during solar Wind-magnetosphere interactions.

The response of the equatorial ionosphere to the magnetosphere-polar-

auroral processes can manifest itself in two ways. One is due to the direct
penetration of magnetospheric convective electric field to low latitudes and
other is due to disturbance dynamo effects [Blanc and Richmond, 1980;
Blanc, 1983; Fejer, 1986]. The direct penetration of electric fields can be

expected during the rapid changes of electric fields during substorms

[Nishida, 1968; Somayajulu et a\., 1987; Abdu et aI., 1988].

In recent years a great deal of emphasis has been placed on

measuring electric fields in the ionosphere and magnetosphere. Of

particular interest in magnetospheric physics is the global distribution of

electric fields associated with magnetospheric substonns. The substorm

electric fields are important not only in auroral latitudes, but· also in
middle and low latitudes. The whistler results showed that substorm
electric fields of - 0.5 mV 1m penetrate deep with in the plasmasphere

[Carpentcr, 1970; Park and Carpcnter, 1970J. Tn the ionosphere, the height
 :11

of the F2layer has been known to change considerably dUring geomagnetic

disturbances, and a number o( authors have attributed this effect to

electromagnetic drift [Martyn, 1953; Maeda and Sato, 1959; Kohl, 1960;
Evans, 1970; Park, 1971].

Park and Meng [1971] have studied the vertical motions of the F2
layer associated with magneospheric substorm using ground-based
ionosonde records (rom mid latitude stations during winter nights. The
results showed that during substorms, the F2 layer is lifted upward in the
pre-midnight sector and pushed downward in the post-midnight sector.
These motions are interpreted in terms of E x B drifts, the electric field

being eastward on thc eveningside and westward on the morningside. The

rcsponse o( the equatorial nighttime F region to magnetic stormtime

disturbances has been examined by Somayajulu et a1. [1991] using

ionograms recorded at Trivandrum and magnetograms recorded at high,

middle and low latitudes. During the early morning hours, there is an
unusual F region height rise and a sudden onset o( the range type of spread

F during the storm.

Most of the anomalous drift reversals at the equator associated with

northward IMF turning were indeed coincident with the onset of substorm

recovery phases. The equatorial electric field perturbations usually occur at

the onset of a substorm in the auroral zone or at the onset of a substorm
recovery phase, but not both. The first case is associated with periods of
southward IMF while the second is associated with large northward IMF
recoveries (ollowing periods of an hour or more of southward Bz [Fejer et

a1., 1979b). Gonzalez et al. [1979], using simultaneous auroral and

equatorial electric field data and magnetic field data reported a close

electrical coupling betwccn atlroral and equatorial ionospheres. Their

results showed that during some substorms, the worldwide equatorial
zonal electric field component reverses from the normal pattern.

1.6 Scope of the present study

The present work is concerned to a major extent with a study of the

fluctuating component of the plasma drift at the ~agnetic equatorial
station of Trivandrum [8.5°N, 77°E, dip O.5°N]. The F region plasma drift
velocities obtained from the HF Doppler radar are used for this
investigation. The five minute averaged data of the north-south
component of the interplanetary magnetic field, obtained from National
Space Science Data Centre, has also been used to investigate the response of
the equatorial F region vertical plasma drift to the interplanetary field
fluctuations.

Chapter 1, intended as an introduction briefly discusses the

electrodynamics of the equatorial Ionosphere, effect of interplanetary
magnetic field on equatorial ionosphere, and the measurement techniques

general1y used for plasma drift observations. Detailed description of the HF

Doppler radar used for the present study and the method of computation of
plasma drift velocities from the radar observations are described in chapter
II. A detailed study on the spectral characteristics of the fluctuating
componenL of tile evening F region vertical drift velocity, including its

dependence on season, solar and magnetic activities, is presented in

chapter III. Chapter IV presents a study on the spectral characteristics of the

fluctuating components of the vertical, east-west and north-south

components of the F region plasma drift velocity. Evolution of the HF

Doppler spectrum under equatorial spread- F conditions are presented in

ChapLer V. ChapLer V also presents a sLudy on the lifetime of the

fluctuations during spread-F conditions. Chapter VI presents a study on the

 33,

response of F region vertical plasma drift at the magnetic equator to the

interplanetary field fluctuations.