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Chaptbr I: Introdu Tion
Chaptbr I: Introdu Tion
INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Introdu~tion
1.1.1 Introduction
than the ion neutral collision frequency while the electron gyrofrequency is
larger than eledi'on neutral collision frequency. Consequently the ions are
carried along the wind but the electrons move across the wind. This
relative movement between the ions and the electrons constitute an
conducting geomagnetic field lines. The E region at the dip equator, where
the intense vertical polarization field that drives the elcctrojet is located, is
not magnetically coupled to the F region [Baker and Martyn, 1952], so the
electrojet field should not appear at the r region heights. Rishbeth [1971]
and Heelis et al. [1974] have discussed the importance of winds in
spread F conditions.
electrons and ions, is much greater than that of the lower atmosphere. The
geomagnetic field inhibits the motion of charged particles in directions
normal to the fIeld lines, and the conductivity is thus anisotropic. The
the developments made by Hirono [1952], Baker and Martyn [1952, 1953],
Fejer [1953], Maeda [1955] and Kato [1956). The conductivity varies with
j=O".E (1)
where 0" is the tensor conductivity. Combining the contributions from the
ions and electrons, the direct conductivity tensor 0" is given by
Ne
0" = O"i + 0" e = I f [vi - vel (2)
If the magnetic field is oriented in the z direction and the electric field is
2 2
Ye y.
Ne Nj 1
0"1 +-_.- 2 (3)
lel
meY e 2 2 mjYj Y2 + O)j2
Ye + we i
(4)
Here both the conductivities and the applied field are perpendicular to the
magnetic field. The conductivity along the magnetic field due to a paral1el
O"(J:-:-: (5)
Here N, m and v represent the number density, mass and col1ision
matrix.
conducting layers because the current cannot flow into the region of low
eleclric field can be eliminated. Then the 3 x3 tensor 0' can be replaced by a
2 x 2 tensor cr', called layer conductivity, whose components depend on the
where O'xx =
0/ Cos21 (6)
Cfyy -= O"n Sin2 1 -I- 0"1 Cos2 1 I- (11
O"xy = 0
(7)
During daytime the conductivity in the E region is very high and in the
nighttime it decreases to 1/50 of the daytime value [Rishbeth, 1971]. The
transverse conductivities 0"1 and 0"2 are important primarily below 200 km,
where the electron and ion densities behave in a fairly regular manner and
1970; ltikawa, 1971; Hill and Bowhi1l, 1977] using standard formulae [Bauer,
1973]. Unlike daytime conditions, the relative importance of 0"1, above 200
good account of the early developments of the theory has been given by
I-lines [1963] and Maeda and Kato 11966]. Various aspects of the dynamo
theory has been dealt with in a number of review papers [Matsushita, 1977;
Blanc, 1979; Richmond, 1979, 1989; Wagner et aI., 1980; Forbes, 1981]. The
sun and moon produce tidal forces In the atmosphere which result in air
motions. As a result of the motion of the air across the geomagnetic field, a
ClllTent is induced as in a dynamo. Those parts of the ionospheric region
where this current is produced is called the atmospheric dynamo.
resultant electric fields conducted along the geomagnetic flux tubes to the F
region produce vertical and horizontal F layer motions. The E region
interact with F region ionization to induce fields that in turn can add to
dynamo region currents and their effects. During daytime, the F region
dynamo fields driven by r region winds are largely short circuited by the
density being quite high [Rishbeth, 1977]. The F region dynamo behaves
like a constant current generator with high internal impedance.
for the variation. The central equation connecting Winds, electric fields and
electric current is a form of ohm's law and is given as
div J = 0 (9)
curl E = 0 (10)
have followed this line of approach [Baker, 1953]. The results obtained
from their studies proved that a proper combination of the diurnal and
semi diurnal winds can explain the observed geomagnetic variations.
When considering the equations of motion of the atmosphere, the diurnal
contributed by the Coriolis force which strongly affects the wind motion.
predominates over the semi diurnal one [Maeda, 1955]. If the wind is of
J x Bo
Vd=---- (13)
I:nimivi
under the balance between the Ampere force (J x Bo ) and the collisional
friction force with neutral particles (I:nimiViVi) which are taken to be at
rest.
Ex Bo
Vd --- --.-.._--
2 (14)
Bo
possible to esti . .n ate the electric fll11d in the F region from that in the
dynamo region. The E field in the dynamo region can be found from the
by the current density J or the electric field E, thus relating the charged
of the magnetic equator) has been explained on the basis of plasma drifts.
Martyn [1947] suggested that the E x B drift would lift the F region
ionization vertically upward over tho equator and ionization thus lifted
would diffuse along the magnetic field lines producing the crests. The
lalitudinal asymmetry of the equatorial anomaly along with some
observed features has been explained by taking transequatorial neutral
wind effects into account along with drift and diffusion [e.g. Hanson and
Moffett, 1966; Bramley and Young, 1968; Abur - Robb and Windle, 1969].
Vertical plasma drifts and the post sunset height rise of the F layer
also play an important role in creating the conditions necessary for the
onset of equatorial spread-F [Lyon et al., 1961; Farley et al., 1970; Chandra
and Rastogi, 1972a, b]. Electron density changes in the F region are
decay of the layer l1nd, therefore, very low electron density values are seen
in the early morning hours, prior to sunrise, both in theoretical models
would not be sufficient to account for certain complex features such as the
nighttime anomalous enhancement in not only the peak electron density
but ionospheric total electron content as well [Balan and Rao, 1987].
large increase ill the observed eastward drift shortly after local sunset.
11
between the E and the F region then the eastward plasma drift is just equal
to the zonal neutral wind which sets up the polarization field. The zonal
winds are the ones responsible for the global scale dynamo action, which in
turn results in the generation of electric fields that are primarly responsible
for the various electrodynamic processes. The zonal plasma drifts also play
a significant role in the generation of spread F. Recently, Vyas and
Chandra (1991] have shown tha t there is a consistent delay in the reversal
time of zonal drift in the ionospheric F region from westward to eastward
Dickinson et a1. [1971) and Dickinson and Roble [1972) have studied
experience an acceleration where the ion drag is typically less than its global
scale smooth value, and likewise, they experience decceleration where the
ion drag is locally greater. A number of numerical experiments have been
- ---
performed to investigate the interaction of the E x B drift and resultant
variations of ion drag with the zonal winds ISiplor et al., 1983]. The reStllts
indicate that this interaction has a strong influence on the winds and that
12
the magnitude and direction of the wind velocity depends upon the height
to which the F region is raised by the E x 13 drift, as well as the lime
variation of the drift pattern, both of which are highly variable. Thus some
of the variability of zonal winds in the equatorial region is probably related
to variations in ion drag caused by dynamic interactions with the E x B
about 14.00 LT. This bulging of the atmosphere gives rise to horizontal
gradients of air pressure which can drive horizontal winds. The winds
blow away from the hottest part of the thermosphere, which is in the
afternoon sector, and towards the coldest part in the early morning sector.
They therefore blow across the polar regions and zonally around the earth
in low latitudes. Unlike winds in the lower atmosphere, thermospheric
winds are strongly influenced by frictional forces due to viscosity of the air
and to collisions between the neutral air particles and the positive ions.
The ions exert a drag on the air because their motion is strongly impeded
by the earths magnetic field. This frlctlonal force or Ion drag is generally
the major factor limiting the wind speed in the thermosphere. The winds
can freely move the F region ions and electrons in the direction of the
magnetic field. If the field lines are inclined, this ion motion has a vertical
component which can affect the ion and electron concentration, mainly
because the loss coefficient has a significant height dependence. The effect
field, poleward wind causes downward drift and tends to reduce the ion
neutral wind on the diurnal variation of the F layer has been explained in
a number of papers [Rishbeth, 1967; Bailey et al., 19691. The occurrence of
an evening maximum in fo F2 in summer mid-latitudes has been
attributed to the reversal of the neutral wind [Kohl and King, 1967]. The
thermospheric '.-\lind system is one of the factors which cause seasonal
asymmetry in the electron density distribution in the equatorial region.
The wind components, in the magnetic meridian have the greatest direct
influence, though more subtle effects result from the dynamo action of F
region wind bloWing across the magnetic field [Rishbeth, 1977]. The effect
of meridional wind depends on whother it is transequatorial or it has an
appreciable divergence or convergence at low latitudes. At the magnetic
equator transequatorial winds appear to be able to give rise to the
asymmetries that are observed in the equatorial anomaly [Hanson and
Moffett, 1966; Bramley and Young, 1968; Abur- Robb and Windle, 1969].
[1949).
plasma drift velocity in the equatorial F region [Abdu et al., 1983). Using
the large scale ionospheric disturbances [Cooper and Cummack, 1986] and
ncutral winds I Krishnamurthy et aI., 1990].
Method of Region Phenomenon
observation obsetved observed
Table 1.1
15
change of even A/4 of the exploring waves can be determined. The phase
defined as
P= J IJds
where l.l is the phase refractive index and P' is the ray path. The
nominal frequency (J) from the ionosphere is compared with that of a local
the beat pattern of the phase compared signal along the time base of an
oscilloscope display. The signal at the output of the phase detector is a low
frequency sinusoidal wave of angular frequency ~ro and its phase is given
roP
<PO = Amt -I C
The beat frequency sinusoidal waves occur during the time interval
P' I c < t < (P' I CI ~), where S is the received echo pulse width. Changes in
16
the operating frequency 0) is much greater than the beat frequency .1.00, it is
taken that the movement of the beat maximum along the time base is
entirely due to changes in P.
Doppler signal to be separated and identified. The liF Doppler radar make
use of phase coherent receiver with quadrature channels to detect the
Doppler shifled received signal [Balan et aI., 1979; Jayachandran et a1., 1987].
tool for studying Lhe LIpper atmosphere as a whole. The radar depends on
the scattering 01 1cdio waves by the free electrons in the ionosphere. The
ground was broken for the first incoherent scatter radar site in Arecibo,
Puerto Rico in 1959.. The first major incoherent scatter facility was
constructed at Jicamarca, Peru in 1960·'61.
measured at all heights and all times, and compromises exist between the
Incoherent radars detect and analyse weak echoes scattered from the
ionosphere. The effective target area of the ionosphere is so smal1 « 1
sq.cm) that powerful transmitters and large antennas are needed. In
and in the bistatic case by changing the elevation of the highly directive
scatter t~chniques and briefly reviewed the ways in which it has been used
given by Woodman and Hagfors [1969]. For the drift measurements the
system can be operated in two ways. In both, two pulses are transmitted:
one at time t and the other al t + s. In one of the techniques both pulses are
lH
signal is
the form
the absence of drifts and the angular Doppler frequency rod is determined by
rod = kv
that near 200 km, motions of both clouds parallel to the earth's magnetic
field are roughly the same, but they differ significantly in the direction
One of the methods used for determining the horizontal drifts in the
ionospheric region consists of recording the fading of ionospheric echoes at
three spaced receivers [Mitra, 1949). The method uses a pulse transmitter
" X\V\
\ tx \
y
ty
II.
~
Time (s)
(a ) (b)
Then t x (x Cos8)/V
ty = (y Sin8)/V
The reflection method of Mitra has been used to study drifts in many
parts of the world. The principal difficulty with the above technique seems
to be in the interpret?tlon of the properties of the diffraction pattern in
terms of the properties of ionosphere.
densities [McClure and Hanson, 1973] and also in electric fields [Kelley and
Mozer, 1972]. Woodman and LaI-Ioz [1976] and McClure et at. [1977] using
regions in the vertical electron density at the onset time of ESP. The
inference of a large-scale quasiperiodic ionization structure in the evening
equatorial ionosphere added a new dimension to the discussion of the
1. Range spread F - When the diffuseness is along the horizontal part of the
trace but the critical frequencies are identifiable, spread is classified as range
type.
prominent in the height scale in the entire frequency range of the observed
1952], Kodaikanai [Bhargava, 1958], Tbadon [Lyon et a1., 1960] and Thumba
[Chandra and Rastogi, 1972a]. Rastogi [1986a] suggested that the necessary
3. continuation of the above conditions for a period large enough for the
irregularities to grow strong.
Vertical plasnla drifts and the postsunset height rise of the F layer
play an important role in creating the conditions conducive for the onset of
ESP. Several studies have been carried out on the relationship between the
occurrence of the ESF and the post sunset F region height rise [Lyon et a1.,
1961; Krishnamurthy and Rao, 1963; Farley et a1., 1970; Skinner and
Kndaikanal, Rao and Ran [1961) concluded that the equatorial spread- F
LaI-Joz [1976) show that the contours rise at all altitudes upto the peak
electron density level. The rapid rise of the evening F layer is associated
velocity [Woodman, 1970; Fejer et aI., 1979a; Abdu et a1., 1983], which is
value. Sastri [1984J reported that the ESF onset as observed on the
ionograms occurs usually around the time of reversal of the plasma drift
from upward to downward, which means, when the layer is lifted to its
maximum altitude.
that the average height during non"spread F nights are lower than those
particular threshold height is required for the onset of ESF under high
scatter in the value of h'P at the time of the onset of spread -F. From a
the time of reversal of the Sq electric field [Rastogi 1986b]. If the reversal
I
remains eastward for even an hour after sunset, then there is a very good
chance of sprcad - F gcncration .
between 270 and 300 km, was shown to enhance considerably at around
1900 hrs on days of cquatorial spread- F. Magnetic activity is known to
produce significant cffccts on ES F [Lyon ct al. ,1958; Somayajulu and
Krishnamurthy, 1976]. The results obtained from the ionogram data at
American zone, the occurrence of spread - F is least for years of high solar
activity. Besides this, various other factors, such as neutral winds and
spread - F does not seem to be correlated either with the height or vertical
velocity of the F layer. From this it is clear that the mechanism responsible
for the production of the irregularities causing spread - F dUring pre- and
post-midnight is different
26
because they could not explain the wide variety of 3m coherent radar
the importance of the collisional drift mode in ESF. This mode had the
advantage that it could occur on both the top and bottomside of the F
region~ but still would not explain the longer wavelength irregularities.
27
kinetic drift waves grow off these irregularities after they reach large
perpendicular to the ambient geomagnetic field, using only gravity and the
induced ExB motion. This was Lhe major break through as it represented
could appear on both the bottom side and top side of the equatorial F
region. The bubble phenomena was in accord with many observations
[Kelley et al. 1976; Woodman and LaHoz, 1976; McClure et al., 1977].
directly affect the ionosphere at high latitudes are ultimately driven by the
solar wind, some aspects of which can be monitored by observing the IMP.
The preliminaly work on the possible effects of the IMF on the low-
latitude ionospheric field was done by Patel and Rastogi [1974] and Rastogi
and Patel (1975). Frorn the observations made by Rastogi and Patel [1975] , it
the equator and south -to-north reversals of the vertical component of the
IMF. The disappearance of Es - q provides an interesting clue to the
few minutes to hours. From the sirnultaneous study of the IMF and low
latitude geomagnetic field [Patel, 1978J, It is shown that the changes from
current is also responsible for the F region vertical drift, which can be
measured accurately with the large 50 MHz radar at the Jicamarca Radar
Observatory in Peru [Woodman and Hagfors, 1969) . At the equator ,the
ionospheric easl:-west electric field is typically of the order of O.5mV 1m and
is eastward during the day and westward at night. This value of field
corresponds to an E region electron drift velocity of about 400 mls and an F
of Jicamarca vertical drifts on the IMF [Fejer et a1., 1979b) shows that the
average velocities are essentially unaffected by changes in the azimuthal
component (By) , but the north - south component (Bz) appears to have a
slight effect. When Bz is southward (Bz < 0), the average vertical drift is
equatorial electric field. Rastogl and Patel [1975) and Patel [1978) suggest that
auroral processes can manifest itself in two ways. One is due to the direct
penetration of magnetospheric convective electric field to low latitudes and
other is due to disturbance dynamo effects [Blanc and Richmond, 1980;
Blanc, 1983; Fejer, 1986]. The direct penetration of electric fields can be
[Carpentcr, 1970; Park and Carpcnter, 1970J. Tn the ionosphere, the height
:11
electromagnetic drift [Martyn, 1953; Maeda and Sato, 1959; Kohl, 1960;
Evans, 1970; Park, 1971].
Park and Meng [1971] have studied the vertical motions of the F2
layer associated with magneospheric substorm using ground-based
ionosonde records (rom mid latitude stations during winter nights. The
results showed that during substorms, the F2 layer is lifted upward in the
pre-midnight sector and pushed downward in the post-midnight sector.
These motions are interpreted in terms of E x B drifts, the electric field
northward IMF turning were indeed coincident with the onset of substorm
equatorial electric field data and magnetic field data reported a close
Doppler radar used for the present study and the method of computation of
plasma drift velocities from the radar observations are described in chapter
II. A detailed study on the spectral characteristics of the fluctuating
componenL of tile evening F region vertical drift velocity, including its