Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Computer Awareness PDF
Computer Awareness PDF
Introduction
1. Computer
Computer is an electronic device or combination of electronic devices, capable
of solving problems by accepting data, performing prescribed operations on
the data and supplying the results of these operations. The computer in
organisation often compared with the human brain. Like the brain that designed
it, a computer can take in data and process it. It can store the data either in
raw form or as processed results and can deliver the raw or processed data to
the outside world on demand.
2. Characteristics of Computers
The ever increasing use of computers in all walks of life is due to its special
characteristics. Some of its important characteristics are described below:
Speed
Computers are fast. Electric pulses travel at incredible speeds and because the
computer is electronic, its internal speed is virtually instantaneous. Many of
today’s computers can perform hundreds of millions of processing operations
in one second.
Accuracy
The computer’s physical processing circuits rarely make errors. If the correct
data and instructions are fed in, the computer processes the data and gives the
correct results.
Versatility
Computers can handle a variety of applications and jobs and can be used in
various fields.
Diligence
Computers can perform a given set of functions endlessly without getting
tired or bored.
Automation
No human intervention is required once the instructions and data are given.
The CPU follows these instructions until it meets a last instruction which
says—Stop programme execution; hence leading to automation.
Storage
A computer can store massive amounts of information. Today’s personal
computers can be equipped with disks capable of storing more than one billion
characters (letters or numbers). They are capable of handling voluminous
data and information.
Programmability
A computer is programmable; that is, what the computer does depends on the
programme the computer is using. (A programme is the list of instructions
telling the computer what to do).
Costs
With increasing speed and declining costs of the hardware unit, data processing
cost has been declining dramatically.
3.Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified on the basis of different factors. Present day
computers can be divided into three major classes based on the mode of data
representation used.
Analog Computers
l Operate by measuring rather than counting.
l Use continuous signals as input.
l Examples: Thermometer, Speedometer etc.
Digital Computers
l These are the systems that are computationally complete and capable of
solving all of the problems that can be solved algorithmically.
Introduction / 3
PC Laptop Notebook
K KUNDAN
Tablet PDA Smart Phone
K KUNDAN
and can handle the workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large
and powerful systems generally used in centralized databases. The user accesses
the mainframe computer via a terminal that may be a dumb terminal, an intelligent
terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do processing of its
own. It has the input and output device only. An intelligent terminal has the
input and output device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of its own.
The dumb and the intelligent terminal use the processing power and the storage
facility of the mainframe computer. Mainframe computers are used in
organizations like banks or companies, where many people require frequent
access to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and
IBM ES000 series.
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have
high processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a
supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (FLoating point Operations
Per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers can perform trillions of
calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands
of processors that can work in parallel.
Introduction / 7
Mainframe Computers
K KUNDAN
Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather
forecasting, climate research (global warming), molecular research, biological
research, nuclear research and aircraft design. They are also used in major
universities, military agencies and scientific research laboratories. Some
examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel
ASCI red. PARAM is a series of supercomputer assembled in India by C-DAC
(Center for Development of Advanced Computing), in Pune. PARAM Padma
is the latest machine in this series. The peak computing power of PARAM
Padma is 1 Tera FLOP (TFLOP).
5. Generations of Computers/History of Computers:
The computer evolved as a result of man’s search for a fast and accurate
calculating device. Abacus was the first manual calculating device, which was
invented in Asia many centuries ago. In 1617, John Napier, a Scottish
mathematician invented a mechanical calculator called the ‘Napier’s bones’.
Thereafter, many kinds of computers have been designed and built during the
evolution of the modern digital computer. In order to provide a framework for
the growth of computer industry, the computer era has been referred in terms
Supercomputers
Number 3 4 5 5
Weight 1000 100 10 1
Place Value 3000 400 50 5
Number 1 0 0 1 1
Weight 16 8 4 2 1
Place Value 16 0 0 2 1
K KUNDAN
Solution:
Step A: Powers of base 2 which are less than 674
20 = 1
21 = 2
22 = 4
24 = 16
25 = 32
26 = 64
28 = 256
29 = 512
23 = 8 27 = 128
Step B to E:
674
– 512 (= 29)
162
– 128 (= 27)
34
– 32 (= 25)
2
– 2 (= 21)
0
Number System / 13
Step F:
Thus used indices are 9,7,5 and 1.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Thus binary equivalent of 674 is 1010100010.
(ii) Remainder Method
The conversion is carried out in the following order:
(i) Divide the given number (decimal system) by the base of the
proposed system (in which the number has to be converted). Note
down the remainder.
(ii) Now the quotient will again be divided by the radix and the remainder
will be noted down.
(iii) The procedure goes on till zero comes as quotient.
Example 1: Convert 220 into binary number by using Remainder method.
Solution:
2 220
2 110 0
2 55 0
2 27 1
2 13 1
2 6 1
2 3 0
2 1 1
0 1
While writing the binary equivalent the digits are taken from bottom to top (as
indicated by arrow). The binary equivalent of 220 is 11011100.
Example 2: Convert 674 into binary number by using Remainder method.
2 674
2 337 0
2 168 1
2 84 0
2 42 0
2 21 0
2 10 1
2 5 0
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1
Thus binary equivalent of 674 is 1010100010.
(b) Fractional decimal number to binary conversion
Fractional decimal numbers can be converted to binary numbers by following
the steps given below:
1. Multiply the base of the proposed system with the fraction to be
converted.
2. Note down the resulting integer (if any) otherwise put down zero in
that place.
3. Repeat the multiplication with the resulting fraction.
4. Keep repeating the procedure till the fraction vanishes or you
encounter the recursive fractions.
K KUNDAN
Fraction Part= .84375.
.84375 × 2
.68750 × 2
.37500 × 2
=
=
=
Fraction
1.68750
1.37500
0.75
Integer
1
1
0
.75 × 2 = 1.50 1
.50 × 2 = 1.00 1
.843755 = .11011
17.35 = 10001.11011
K KUNDAN
Sum = 13
(d) Binary Fraction to Decimal Conversion
(1101)2 = (13)10
l On large machines, the CPU requires one or more printed circuit boards.
On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a
singlechip called a microprocessor.
l The CPU itself is an internal component of the computer. Modern CPUs
are small and square and contain multiple metallic connectors or pins on
the underside. The CPU is inserted directly into a CPU socket, pin side
down, on the motherboard.
l Each motherboard will support only a specific type (or range) of CPU,
so you must check the motherboard manufacturer’s specifications before
attempting to replace or upgrade a CPU in your computer.
l Modern CPUs also have an attached heat sink and small fan that go
directly on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat.
l Two typical components of a CPU are:
1. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical
operations and
2. The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and
decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
(c) Input Devices
We can enter data into the computer in many ways. The most commonly used
input devices are keyboards; pointing devices, such as mouse and track balls;
and scanners. Many other special-purpose-input devices are available. Computers
often have more than one input device. For example, most personal computers
have both a keyboard and a mouse.
(i) Keyboard:
l Most input data is entered into the computer by using a keyboard. This
input method is similar to typing on a typewriter.
l Most typewriters and computer keyboards are QWERTY KEYBOARDS.
The alphabetic keys are arranged so that the upper-left row of letters
begins with the six letters Q W E R T Y.
Mouse
Track Ball
Touchpad
l A device that was released in 1995 enables the user to move the cursor
using an infrared pen. The pen is cordless and works when it is as far
as fifteen feet from the screen.
l Although the mouse is still the most popular pointing device, these
innovations may change that in future.
(v) Joysticks
l A joystick is a pointing device often used for playing games.
l The joystick has a gearshift-like lever that is used to move the pointer
on the screen.
l On most joysticks, a button on the top is used to select option. In industry
and manufacturing, joysticks are used to control robots.
l Flight simulators and other training simulators also use joysticks.
Joystick
Optical Scanners
Inkjet Printer
Cache Memory
Floppy
Magnetic Tapes
l Writing and retrieving data is slow. It uses serial access for reading and
writing.
l Magnetic tapes are used for application which requires extremely large
storage capacity where speed of access is not an issue. It is commonly
used for backups of file servers for computer networks, in a variety of
batch processing applications such as reading of bank cheques, payroll
processing and general stock control.
l
l
K KUNDAN
(v) Optical backing storage media such as CDs and DVDs
CDs tend to be used for large files (but smaller than 1Gb) which are too
big for a floppy disc to hold such as music and general animation.
DVDs are used to hold very large files (several Gb) such as movie films.
Both CDs and DVDs are portable i.e. they can be transported from one
computer to another. Both can be used to store computer data.
l CD ROM/DVD ROM Applications which require the prevention of
deletion of data, accidental or otherwise. CDs used by software companies
for distributing software programs and data; by Music companies for
distributing music albums and by book publishers for distributing
encyclopaedias, reference books etc. DVDs used by film distributors.
l CD R/DVD R Applications which require a single ‘burning’ of data, e.g.
CDs - recording of music downloads from the Internet, recording of
music from MP3 format, recording of data for archiving or backup
purposes. DVDs – recording of film movies and television programs.
l CD RW/DVD RW Applications which require the updating of information
and ability to record over old data. Not suitable for music recording but
is very useful for keeping generations of files. DVDs have between five
and ten times the capacity of CDs.
Hardwares / 35
CDs
Pen drives
hold much more data, have a more durable design, and operate more reliably
due to their lack of moving parts. Flash drives are widely used to transport
files and backup data from computer to computer.
(b) Flash memory cards
A memory card or flash memory card is a solid-state electronic flash memory
data storage device used with digital cameras, handheld and Mobile computers,
telephones, music players, video game consoles, and other electronics.
Nowadays, most new PCs have built-in slots for a variety of memory cards;
Memory Stick, Compact Flash, SD, etc. Some digital gadgets support more
than one memory card to ensure compatibility.
files and maintaining the integrity of data stored in the files including file
directory structure.
l Job Control: When the user wants to run an application program, he
must communicate with the OS, telling it what to do. He does this by
using the OS’s job control language or JCL. JCL consists of a number
of OS commands, called system commands, that control the functioning
of the operating system.
l House Keeping includes all the support services necessary to ensure
smooth operation of the computer system, viz., security, protection, and
resource accounting, back-up and restoration, etc.
OS as a Resource Manager for four major resources.
Resource Examples Examples S/W
Task to Accomplish
1. Memory Core (Main) Memory Management, paging
2. Processors CPU, I/O channels Traffic controller, scheduler
3. Devices Tapes, drums, card punch Spooling
4. Information Segment (system user) File System, Library
3. BIOS
l Pronounced “bye-ose,” BIOS is an acronym for basic input/output
system. The BIOS is built-in software that determines what a computer
can do without accessing programs from a disk. On PCs, the BIOS
contains all the codes required to control the keyboard, display screen,
disk drives, serial communications, and a number of miscellaneous
functions.
l The BIOS is typically placed on a ROM chip that comes with the
computer (it is often called a ROM BIOS). This ensures that the BIOS
will always be available and will not be damaged by disk failures. It also
makes it possible for a computer to boot itself.
l Because RAM is faster than ROM, many computer manufacturers design
systems so that the BIOS is copied from ROM to RAM each time the
computer is booted. This is known as shadowing, and should be disabled
in the BIOS setup before flashing. Most modern PCs have a flash BIOS,
which means that the BIOS has been recorded on a rewriteable memory
chip, which can be updated if necessary.
l The PC BIOS is standardised, so all PCs are alike at this level (although
there are different BIOS versions). Additional DOS functions are usually
added through software modules. This means you can upgrade to a newer
version of DOS without changing the BIOS.
l PC BIOSes that can handle Plug-and-Play (PnP) devices are known as
PnP BIOSes, or PnP-aware BIOSes. These BIOSes are always
implemented with flash memory rather than ROM.
l When you turn on your computer, several events occur automatically:
1. The CPU “wakes up” (has power) and reads the x86 code in the BIOS
chip.
2. The code in the BIOS chip runs a series of tests, called the POST
for Power On Self Test, to make sure the system devices are working
correctly. In general, the BIOS:
H Initialises system hardware and chipset registers
H Initialises power management
H Tests RAM (Random Access Memory)
H Enables the keyboard
H Tests serial and parallel ports
H Initialises floppy disk drives and hard disk drive controllers
H Displays system summary information
3. During POST, the BIOS compares the system configuration data
obtained from POST with the system information stored on a CMOS—
Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor—memory chip located on
the motherboard. (This CMOS chip, which is updated whenever new
system components are added, contains the latest information about
system components.)
4. After the POST tasks are completed, the BIOS looks for the boot
program responsible for loading the operating system. Usually, the
BIOS looks on the floppy disk drive A: followed by drive C:.
5. After being loaded into memory, the boot program then loads the system
configuration information (contained in the registry in a Windows
environment) and device drivers.
6. Finally, the operating system is loaded, and, if this is a Windows
environment, the programs in the Start Up folder are executed.
5
Viruses and Social Concerns
1. Negative Impacts of Computer Technology
l They’re manufactured using hazardous chemicals hence harming the
health of people working and also contributing in pollution.
l They are failure prone. A failure in a nuclear power station, or airplane
etc. can endanger many lives and resources.
l Discarded computers are real junk and consume lot of space.
l They are always a threat to personal privacy.
l Working too much time in computer gives the user back pain, nerve
injuries etc.
l By automating tasks, unemployment is increasing at a very high speed
specially in product units. However this aspect has been neutralized by
employment generation in IT sector.
Thus one has to be careful while working on the computer and take care of
the negative effects, so that they do not overpower the positive effects of it.
2. Viruses and their Types
l Virus is a small intelligent code (program written in any computer
language) written to alter the way a computer or a program must operate
without the permission or knowledge of the user.
l Computer viruses pose a significant threat to today’s business
environment. As users share more information both over network and
through other medium, the rate of virus outbreak and its threat continues
to increase.
l The DOS environment has traditionally experienced the greatest number
of viruses. Now a greater number of new viruses have been written that
target the window and other environments.
l To make it clear it is necessary to understand that computer viruses has
nothing to do with biological viruses. It is neither a living or a nonliving
object but a program to disturb computers and their users.
l These programs (viruses) disturb users’ written programs, storage area
of program and sometimes storage devices. For this very reason,
problems in hardware (since almost all hardware are derived by
programs) are blamed to viruses to get rid of customers’ complaints and
the Anti-virus companies are benefited with this.
l A virus needs only two criteria. First, it must execute itself, often placing
some version of its own code in the path of execution of another program.
Second it must replicate itself, i.e., copy itself to other executable files
or to the disks the user accesses. It can invade single user (desktop)
machines and network services alike.
l PC viruses generally fall into three classes. (a) program viruses, (b) boot
sector viruses, (c) multipartite viruses.
l Program viruses infect program files. These files have extensions such
as .com, .exe., dll...... and even .bat, etc. Boot sector viruses infect the
system area of a disk, i.e., boot record of floppy or hard disk. All physical
floppy diskettes and hard disk contain a small program in the boot record
that is run when the computer starts up.
l Boot sector viruses attach themselves to this part of the disk and activate
when the user attempts to start up from the infected disk.
l Third class multipartite viruses infect both program files and boot
records.
3. Spreading of Viruses
l The most common way a boot virus spreads is by starting a computer
with a boot virus injected floppy diskettes in drive A while starting a
computer. The infected floppy diskette immediately writes its code to
the master boot record (MBR). The MBR runs each time when computer
starts, so from then virus initiated each time the computer starts. In one
or another forms the MBR runs in each operating system (DOS,
Windows 95, OS/2, Unix, etc.), so a virus can infect any type of
operating system. Once the virus has infected the computer it has two
primary jobs: to propagate itself to other computers and to activate the
event (trigger) that causes the virus to perform its task.
l To propagate itself to other computer a virus needs to find a “carrier”. A
carrier can be a file or floppy diskette. Most boot sector viruses will
infect any floppy diskette that is inserted into the floppy drive. When
another system is inadvertently started with this floppy diskette in its
boot drive that system becomes infected too. If the virus infects a file
as a carrier and the file is run on another user’s system, the virus gains
control and infects more files or the boot sector of the second system.
l Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by corrupting
programs, deleting files or reformatting the hard disk. Some are not
designed to damage, but simply make their presence known by presenting
text, video and audio messages in any way that creates problems for the
computer user. They typically take up a computer’s memory use by
legitimate programs. As a result they often cause erratic behavior and
can result in system crashes and data loss.
Viruses and Social Concerns / 43
4. Data Attacks
l There are many types of attacks on the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of data. Confidentiality keeps data secret from those not
authorised to see it.
l Integrity keeps data safe from modification by those not authorised to
change it. Availability, as we discussed under “Denial or Degradation of
Service” above, keeps data available for use.
l The theft, or unauthorised copying, of confidential data is an obvious
attack that falls into this category. Espionage agents steal national defense
information. Industrial spies steal their competitors’ product information.
Crackers steal passwords or other kinds of information on breaking into
systems.
l Two terms you’ll hear in the context of data attacks are inference and
leakage. With inference, a user legitimately views a number of small pieces
of data, but by putting those small pieces together is able to deduce some
piece of non-obvious and secret data. With leakage, a user gains access
to a flow of data via an unauthorised access route (e.g., through
eavesdropping).
5. Unauthorised Copying of Data
l Software piracy is another attack that spans the categories we’ve identified
in this unit. In some sense, piracy is just another example of the
unauthorised copying of data.
l The methods for detecting and preventing such a crime are the same
whether the copied data is national defense plans, commercial software,
or sensitive corporate or personal data.
l Preventing and detecting this type of attack requires coordinated policies
among the different categories of computer security. In terms of
personnel security, user education is vital. In terms of operations security,
automated logging and auditing software can play a part as well.
6. Session Hijacking
l Session hijacking is a relatively new type of attack in the communications
category. Some types of hijacking have been around a long time.
l In the simplest type, an unauthorised user gets up from his terminal to
go get a cup of coffee. Someone lurking nearby—probably a coworker
who isn’t authorised to use this particular system—sits down to read or
change files that he wouldn’t ordinarily be able to access.
l Some systems don’t disconnect immediately when a session is terminated.
Instead, they allow a user to re-access the interrupted program for a
short period. A cracker with a good knowledge of telephone and
telecommunications operations can take advantage of this fact to reconnect
to the terminated session.
l Sometimes, an attacker will connect a covert computer terminal to a line
between the authorised terminal and the computer. The criminal waits
until the authorised terminal is on line but not in use, and then switches
control to the covert terminal. The computer thinks it is still connected
to the authorised user, and the criminal has access to the same files and
data as the authorised user. Other types of hijacking occur when an
authorised user doesn’t log out properly so the computer still expects a
terminal to be connected. Call forwarding from an authorised number to
an unauthorised number is another method of getting access.
l Technically sophisticated tunneling attacks fall into this category as well.
Tunneling uses one data transfer method to carry data for another method.
Tunneling is an often legitimate way to transfer data over incompatible
networks, but it is illegitimate when it is used to carry unauthorised data
in legitimate data packets.
7. Timing Attacks
l Timing attacks is another technically complex way to get unauthorised
access to software or data. These include the abuse of race conditions
and asynchronous attacks. In race conditions, there is a race between
two processes operating on a system; the outcome depends on who wins
the race. Although such conditions may sound theoretical, they can be
abused in very real ways by attackers who know what they’re doing.
On certain types of UNIX systems, for example, attackers could exploit
a problem with files known as setuid shell files to gain superuser
privileges. They did this by establishing links to a setuid shell file, then
deleting the links quickly and pointing them at some other file of their
own. If the operation is done quickly enough, the system can be made
to run the attacker’s file, not the real file.
l Asynchronous attacks are another way of taking advantage of dynamic
system activity to get access. Computer systems are often called upon to do
many things at the same time. They may, for example, be asked by different
users to analyse data using an application program that can work with only
one set of data at a time. Or they may be told to print data by more users than
they can handle at once. In these cases, the operating system simply places
user requests into a queue, then satisfies them according to a predetermined
set of criteria; for example, certain users may always take precedence, or
certain types of tasks may come before others. “Asynchronous” means
that the computer doesn’t simply satisfy requests in the order in which they
were performed, but according to some other scheme.
Viruses and Social Concerns / 45
l A skilled programmer can figure out how to penetrate the queue and
modify the data that is waiting to be processed or printed. He might use
his knowledge of the criteria to place his request in front of others waiting
in the queue. He might change a queue entry to replace someone else’s
name or data with his own, or to subvert that user’s data by replacing
it. Or he could disrupt the entire system by changing commands so that
data is lost, programs crash, or information from different programs is
mixed as the data is analysed or printed.
8. Trojan Horses
l Trojan horses, viruses, worms, and their kin are all attacks on the integrity
of the data that is stored in systems and communicated across networks.
Because there should be procedures in place for preventing and detecting
these menaces, they overlap with the operations security category as well.
l During the Trojan War, the Greeks hid soldiers inside a large hollow
wooden horse designed by Odysseus. When the Trojans were persuaded
to bring the horse inside the gates of the city, the hidden soldiers emerged
and opened the gates to allow their own soldiers to attack the enemy.
l In the computer world, Trojan horses are still used to sneak in where
they’re not expected. A Trojan horse is a method for inserting instructions
in a program so that program performs an unauthorised function while
apparently performing a useful one. Trojan horses are a common
technique for planting other problems in computers, including viruses,
worms, logic bombs, and salami attacks (more about these later). Trojan
horses are a commonly used method for committing computer-based
fraud and are very hard to detect.
l Consider this typical situation: A Trojan horse is hidden in an application
program that a user is eager to try—something like a new game or a
program that promises to increase efficiency. Inside the horse is a logic
bomb that will cause the entire system to crash the third time the user
runs the new program. If he’s lucky, the user will thoroughly enjoy the
program the first two times it’s run, because when he tries to use it the
third time, the program he was eager to try will disable his whole system.
9. Viruses and Worms
l People often confuse viruses and worms, so we try to differentiate them
in this section. Indeed, they have many similarities, and both can be
introduced into systems via Trojan horses.
l The easiest way to think of a computer virus is in terms of a biological
virus. A biological virus is not strictly alive in its own right, at least in
the sense that lay people usually view life. It needs a living host in order
to operate. Viruses infect healthy living cells and cause them to replicate
the virus. In this way, the virus spreads to other cells. Without the living
cell, a virus cannot replicate.
l In a computer, a virus is a program which modifies other programs so
they replicate the virus. In other words, the healthy living cell becomes
the original program, and the virus affects the way the program operates.
How? It inserts a copy of itself in the code. Thus, when the program
runs, it makes a copy of the virus. This happens only on a single system.
(Viruses don’t infect networks in the way worms do, as we’ll explain
below.) However, if a virus infects a program which is copied to a disk
and transferred to another computer, it could also infect programs on
that computer. This is how a computer virus spreads.
l The spread of a virus is simple and predictable—and it can be prevented.
Viruses are mainly a problem with PCs and Macintoshes. Virus infection
is fortunately hard to accomplish on UNIX systems and mainframes.
l Unlike a virus, a worm is a standalone program in its own right. It exists
independently of any other programs. To run, it does not need other
programs. A worm simply replicates itself on one computer and tries to
infect other computers that may be attached to the same network.
l An important distinction between worms and viruses: A worm operates
over a network, but in order to infect a machine, a virus must be
physically copied. Some viruses and worms are nondestructive
(comparatively speaking), while others are extremely malevolent.
l Many common PC viruses, such as Michaelangelo, cause machine
crashes or data loss as a result of bugs or other unexpected interactions
with existing code. The Christmas Tree worm program which attacked
IBM systems started out as nondestructive. But, as it spread itself to
other computers, it became destructive when it proliferated into the system
to such a degree that no other work could be done and the entire network
had to be shut down to purge the infection.
10. Ways to treat viruses:
The best ways to prevent viruses and worms from invading a system are:
l Be vigilant about introducing new and untrusted software into a system.
l Use virus scanning software to check for viruses.
l Do frequent and careful backups.
Employees who bring software to the office from their home machines (usually
free software they have downloaded from bulletin board systems) are the
greatest threat.
6
Internet and Networking
The Internet
1. Introduction
(i) The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected computer
networks that use the TCP/IP set of network protocols to reach
billions of users. The Internet began as a U.S Department of Defense
network to link scientists and university professors around the world.
(ii) A network of networks, today, the Internet serves as a global data
communications system that links millions of private, public,
academic and business networks via an international
telecommunications backbone that consists of various electronic and
optical networking technologies.
(iii) Decentralized by design, no one owns the Internet and it has no
central governing authority. As a creation of the Defense Department
for sharing research data, this lack of centralization was intentional
to make it less vulnerable to wartime or terrorist attacks.
(iv) The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used
interchangeably; however, the internet and World Wide Web are not
one and the same.
(v) The Internet is a vast hardware and software infrastructure that
enables computer interconnectivity. The Web, on the other hand, is
a massive hypermedia database, a myriad collection of documents
and other resources interconnected by hyperlinks. Imagine the World
Wide Web as the platform which allows one to navigate the Internet
with the use of a browser such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla
Firefox.
2. History of the Internet
1957: USSR launches Sputnik into space. In response, the USA creates the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) with the mission of
becoming the leading force in science and new technologies.
1962: J.C.R. Licklider of MIT proposes the concept of a “Galactic Network.”
For the first time ideas about a global network of computers are
introduced. J.C.R. Licklider is later chosen to head ARPA’s research
efforts.
1962: Paul Baran, a member of the RAND Corporation, determines a way
for the Air Force to control bombers and missiles in case of a nuclear
event. His results call for a decentralized network comprised of packet
switches.
1968: ARPA contracts out work to BBN. BBN is called upon to build the
first switch.
1969: ARPANET created - BBN creates the first switched network by linking
four different nodes in California and Utah; one at the University of
Utah, one at the University of California at Santa Barbara, one at
Stanford and one at the University of California at Los Angeles.
1972: Ray Tomlinson working for BBN creates the first program devoted to
email.
1972: ARPA officially changes its name to DARPA Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency.
1972: Network Control Protocol is introduced to allow computers running
on the same network to communicate with each other.
1973: Vinton Cerf working from Stanford and Bob Kahn from DARPA begin
work developing TCP/IP to allow computers on different networks
to communicate with each other.
1974: Kahn and Cerf refer to the system as the Internet for the first time.
1976: Ethernet is developed by Dr. Robert M. Metcalfe.
Internet and Networking / 49
5. Network Topologes
l The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically
or logically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices
(usually called nodes) to each other. There are five basic topologies
possible: mesh, star, tree, bus, and ring.
l These five labels describe how the devices in a network are
interconnected rather than their physical arrangement. For example,
having a star topology does not mean that all of the computers in the
network must be placed physically around a hub in a s star shape.
l A consideration when choosing a topology is the relative status of the
devices be linked. Two relationships are possible: peer-to-peer, where
the devices share the link equally, and primary-secondary, where one
device controls traffic and the others must transmit through it. Ring and
mesh topologies are more convenient for peer-to-peer transmission, while
star and tree are more convenient for primary-secondary; bus topology
is equally convenient for either.
Mesh Topology
Star Topology :In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not
directly linked to each other. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not
allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If
one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device .
Star Topology
Tree Topology
Internet and Networking / 57
Bus Topology: In bus topology one long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in the network.
Bus Topology
K KUNDAN
Ring Topology
6. Network Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different
systems. An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information.
Examples include application programs, file transfer packages, browsers,
database management systems, and electronic mail software. A system is a
physical object that contains one or more entities, Examples include computers
and terminals. But two entities cannot just send bit streams to each other and
expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must agree
on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. A
protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it
is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect
the first eight bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second eight bits
to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message
itself.
Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on
that interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken
or the final destination of the message?
Timing :Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100
Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will
overload the receiver and data will be largely lost.
Protocols Example :There are a many standard protocols to choose from,
standard protocols have their own advantage and disadvantage i.e., some are
simpler than the others, some are more reliable, and some are faster. From a
user’s point of view, the only interesting aspect about protocols is that our
computer or device must support the right ones if we want to communicate
with other computers. The protocols can be implemented either in hardware
or in software. Some of the popular protocols are:
l TCP/IP
l HTTP
l FTP
l SMTP
l POP
l Token-Ring
l Ethernet
l Xmodem
l Kermit
l MNP, etc.
7. Communication Channels
A communication channel is a medium through which data is transmitted
among devices. It provides a way for data to be exchanged between remote
sites and a computer or among multiple computers. The main providers of
communication channels for computer users are the telephone companies and
long distance carriers. It is also possible for an organization to set up its own
wires, cables, or electronic links to establish a private a communication
capability. With either of these approaches, the primary types of channels
available for transmission of data include the following:
Internet and Networking / 59
l Wire cables
l Microwave
l Fiber optics
l Communication Satellites
8. Channel Sharing
The purpose of channel sharing is to increase the efficiency of use of a
communications channel. The following are three methods used to regulate
the flow of data from communications channels into a computer:
Multiplexing
It is the process of combining the transmission, character by character, from
several devices into a single data stream that can be spent over a single
communication channel. A multiplexer is the hardware that produces
multiplexing. It is also used at the receiving end to separate the transmissions
back to their original order for processing. The rationale for this process is
that most communication channels can transmit much more data at any one
time than a single device can send. A multiplexer allows the communication
channels to be used more efficiently and thus reduces the cost of using the
channel.
Concentration
Frequently, it is necessary to connect more devices to a computer than the
communication channel can handle at once. Concentration is the process of
connecting and serving these devices. A concentrator, often a minicomputer,
is the hardware that provides concentration. When the number of devices
transmitting exceeds the capability of the communication channel, the data are
stored in a buffer for later transmission. Many multiplexers also provide
concentration.
Controlling
Controllers or cluster controllers, link groups of terminals or other devices to
a communication channels. The controller polls the status of each terminal
and transfers data from a terminal to the host computer when necessary.
9. Types of Data Transmission
Analog Transmission
There is a continuous up and down pattern. One wave constitutes on cycle,
which is measured in the unit called Hertz (cycle per second). An example of
analog data is the human voice. When somebody speaks, a continuous wave
is transmitted in the air.
Digital Transmission
In digital transmission, wave patterns are translated into discrete bits and are
separated by intervals. Bit (contraction for binary digits) are the smallest unit
of information in data processing. They may be compared to a lightbulb,
which is either on or off. An example of digital is data stored in the memory of
a computer in the form of 0s and 1s. It is usually converted to a digital signal
when it is transferred from on position to another inside or outside or outside
the computer.
Full-Duplex
l In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously.