Aitchison Hay Solutions 1 PDF

Gauge Theories in Particle Physics
Third Edition
Volume 1: From Relativistic Quantum

Mechanics to QED
0750308648
Outline solutions for selected problems
I J R Aitchison and A J G Hey

Outline solutions for selected problems
Chapter 2
2.1 The quantum numbers of the ‘anything’ must be B = 1, Q = 0 in both cases, together
with S = −1 in the first case and S = +1 in the second; consider what are the lightest
single-particle or two-particle states with these quantum numbers.
2.2 (i) 4-momentum conservation gives p+k = p0 +k 0 which may be written as p0 = (k−k 0 )+p;
2
squaring both sides gives p0 = q 2 + 2p · (k − k 0 ) + M 2 c2 , and the result follows by evaluat-
ing the dot product in the frame such that p = (M c, 0). For highly relativistic electrons
E ≈ c|k|, E 0 ≈ c|k0 |, whence q 2 c2 = (E − E 0 )2 − c2 (k − k0 )2 ≈ −2EE 0 + 2EE 0 cos θ =
2
−4EE 0 sin2 θ/2. For elastic scattering p0 = M 2 c2 , and hence from the first result
q 2 = −2M (E − E 0 ). Combining this with the (approximate) formula for q 2 in terms
of θ gives the formula for E 0 .
(ii) E 0 = 4.522 GeV (negelecting the electron mass).
2
(iii) The invariant mass of the produced hadronic state is (p0 /c2 )1/2 ; using the first dis-
played equation and the (approximate) expression for q in terms of θ gives 1238 MeV/c2
2
(approximately equal to the mass of the I = 3/2 ∆ resonance).

(iv) The term ‘quasi-elastic peak’ in this context means the value of E 0 corresponding to
a collision between the incident electron and a single nucleon in the He nucleus, ignoring
the binding energy of the struck nucleon (i.e. it is treated like elastic scattering). Since
the binding energy is of order 10 MeV, very much less than the electron energy, this is
expected to be a good first approximation to the kinematics. It gives E 0 = 355.6 MeV.
The struck nucleon is, however, moving by virtue of being bound inside the He nucleus
(it has a bound state wavefunction and an associated momentum distribution). Rather
than attempting a more realistic correction based on the nucleon wavefunction, we can
get a fair idea of a typical nucleon momentum by using the ‘uncertainty relation’ estimate
p ∼ ~/R where R is the nuclear radius. Here R ∼ 1.5fm, and p ∼ 130MeV/c, which gives
a struck nucleon speed of order v/c ∼ 0.14. (Note that He is a tightly bound nucleus, and
the formula for the nuclear radius R = 1.1 × (A)1/3 is not really applicable - of course,
we are making rough estimates anyway.) Considering configurations with the outgoing
electron moving parallel/antiparallel to the struck nucleon gives a typical shift in E 0 of
order ± 50 MeV. Note that this is quite a bit bigger than the nucleon’s binding energy -
the relativistic transformation has amplified the effect.
2.3 (i) 5.1 eV.
(ii) (a) 1.29 (b) 0.75
(iii) hσ 1 · σ 2 i = +1 for S = 1, −3 for S = 0. Hyperfine splitting = 8.45 ×10−4 eV.
(iv) 0.57.
2.4 One-gluon exchange; confinement.
Ground state expected to be at the minimum of E(r) as a function of r, i.e. at r0 such
that dE(r)/dr|(r=r0 ) = 0.
Egr (cc̄) ≈ 3.23GeV.
Threshold for production of ‘open charm’ (DD̄ states) opens at about 3.73 GeV.
1
Outline solutions for selected problems 2
2.5 E± = 2a cos 2θ ± a; |+i = cos θ|1i + sin θ|2i, |−i = − sin θ|1i + cos θ|2i. System is in state
cos θ|+i − sin θ|−i at time t = 0; evolves to
cos θexp[i(2a cos 2θ + a)t/~]|+i − sin θexp[i(2a cos 2θ − a)t/~]|−i
at time t; amplitude of |2i in this state is
cos θ sin θ{exp[i(2a cos 2θ + a)t/~] − exp[i(2a cos 2θ − a)t/~]};
modulus squared of this gives result.
2.6 (iv) d = 2, R = 1mm: MP,3+d ≈ 1.54 TeV.
Chapter 3
3.1 From the inverse transformation and the chain rule
∂ ∂t ∂ ∂x1 ∂
= +
∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t ∂t0 ∂x1
we find
∂ ∂ ∂
=γ −v − 1
∂t0 ∂t ∂x
and similarly for − ∂x∂1 0 .
3.2 Six. F 21 = B 3 , F 32 = B 1 , F 13 = B 2 ; F 10 = E 1 , F 20 = E 2 , F 30 = E 3 . Consider ν = 1
component of (3.17); LHS is
∂µ F µ1 = ∂2 F 21 + ∂3 F 31 + ∂0 F 01
1
∂B 3 ∂B 2 ∂E 1

∂E
= − − = (∇ × B)1 −
∂x2 ∂x3 ∂t ∂t
which verifies the first component of (3.8).
3.3 It is advisable in such manipulations to let the whole expression act on an arbitrary
function F (x) say, which can be removed at the end. Thus
∂ −iqf (x)
p̂e−iqf (x) F (x) = − i {e F (x)}
∂x
∂f ∂F (x)
= − i(−iq) e−iqf (x) F + e−iqf (x) − i
∂x ∂x
∂f −iqf (x) −iqf (x)
= (−q) e F +e p̂F (x);
∂x
multiplying this from the left by eiqf (x) gives the result after F is removed.
Chapter 4
4.1(b) ρ = i(φ∗ φ̇ − φ̇∗ φ), j = i−1 (φ∗ ∇φ − (∇φ∗ )φ).
For φ = N e−ip·x , ρ = 2|N |2 E, j = 2|N |2 p, j µ = 2|N |2 pµ .
4.2(ii) Consider for example βαi = −αi β. Multiply from the left by β to obtain αi = −βαi β.
Now take the Trace and use Tr(βαi β) = Tr(αi β 2 ) = Tr(αi ).
4.4(b) (σ · a)(σ · b) = σi ai σj bj (sum on i and j) = σi σj ai bj
= (δij 1 + iijk σk )ai bj = a · b1 + iσ · (a × b).
4.6(i) (σ · û)2 = 1. Hence σ · û 12 (1 + σ · û)φ = 12 (σ · û + 1)φ. Projection operator for σ · û = −1
is 12 (1 − σ · û).
(ii) Take
1 + cos θ sin θe−iφ cos2 θ/2

N 1 N 1
φ+ = (1+σ·û) = =N
2 0 2 sin θeiφ 1 − cos θ 0 sin θ/2 cos θ/2eiφ
− sin θ/2e−iφ

and choose N = 1/(cos θ/2) for normalization. Possible φ− is .
cos θ/2
4.8 Consider jy0 for example. We have
jy0 = ω 0† αy ω 0 = ω † e−iΣx α/2 αy eiΣx α/2 ω.
Now
1 1
eiΣx α/2 = 1 + iΣx α/2 + (iΣx α/2)2 + (iΣx α/2)3 + . . .
2 3!
1 1
= 1 + iΣx α/2 − (α/2) − iΣx (α/2)3 + . . .
2
2 3!
= cos α/2 + iΣx sin α/2
as in (4.80). Hence
jy0 = ω † [(cos α/2 − iΣx sin α/2)αy (cos α/2 + iΣx sin α/2)]ω.
But

σx 0 0 σy 0 σx σy 0 iσz
Σx αy = = = = iαz ;
0 σx σy 0 σx σy 0 iσz 0
similarly αy Σx = −iαz ; and Σx αy Σx = −αy Σ2x = −αy . Hence
jy0 = ω † [cos2 α/2 αy + 2 sin α/2 cos α/2 αz − sin2 α/2 αy ]ω

= ω † [cos α αy + sin α αz ]ω
= cos α jy + sin α jz .
4.10 Under (4.83):

ψ̄ 0 ψ 0 = ψ 0† βψ 0 = ψ † e−iΣ·n̂θ/2 βeiΣ·n̂θ/2 ψ.

σ 0 1 0
Now Σ = , β= , and Σβ = βΣ, so that
0 σ 0 −1
e−iΣ·n̂θ/2 β = βeiΣ·n̂θ/2
and the exponentials cancel.

Under (4.90): use αx β = −βαx .
4.11 (a) γ µ γ ν + γ ν γ µ = 2g µν .
←−
(b) Taking the dagger of (iγ µ ∂µ − m)ψ = 0 gives −i(∂µ ψ † )γ µ† − mψ † = 0, or ψ † (iγ µ† ∂µ +
←
−
m) = 0 where the notation ∂µ means that the derivative acts on what is to the left of it,
†
i.e. on ψ . Multiply this equation from the right by γ 0 = β and use γ µ† β = βγ µ (obvious
←−
for µ = 0, check it for the space components); this gives ψ̄(i 6 ∂ + m) = 0.
←−
(c) ∂µ (ψ̄γ µ ψ) = (ψ̄ 6 ∂ )ψ + ψ̄(6 ∂ψ) = −mψ̄ψ + mψ̄ψ = 0.
4.13 V̂KG = iq(∂µ Aµ + Aµ ∂µ ) − q 2 Aµ Aµ .
4.14 (ii) (σ · ∇)(σ · A)ψ = σi ∂i σj Aj ψ = σi σj ∂i (Aj ψ)
= (δij 1 + iijk σk )∂i (Aj ψ) = ∂i (Ai ψ) + iijk σk ∂i (Aj ψ)
= ∇ · (Aψ) + iσ · {∇ × (Aψ)}.
4.15 (i) For a massive particle the direction of its momentum reverses on transforming to a
frame moving parallel to, and faster than, it; this is not possible for a massless particle
which moves at the speed of light. (ii) We give the solution in a form which adapts to the
general case. We have (E − σx px )uR = 0. Mulitiplying from the left by (1 − 21 σx x ) and
inserting a unit operator (to first order in x ) it follows that
(1 − 21 σx x )(E − σx px )(1 − 12 σx x )(1 + 21 σx x )uR = 0.

But (1 + 12 σx x )uR = u0R , and
(1 − 21 σx x )(E − σx px )(1 − 12 σx x ) = E − σx px − Eσx x + x px
(to first order in x ), which is just E 0 − σx p0x , whence (E 0 − σx p0x )u0R = 0 as required.
(iv) See part (i). Since, for m 6= 0, we can reverse the helicity by a Lorentz transformation,
we expect that in a Lorentz-invariant theory mass terms will mix states of opposite helicity.
(v) let BR = (1 + 21 σx x ), BL = (1 − 12 σx x ), so that u0R = BR uR , u0L = BL uL . Equation
(4.98) is (E − σx px )φ = mχ. So we have
BL (E − σx px )BL BL−1 φ = mBL χ. But BL−1 = BR , and part (ii) showed that BL (E −
σx px )BL = E 0 − σx p0x . Hence it follows that (E 0 − σx p0x )φ0 = mχ0 if φ0 = BR φ and
χ0 = BL χ. Similarly for (4.99).
Chapter 5
R L ∂φ 2
5.1 Consider the term 0 ∂x dx. We have
∞
∂φ X rπ rπx
= Ar (t) sin .
∂x r=1 L L
2
The quantity ‘ ∂φ
∂x ’ is the square of this entire series - i.e. it involves not only terms of
the form 2
h π πx i2
2π

2πx
A1 (t) sin , A2 (t) sin ,
L L L L
etc., but also all the ‘cross’ terms such as
π πx
2π 2πx
A1 (t) sin · A2 (t) sin .
L L L L
To make sure we are including all these cross terms, we use a different summation index
for the two independent summations when writing the product:
Z L "X ∞
Z L 2 #
∂φ rπ rπx
dx = Ar (t) sin
0 ∂x 0 r=1
L L
"∞ #
X sπ sπx
× As (t) sin dx
s=1
L L
X∞ rπ sπ Z L rπx sπx
= Ar (t)As (t) sin sin dx. (∗)
r,s=1
L L 0 L L
We need to evaluate the integral:

Z L rπx sπx
sin dx sin
0 L L
L Z
1n h πx i h πx io
= cos (r − s) − cos (r + s) dx
0 2 L L
L
1 L h πx i L h πx i
= sin (r − s) − sin (r + s) .
2 π(r − s) L π(r + s) L 0
Here both r and s are positive integers, so the second term vanishes. The first does also,
except when r = s, in which case it has the value L/2 as can be seen by evaluating the
integral directly for r = s. So we have

Z L rπx sπx
sin sin = L/2 for r = s
0 L L
=0 for r 6= s.
This means that in the sums over r and s in (∗), only the term in which r = s survives,
after the integral over x has been done. So (∗) becomes
∞
X rπ 2
2
(Ar (t)) L,
r=1
L
and Z L 2 X∞
1 2 ∂φ L 1 2 2
ρc dx = ρω A .
0 2 ∂x 2 r=1 2 r r
2
Similarly
R t for the φ̇ term.
5.2 S = 0 0 [ 21 mẋ2 + mgx]dt.
Z t0
1 1 1
(a) x = at : S(a) = ( ma2 + mgat)dt = ma2 t0 + mgat20 .
0 2 2 2
Choose ‘a’ so that end point of this trajectory coincides with end point of the Newtonian
trajectory in (b), which is at x = 21 gt20 . So we set at0 = 12 gt20 i.e. a = 12 gt0 . Then S(a) =
3 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 1 −1
8 mg t0 = 0.375(mg t0 ). (b): S(b) = 3 mg t0 = 0.3333(mg t0 ). (c): b = 2 gt0 , S(c) =
7 2 3 2 3
20 mg t0 = 0.35(mg t0 ). So S(b) < S(c) < S(a) .
5.3 (a) We want to verify that q̂˙ = −i[q̂, Ĥ] is consistent with q̂˙ = p̂/m. We have
1 2 1 1
[q̂, Ĥ] = [q̂, p̂ + mω 2 q̂ 2 ] = [q̂, p̂2 ]
2m 2 2m
1
= {p̂ [q̂, p̂] + [q̂, p̂] p̂} using [Â, B̂ Ĉ] = B̂ [Â, Ĉ] + [Â, B̂] Ĉ
2m
1 i
= {2ip̂} = p̂
2m m
whence −i[q̂, Ĥ] = p̂/m.
1
5.4 (a) From (5.61) and (5.62), q̂ = (â + â† )/(2mω) 2 . So 12 mω 2 q̂ 2 = 14 ω(â + â† )2 . Similarly
1 2
for the 2m p̂ term.
(b) [â, â ] = 1. [(â† â + 12 )ω, â] = ω [â† â, â] = ω {â† [â, â] + [â† , â] â} = −ωâ.
†
(c) We first prove that â(â† )n − (â† )n â = n (â† )n−1 , by induction: (i) it is true for n = 1;
(ii) multiplying from the left by â† and using â† â = ââ† − 1 in the first term proves the re-
sult for n + 1 assuming it’s true for n. Letting this result act on |0i we deduce â(â† )n |0i =
n(â† )n−1 |0i. Hence h0|(â)n (â† )n |0i = h0|(â)n−1 â(â† )n |0i = nh0|(â)n−1 (â† )n−1 |0i, and us-
ing induction again (or iterating this step another n−1 times) it follows that h0|(â)n (â† )n |0i =
n!, provided |0i is normalized.
1 1
(d) n̂ |ni = √ â† â(â† )n |0i = √ â† {n(â† )n−1 + (â† )n â}|0i
n! n!
1
= n √ (â† )n |0i = n|ni.
n!
5.6 (a) From (5.116),
Z ∞
dk
φ̂(x, t) = √ [â(k)eikx−iωt + â† (k)e−ikx+iωt ]
−∞ 2π 2ω
and so π̂(y, t) is given by

Z ∞
dk 0 0 0 0 0
π̂(y, t) = √ [(−iω 0 )â(k 0 )eik y−iω t + (iω 0 )â† (k 0 )e−ik y+iω t ].
2π 2ω 0
−∞
Note the use of a different integration variable in π̂(x, t), to ensure that the operators inside
the integral for φ̂ are treated independently of those inside the integral for π̂. In the com-
mutator [φ̂(x, t), π̂(y, t)] there are therefore four types of term: [â(k), â(k 0 )], [â† (k), â† (k 0 )],
which vanish by the second line of (5.117), and [â(k), â† (k 0 )], [â† (k), â(k 0 )]. The first of
these latter two yields
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1 0 0
dk dk 0 2
√ eikx−iωt e−ik y+iω t (iω 0 )2πδ(k − k 0 )
−∞ −∞ (2π) 4ωω 0
Z ∞
1 1 i
= dk iω eik(x−y) = δ(x − y)
−∞ 2π 2ω 2
using (E.25). The [â† (k), â(k 0 )] term gives the same.
(b)
∞
d3 k ∞
d3 k0
Z Z
[φ̂(x1 , t1 ), φ̂(x2 , t2 )] = √ √
−∞ (2π)3 2E −∞ (2π)3 2E 0
−ik·x1 † 0 −ik0 ·x2 0
[(â(k)e + â (k)e ik·x1
), (â(k )e + â† (k 0 )eik ·x2 )].
The surviving terms are the ‘[â, â† ]’ and ‘[â† , â]’ ones which give
dk0
Z ∞ Z ∞
dk 0
√ √ [e−ik·x1 eik ·x2 (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 )
3 3 0
−∞ (2π) 2E −∞ (2π) 2E
0
−eik·x1 e−ik ·x2 (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 )]
∞
d3 k
Z
= [e−ik·(x1 −x2 ) − eik·(x1 −x2 ) ]
−∞ (2π)3 2E
with k · (x1 − x2 ) = E(t1 − t2 ) − k · (x1 − x2 ). For t1 = t2 the integral is
d3 k
Z
[eik·(x1 −x2 ) − e−ik·(x1 −x2 ) ]
(2π)3 2E
which vanishes since the integrand is an odd function of k. So D is Lorentz invariant (see
Appendix E) and vanishes when t1 = t2 . It therefore also vanishes at all points which
can be connected to ‘t1 = t2 ’ by a Lorentz transformation. Noting that for t1 = t2 the
invariant interval (x1 − x2 )2 is spacelike (i.e. is less than zero), we deduce that D vanishes
for all x1 , x2 such that (x1 − x2 )2 < 0.
5.7 We have
Z ∞
dk
φ̂(x, t) = √ [â(k)eikx−iωt + â† (k)e−ikx+iωt ]
−∞ 2π 2ω
Z ∞
∂ φ̂ dk
= √ [â(k)(ik)eikx−iωt + â† (k)(−ik)e−ikx+iωt ]
∂x −∞ 2π 2ω
and so
2
1 ∞ 1 ∞
Z Z
∂φ dk
dx = √ [â(k)(ik)eikx−iωt + â† (k)(−ik)e−ikx+iωt ].
2 −∞ ∂x 2 −∞ (2π) 2ω
Z ∞
dk 0 0 0 0 0
√ [â(k 0 )(ik 0 )eik x−iω t + â† (k 0 )(−ik 0 )e−ik x+iω t ].
0
−∞ (2π) 2ω
There are four terms when the brackets are multiplied out. For example, the first is
dk 0
Z Z Z
1 dk 0 0
dx √ √ (ik)(ik 0 )â(k)â(k 0 )ei(k+k )x−i(ω+ω )t .
2 2π 2ω 2π 2ω 0
The integral over x yields (2π)δ(k + k 0 ); the k 0 -integral can then be done leading to
Z
1 dk 1 1
√ √ (ik)(−ik)â(k)â(−k)e−2iωt (∗∗)
2 (2π) 2ω 2π 2ω
using ω 0 = |k 0 | = k = ω. The three other terms can be reduced similarly. Meanwhile,
Z
˙ dx
π̂(x, t) = φ̂(x, t) = √ [â(k)(−iω)eikx−iωt + â† (k)(iω)e−ikx+iωt ]
2π 2ω
and so
Z Z Z
1 1 dk
2
π̂ dx = dx √ [â(k)(−iω)eikx−iωt + â† (k)(iω)e−ikx+iωt ].
2 2 2π 2ω
dk 0
Z
0 0 0 0
√ [â(k 0 )(−iω 0 )eik x−iω t + â† (k 0 )(iω 0 )e−ik x+iω t ].
2π 2ω 0
For the ‘ââ’ term the x-integral yields

Z
1 dk
√ (−iω)2 â(k)â(−k)e−2iωt
2 [(2π) 2ω]2
which cancels against (∗∗). Similarly, the ‘â† â† ’ terms cancel, and the ‘ââ† ’ and ‘â† â’
terms give (5.119).
5.8 (a) We have
˙
φ̂(x, t) = − i[φ̂(x, t), Ĥ]
Z !2
1 ∂ φ̂
= − i[φ̂(x, t), {π̂ 2 (y, t) + }dy].
2 ∂y
φ̂ commutes with (∂ φ̂/∂y)2 , and the non-vanishing term on the RHS is

Z
1
− i [φ̂(x, t), π̂ 2 (y, t)dy]
2
−i
Z
= {π̂(y, t)[φ̂(x, t), π̂(y, t)] + [φ̂(x, t), π̂(y, t)]π̂(y, t)}dy
2
−i
Z
= {π̂(y, t)iδ(x − y) + iδ(x − y)π̂(y, t)}dy = π̂(x, t)
2
as required.
Chapter 6
6.1 The RHS is
Z ∞ Z t1 Z ∞
1
dt1 dt2 fˆ(t1 )fˆ(t2 ) + dt2 fˆ(t2 )fˆ(t1 ) . (A)
2 −∞ −∞ t1
The second term is Z ∞ Z ∞

1
dt1 dt2 fˆ(t2 )fˆ(t1 ).
2 −∞ t1
With the usual convention for double integrals, in this expression the integral over t2 is
understood to be performed first, holding t1 fixed, and then t1 is integrated over. We
proceed by changing the order of integration in this double integral. In order not to make
a mistake, it is a good idea to draw a diagram of the t1 (horizontal) - t2 (vertical) plane,
with the region of integration shaded over: it is the whole of the region lying above the
line t1 = t2 . When we write the integral in the other order (i.e. doing first the t1 integral
and then the t2 one) we must be careful to arrange the limits so that the required region
is covered. The result is
1 ∞
Z Z t2
dt2 dt1 fˆ(t2 )fˆ(t1 ).
2 −∞ −∞
We now rename t1 as t2 , and t2 as t1 , showing that this term is in fact equal to the first
in (A).
6.2 In the rest frame of C,
q q
mC = EA + EB = m2A + p2 + m2B + p2 .
p
Taking the term m2A + p2 to the LHS, squaring, cancelling the p2 , and squaring again
we arrive at
(m2A + m2C − m2B )2 = 4m2C (m2A + p2 ).
This gives |p| as required.
6.3 (iii)
∂
[θ(t1 − t2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 ) + θ(t2 − t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 )]
∂t1
∂
= δ(t1 − t2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 ) + θ(t1 − t2 )( φ̂(x1 , t1 ))φ̂(x2 , t2 )
∂t1
∂
−δ(t2 − t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 ) + θ(t2 − t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )( φ̂(x1 , t1 ))
∂t1
The δ functions pick out only the point t1 = t2 in the terms multiplying them, and at
this (equal-time) point the φ̂ fields commute according to (5.105), leading to the result
˙
((φ̂(x1 , t1 ) is short for ∂ φ̂(x1 , t1 )/∂t1 ). (iv) Differentiating the result of (iii) with respect
to t1 we get
∂2 ¨
{T (φ̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )} = δ(t1 − t2 )π̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 ) + θ(t1 − t2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )
∂t21
¨
− δ(t2 − t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )π̂(x1 , t1 ) + θ(t2 − t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 ).
Again the δ functions force t1 to equal t2 in the terms multiplying them, which become
[φ̂(x1 , t1 ), φ̂(x2 , t2 )] δ(t1 − t2 ) = −iδ(x1 − x2 )δ(t1 − t2 )

¨
using (5.104) and (E.32). The remaining two terms are just T {φ̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )}. Since
2 2 2
the operator −∂ /∂x1 + m doesn’t involve t1 , it ‘passes through’ the θ-functions in the
T -product, acting just on φ̂(x1 , t1 ):
∂2 ∂2

(− 2 + m2 )T {φ̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )} = T (− 2 + m2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 )) φ̂(x2 , t2 ) .
∂x1 ∂x1
Hence
∂2 ∂2

2
− 2 + m T {φ̂(x1 , t1 )φ̂(x2 , t2 )}
∂t21 ∂x1
2
∂2

∂
= −iδ(x1 − x2 )δ(t1 − t2 ) + T ( 2 − 2 + m2 )φ̂(x1 , t1 ) φ̂(x2 , t2 ) .
∂t1 ∂x1
The equation of motion for the free KG field φ̂ implies that the second term vanishes.
6.4
d3 k
Z
h0|âA (p0A )φ̂A (x1 )|0i = h0|âA (p0A ) √ [âA (k)e−ik·x1 + â†A (k)eik·x1 ]|0i,
(2π)3 2Ek
q
with Ek = m2A + k2 . The âA (k) term gives zero on |0i. To evaluate the ‘âA â†A ’ term,
we use (6.46):
âA (p0A )â†A (k) = (2π)3 δ 3 (p0A − k) + â†A (k)âA (p0A )
leading to
d3 k
Z
h0|âA (p0A )φ̂A (x1 )|0i = h0| √ eik·x1 (2π)3 δ 3 (p0A − k)|0i
(2π)3 2Ek
1 0
= p 0 eipA ·x1 ,
2EA
0 2
where EA = (m2A + p0A )1/2 .
6.5
h0|T {φ̂C (x1 )φ̂C (x2 )}|0i = h0|θ(t1 − t2 )φ̂C (x1 )φ̂C (x2 ) + θ(t2 − t1 )φ̂C (x2 )φ̂C (x1 )|0i
d3 k
Z
= h0| θ(t1 − t2 ) √ [âC (k)e−ik·x1 + â†C (k)eik·x1 ]
(2π)3 2ωk
d3 k0
Z
0 −ik0 ·x2 † 0 ik0 ·x2
× √ [âC (k )e + âC (k )e ]|0i + similar term multiplying θ(t 2 − t 1 )
(2π)3 2ωk 0
q q
2
where k 0 = ωk = m2C + k2 and k00 = ωk0 = m2C + k0 . The conditions h0|â†C (k) =
âC (k 0 )|0i = 0 reduce the θ(t1 − t2 ) term to
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z
0
h0|θ(t1 − t2 ) 3
√ 3
√ 0
âC (k)â†C (k 0 )e−ik·x1 eik ·x2 |0i.
(2π) 2ωk (2π) 2ωk
Using
âC (k)â†C (k 0 ) = (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 ) + â†C (k 0 )âC (k)
this becomes
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z
0
θ(t1 − t2 ) √ √ 0
(2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 )e−ik·x1 eik ·x2
(2π)3 2ωk 3
(2π) 2ωk
d3 k
Z
= θ(t1 − t2 )e−iωk (t1 −t2 )+ik·(x1 −x2 ) .
(2π)3 2ωk
Similarly for the θ(t2 − t1 ) term.
6.6 We write (6.91) as
Z Z
0 0
(−ig)2 d4 x1 d4 x2 ei(pA −pB )·x1 ei(pB −pA )·x2 f (x1 − x2 )
where f (x1 −x2 ) is given by the RHS of (6.98). Introducing x = x1 −x2 , X = (x1 +x2 )/2,
the integral becomes
Z Z
0 0
d4 xd4 X ei(pA −pB )·(X+x/2) ei(pB −pA )·(X−x/2) f (x)
since the Jacobian for the change of variables is unity (for instance, dt1 dt2 → d(t1 −
t2 )d(t1 + t2 )/2, etc.) The only place X appears is in the exponent, allowing the X-integral
to be done using the 4-dimensional version of (E.26); we then get
Z
0 0
(2π)4 δ 4 (p0A − pB + p0B − pA ) d4 x ei[(pA −pB )−(pB −pA )]·x/2 f (x).
The 4-momentum δ-function ensures that in the exponent p0A − pB is equal to −(p0B − pA ),
each being equal to q. Re-instating the factor (−ig)2 we obtain
Z
4 4 0 0
(−ig) (2π) δ (pA + pB − pA − pB ) d4 x eiq·x f (x)
2
which is (6.99). Substituting now the RHS of (6.98) for f (x) and performing the x-
integration gives a factor (2π)2 δ 4 (q − k), and finally performing the k-integration gives
(6.100).
6.7 The analogue of (6.91) for this contraction is
Z Z
0 0
(−ig)2
d4 x1 d4 x2 ei(pA +pB )·x1 e−i(pA +pB )·x2 h0|T (φ̂C (x1 )φ̂C (x2 ))|0i.
Introducing x and X as in problem 6.6, this becomes

Z
4 4 0 0
(−ig) (2π) δ (pA + pB − pA − pB ) d4 x ei(pA +pB )·x f (x).
2
Inserting (6.98) for f (x) and performing the x and then the k integrals leads to the same
expression as (6.100) but with q replaced by pA + pB - that is, (6.101).
6.8 In the CM frame,
q q
2
pA = ( mA + k , k), pB = ( m2A + k0 , k0 ),
2 2 0
and |k| = |k0 | by energy conservation. Hence
u = (pA − p0B )2 = (0, (k − k0 ))2 = −(k − k0 )2 ≤ 0.

p
6.9 In the frame in which B is initially at rest, pB = (mB , 0), pA = ( m2A + p2 , p) and
q
(pA · pB )2 − m2A m2B = (mB m2A + p2 )2 − m2A m2B
= m2B p2 .
Hence [(pA · pB )2 − m2A m2B ]1/2 = mB |p|. But in this frame mB = EB , and |p| = EA |v|.
Chapter 7
7.2 (a) The calculation is similar to that in problem 5.7.
d3 k
Z Z Z
˙ ˙
N̂φ0 = i (φ† φ̂ − φ̂φ̂† ) d3 x = i d3 x √ (â† (k)eik·x + b̂(k)e−ik·x )
(2π)3 2ω
d3 k0
Z
0 0
× √ (−iω 0 â(k 0 )e−ik ·x + iω 0 b̂† (k 0 )eik ·x )
3
(2π) 2ω 0
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z
0 0
− √ (â(k)e−ik·x + b̂† (k)eik·x ) √ (iω 0 â† (k 0 )eik ·x − iω 0 b̂(k 0 )e−ik ·x ) .
(2π)3 2ω (2π)3 2ω 0
After multiplying out the brackets, the terms â† b̂† and âb̂ cancel using [â† (k), b̂† (k 0 )] =
[â(k), b̂(k 0 )] = 0. The term â† â is
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z Z
0
ω 0 â† (k)â(k 0 )ei(ω−ω )t−i(k−k )·x .
0
d3 x √ √
3
(2π) 2ω 3
(2π) 2ω 0
The x-integral gives (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 ), which forces ω = ω 0 and allows the k0 -integral to be
done giving
d3 k 1 †
Z
â (k)â(k).
(2π)3 2
The term ââ† gives the same when normally ordered (throwing away a divergent piece);
similarly the b̂† b̂ terms.
7.3 The commutator is
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z
−ik·x1 †
[ √ (â(k)e + b̂ (k)e ik·x2
), √ (â† (k 0 )eik·x2 + b̂(k 0 )e−ik·x2 )].
(2π)3 2ω (2π)3 2ω 0
The non-vanishing terms involve [â(k), â† (k 0 )] and [b̂† (k), b̂(k 0 )]. The first of these gives
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z
−ik·x1 ik0 ·x2
√ √ 0 e e (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 )
3
(2π) 2ω 3
(2π) 2ω
d3 k
Z
= e−ik·(x1 −x2 )
(2π)3 2ω
and the second gives
d3 k
Z
− eik·(x1 −x2 ) .
(2π)3 2ω
As long as (x1 − x2 ) is spacelike ((x1 − x2 )2 < 0) we can transform x1 − x2 into −(x1 − x2 )
by a continuous Lorentz transformation, and so the second term cancels the first for
(x1 − x2 )2 < 0.
Similar manipulations show that the two terms in the commutator can be re-written as
follows. The first is
d3 k
Z
e−ik·(x1 −x2 ) = h0|φ̂(x1 )φ̂† (x2 )|0i
(2π)3 2ω
which has the interpretation that a particle is created at x2 and destroyed at x1 . The
second is
d3 k
Z
− eik·(x1 −x2 ) = −h0|φ̂† (x2 )φ̂(x1 )|0i
(2π)3 2ω
which corresponds to the creation of an antiparticle at x1 and its destruction at x2 . Com-
pare the comments following (7.32). Thus for the commutator to vanish in the spacelike
region, the contributions of these two processes must cancel, and this requires the compo-
nents of ‘k’ to be the same in each case - that is, the masses of the particle and antiparticle
must be identical.
7.5 The LHS of the anticommutator (7.44) is
(Z
d3 k
(ĉs (k)uα (k, s)e−iωt+ik·x + dˆ†s (k)vα (k, s)eiωt−ik·x ),
X
√
(2π)3 2ω s=1,2

Z 3 0
d k 0 0

(ĉ†s0 (k 0 )u†β (k 0 , s0 )eiω t−ik ·y + dˆs0 (k 0 )vβ† (k 0 , s0 )e−iω t+ik ·y ) .
X 0 0
√
(2π)3 2ω 0 s0 =1,2

From (7.41) the only non-vanishing terms involve {ĉs (k), ĉ†s0 (k 0 )} and {dˆ†s (k), dˆs0 (k 0 )},
which give
d3 k d3 k0
Z Z X X
√ √
(2π)3 2ω (2π)3 2ω 0 s=1,2 s0 =1,2
0
[uα (k, s)u†β (k 0 , s0 )e−i(ω−ω )t eik·x e−ik ·y (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 )δss0 + similar term in vα vβ† ]
0
d3 k
Z
ik·(x−y )
†
vα (k, s)vβ† (k, s)e−ik·(x−y ) ]. (C)
X X
= [ u α (k, s)u β (k, s)e +
(2π)3 2ω s=1,2 s=1,2
We need to evaluate s uα (k, s)u†β (k, s) and s vα (k, s)vβ† (k, s). Problem 7.8 below deals
P P
with similar expressions and gives some hints. First, note that ‘uu† ’ is a matrix (u† u is
single number), and uα u†β is its (α, β) element. We can calculate the matrix u(k, s)u† (k, s)
straightforwardly using (4.105):
!
†
φs
s† s † σ ·k

u(k, s)u (k, s) = (ω + m) σ ·k s φ φ ω+m
ω+m φ
σ ·k
!
φs φs † φs φs † ω+m
= (ω + m) σ ·k φs φs † σ ·k φs φs † σ ·k .
ω+m ω+m ω+m
φs φs † = 1 (see problem 7.8) to obtain

P
We now use s
σ ·k
!
X
† 1 ω+m
u(k, s)u (k, s) = (ω + m) σ ·k k2 .
s ω+m (ω+m)2
Since k2 = ω 2 − m2 this becomes

ω+m σ·k
(u)
σ·k ω−m
which is in fact the matrix βm + α · k + ω using (4.31). For the ‘ vv † ’ term, we

P
P first
change the integration variable k to −k so as to have the same exponent as the ‘ uu† ’
†
P
term. This means that in evaluating s v(k, s)v (k, s) we use (4.114) with p replaced by
−k (and E by ω), which gives

ω − m −σ · k
. (v)
−σ · k ω − m
The sum of (u) and (v) is just 2ω times the unit 4 × 4 matrix, whose (α, β) element is
δαβ . Inserting this into (C) gives (7.44).
7.6
d3 k
Z Z X
N̂ψ = 3
d x √ [ĉ†s (k)u† (k, s)eik·x + dˆs (k)v † (k, s)e−ik·x ]
(2π)3 2ω s
d3 k0
Z
0 0
[ĉs0 (k 0 )u† (k 0 , s0 )e−ik ·x + dˆ†s0 (k 0 )v † (k 0 , s0 )eik ·x ].
X
× √
(2π)3 2ω 0 s0
Consider the term ‘ĉ†s ĉs0 ’. The integral over x gives (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 ) and the k0 -integral
can then be done giving the term
d3 k
Z X
ĉ†s (k)ĉs0 (k)u† (k, s)u(k, s).
(2π)3 2ω 0 s,s
Taking φ1 , φ2 to be orthogonal (as is conventional), problem 4.12 implies that u† (k, s)u(k, s0 ) =
2ωδss0 , so that this term is
d3 k X †
Z
ĉ (k)ĉs (k).
(2π)3 s s
The ‘dˆs dˆ†s0 ’ term is handled similarly, using v † (k, s)v(k, s0 ) = 2ωδss0 . Now consider the
‘ĉ†s dˆ†s0 ’ term: the integral over x yields (2π)3 δ 3 (k + k0 ) so that we need to evaluate
u† ((ω, k), s)v((ω, −k), s0 ). It is easily verified from (4.105) and (4.114) that this vanishes;
similarly for the ‘dˆs ĉs0 ’ term.
Z Z
˙
ĤD = d3 x{π̂ ψ̂ − L̂D } = d3 xψ̂ † (−iα · ∇ + βm)ψ̂
d3 k
Z Z X
= d3 x √ [ ĉ†s (k)u† (k, s)eik·x + dˆs (k)v † (k, s)e−ik·x ]
3
(2π) 2ω s
d3 k0
Z
0 0
ĉs0 (k 0 )u(k 0 , s0 )e−ik ·x + dˆ†s0 (k 0 )v(k 0 , s0 )eik ·x ].
X
× (−iα · ∇ + βm) √ [
3
(2π) 2ω s0 0
Now note that

0 0
(−iα · ∇ + βm)u(k 0 , s0 )e−ik ·x = (α · k0 + βm)u(k 0 , s0 )e−ik ·x
0
= ω 0 u(k 0 , s0 )e−ik ·x .
In the ‘ĉ†s ĉs0 ’ term, the x-integral can be done, and then the k0 -integral, leading to
d3 k
Z X
3
ĉ†s (k)ĉs0 (k)u† (k, s)u(k, s0 )ω.
(2π) 2ω 0 s,s
Use of u† (k, s)u(k, s0 ) = 2ωδss0 then gives the first term in (7.50). For the ‘dˆs dˆ†s0 ’ term
note that
0 0
(−iα · ∇ + βm)v(k 0 , s0 )eik ·x = (−α · k0 + βm)v(k 0 , s0 )eik ·x
0
= − ω 0 v(k 0 , s0 )eik ·x .
Performing the x-integral and then the k0 -integral leads to the second term of (7.50). The
‘ĉ†s dˆ†s ’ and ‘dˆs ĉs ’ terms vanish as in the calculation of N̂ψ .
7.8 The solution to problem 7.5 showed that
X
u(k, s)u† (k, s) = (βm + α · k + ω).
s
Hence
X
u(k, s)ū(k, s) = (β 2 m + αβ · k + βω) = (m − γ · k + βω)
s
= (6 k + m).
7.9
¯
h0|T (ψ̂α (x1 )ψ̂(x2 ))|0i =
d3 k
Z X
h0|θ(t1 − t2 ) √ [ ĉs (k)uα (k, s)e−ik·x1 + dˆ†s (k)vα (k, s)eik·x1 ]
3
(2π) 2ω s
d3 k0
Z X † 0 0
× √ [ ĉs0 (k)ūβ (k 0 , s0 )eik ·x2 + dˆs0 (k 0 )v̄β (k 0 , s0 )e−ik ·x2 ]|0i
3
(2π) 2ω s00
d3 k
Z X
−h0|θ(t2 − t1 ) √ [ ĉ†s (k)ūβ (k, s)eik·x2 + dˆs (k)v̄β (k, s)e−ik·x2 ]
3
(2π) 2ω s
d3 k0
Z
0 0
ĉs0 (k)uα (k 0 , s0 )e−ik ·x1 + dˆ†s0 (k 0 )vα (k 0 , s0 )eik ·x1 ]|0i
X
× √ [
3
(2π) 2ω s00
0 2
where in the exponents k 0 = (k2 + m2 )1/2 ≡ ω, and k 0 = (k0 + m2 )1/2 ≡ ω 0 . In the
θ(t1 − t2 ) part, the terms in dˆ†s and dˆs0 vanish, using d|0i ˆ = 0 = h0|dˆ† from (7.36); and in
†
the θ(t2 − t1 ) part, the terms in ĉs and ĉs0 vanish similarly. In the θ(t1 − t2 ) part we then
use {ĉs (k), ĉ†s0 (k 0 )} = (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k0 )δss0 to reduce it to
d3 k
Z X
θ(t1 − t2 ) uα (k, s)ūβ (k, s)e−ik·(x1 −x2 ) =
(2π)3 2ω s
d3 k
Z
θ(t1 − t2 ) (6 k + m)αβ e−ik·(x1 −x2 ) .
(2π)3 2ω
Similarly, the θ(t2 − t1 ) part reduces to
d3 k
Z X
−θ(t2 − t1 ) 3
vα (k, s)v̄β (k, s)e−ik·(x2 −x1 ) =
(2π) 2ω s
d3 k
Z
−θ(t2 − t1 ) (6 k − m)αβ e−ik·(x2 −x1 ) .
(2π)3 2ω
So altogether we get
d3 k
Z
¯
h0|T (ψ̂α (x1 )ψ̂(x2 ))|0i = [θ(t1 − t2 )(6 k + m)αβ e−iω(t1 −t2 )+ik·(x1 −x2 )
(2π)3 2ω
−[θ(t − t )(6 k − m) e−iω(t2 −t1 )+ik·(x2 −x1 ) ]
2 1 αβ
where 6 k = ωβ − γ · k. We need to show that this is equal to

d4 k −ik·(x1 −x2 ) i(6 k + m)αβ
Z
e . (T )
(2π)4 k 2 − m2 + i
Consider the integral over k0 in (T ). There are poles at k0 = (k2 + m2 − i)1/2 which
is in the lower half k0 -plane, and which tends to the real value ω as → 0; and at
k0 = −(k2 + m2 − i)1/2 which is in the upper half k0 -plane, and tends to −ω as → 0.
On the other hand, the k0 -dependence of the exponential is
e−ik0 (t1 −t2 ) .
We must therefore close the k0 -contour (see Appendix F) in the upper half k0 -plane for
t1 − t2 < 0, picking up the contribution from the pole at k0 = −ω; and in the lower half
k0 -plane for t1 − t2 > 0, picking up the contribution of the pole at k0 = ω. This gives
d3 k

−2πi
Z
θ(t1 − t2 ) i(ωβ − γ · k + m)αβ e−iω(t1 −t2 )+ik·(x1 −x2 )
(2π)4 2ω
d3 k
Z
2πi
+θ(t2 − t1 ) i(−ωβ − γ · k + m)αβ eiω(t1 −t2 )+ik·(x1 −x2 ) .
(2π)4 −2ω
In the second integral, change k to −k to obtain
d3 k
Z
θ(t1 − t2 ) (ωβ − γ · k + m)αβ e−iω(t1 −t2 )+ik·(x1 −x2 )
(2π)3 2ω
d3 k
Z
−θ(t2 − t1 ) (ωβ − γ · k − m)αβ e−iω(t2 −t1 )+ik·(x2 −x1 )
(2π)3 2ω
as required.
7.10 The Euler-Lagrange equations for Aν are (compare (5.134))

∂L ∂L
∂µ µ ν
= ,
∂(∂ A ) ∂Aν
where in this case

1
L = − Fµν ∂ µ Aν − jem ν Aν
2
with Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ . We use a ‘brute force’ approach. Consider the E-L equations
written out in full for one component of Aν , say A1 :

∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
∂0 + ∂ 1
+ ∂ 2
+ ∂ 3
= .
∂(∂ 0 A1 ) ∂(∂ 1 A1 ) ∂(∂ 2 A1 ) ∂(∂ 3 A1 ) ∂A1
We need to identify the terms in L which involve ∂ 0 A1 , ∂ 1 A1 , ∂ 2 A1 , ∂ 3 A1 . First, note

that ∂ 1 A1 does not appear since Fµν = 0 when µ = ν. The relevant terms are contained
in
1
− (F01 ∂ 0 A1 + F10 ∂ 1 A0 + F12 ∂ 1 A2 + F21 ∂ 2 A1 + F13 ∂ 1 A3 + F31 ∂ 3 A1 )
2
1
= − {(∂0 A1 − ∂1 A0 )∂ 0 A1 + (∂1 A0 − ∂0 A1 )∂ 1 A0 + . . .}
2
Now use ∂0 A1 = −∂ 0 A1 , ∂1 A2 = ∂ 1 A2 , etc, to pick out just the terms involving A1 ,
which are
1 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 2
(∂ A ) − (∂ A ) − (∂ A )
2 2 2
−(∂ 0 A1 )(∂ 1 A0 ) + (∂ 2 A1 )(∂ 1 A2 ) + (∂ 3 A1 )(∂ 1 A3 ). (R)
We then find
∂L

∂(∂ 0 A1 ) = ∂ 0 A1 − ∂ 1 A0 = ∂1 A0 − ∂0 A1 

∂L
∂(∂ 2 A1 ) = ∂ 1 A2 − ∂ 2 A1 = ∂1 A2 − ∂2 A1 (D)
∂L
= ∂ 1 A3 − ∂ 3 A1 = ∂1 A3 − ∂3 A1 .


∂(∂ 3 A1 )
Substituting these expressions into the E-L equations for A1 we obtain
∂ 0 (∂1 A0 − ∂0 A1 ) + ∂ 2 (∂1 A2 − ∂2 A1 ) + ∂ 3 (∂1 A3 − ∂3 A1 ) = −jem 1 , (S)
or
(∂ 0 ∂0 + ∂ 1 ∂1 + ∂ 2 ∂2 + ∂ 3 ∂3 )A1 − ∂1 (∂ 0 A0 + ∂ 1 A1 + ∂ 2 A2 + ∂ 3 A3 ) = jem 1
which is the ν = 1 component of (7.62) (written with the index ν lowered).

Equations (D) can be written in covariant form as
∂L
= ∂ν Aµ − ∂µ Aν .
∂(∂ µ Aν )
Those skilled in manipulation of indices in tensor calculus can derive this result directly
from the covariant Lagrangian; (7.62) then follows trivially.
7.11 (b) The condition (7.90) is
(A(k 2 )g νµ + B(k 2 )k ν k µ )(−k 2 gµσ + kµ kσ ) = gσν .

Multiplying out the brackets,
−k 2 A(k 2 )gσν + A(k 2 )k ν kσ − k 2 B(k 2 )k ν kσ + B(k 2 )k ν k 2 kσ = gσν ,
giving (7.91).
7.12 Referring to (R) of problem 7.10, the addition of the term − 21 (∂µ Aµ )2 to L means that
we must add to (R) the additional terms
1
− (∂1 A1 )2 − (∂1 A1 )(∂0 A0 + ∂2 A2 + ∂3 A3 ).
2
This produces a non-zero value for ∂L/∂(∂ 1 A1 ), namely
∂L
= −(∂1 A1 ) + (∂0 A0 − ∂2 A2 − ∂3 A3 ).
∂(∂ 1 A1 )
Including then the contribution of ∂ 1 (∂L/∂(∂ 1 A2 )) in (S) of problem 7.10 (with jem 1 set
to zero) leads to the required equation of motion for A1 .
7.13 The µ (k, λ)’s are given in (7.102)-(7.104), from which we note that, for each value of
λ, the only non-vanishing component of µ (k, λ) is that in which µ = λ, which equals 1.
Consider then the case µ = 0 in (7.115): the λ = 1, 2 and 3 terms all vanish, and the only
surviving ν-component is ν = 0, for which the LHS is -1, verifying the result. Similarly
for the other cases.
7.14 For (7.119): following the same steps as in (7.87)-(7.91), we require (M −1 )µν where
M µν = (−k 2 g µν + (1 − 1/ξ)k µ k ν ).
Let
(M −1 )νσ = A(k 2 )gνσ + B(k 2 )kν kσ .
The condition gσµ = M µν (M −1 )νσ gives
gσµ = (−k 2 g µν + (1 − 1/ξ)k µ k ν )(A(k 2 )gνσ + B(k 2 )kν kσ )

= − k 2 A(k 2 )gσµ − k 2 B(k 2 )k µ kσ + A(k 2 )(1 − 1/ξ)k µ kσ + B(k 2 )(1 − 1/ξ)k µ kσ k 2 .
To match coefficients of gσµ on both sides we require A = −1/k 2 , and then the vanishing
of the k µ kσ term gives B = (1 − ξ)/(k 2 )2 .
7.15 The Hamiltonian density is
Ĥ = ĤS + ĤS0
where ĤS is the Hamiltonian density for the free complex scalar field,
ĤS = π̂ † π̂ + ∇φ̂† · ∇φ̂ + m2 φ̂† φ̂,
and ĤS0 is the interaction part. But also the general definition of the Hamiltonian is
˙ ˙
Ĥ = π̂ φ̂ + π̂ † φ̂† − L̂.
Now
∂ L̂ ˙
π̂ = = φ̂† − iq φ̂† Â0
˙
∂ φ̂
from (7.134) - (7.136), and
˙
π̂ † = φ̂ + iq φ̂Â0 .
˙ ˙
Substituting for φ̂ and φ̂† in favour of π̂ and π̂ † , we obtain
Ĥ = π̂(π̂ † − iq φ̂Â0 ) + π̂ † (π̂ + iq φ̂† Â0 )

−{(π̂ + iq φ̂† Â0 )(π̂ † − iq φ̂Â0 ) − ∇φ̂† · ∇φ̂ − m2 φ̂† φ̂} − L̂int
= π̂ † π̂ + ∇φ̂† · ∇φ̂ + m2 φ̂† φ̂ − q 2 φ̂† φ̂(Â0 )2 − L̂int
which establishes (7.139).

7.16 Consider first
∂2ν h0|T (φ̂(x1 )φ̂† (x2 )|0i =

∂2ν {θ(t1 − t2 )h0|φ̂(x1 )φ̂† (x2 )|0i + θ(t2 − t1 )h0|φ̂† (x2 )φ̂(x1 )|0i},
where ∂2ν = ∂/∂xν2 (similarly for ∂1µ ). If ν = i, a spatial index, then the derivative passes
through the θ-functions and we get simply h0|T (φ̂(x1 )∂2i φ̂† (x2 ))|0i. If ν = 0, then the
differentiation produces extra terms
−δ(t1 − t2 )h0|φ̂(x1 )φ̂† (x2 )|0i + δ(t2 − t1 )h0|φ̂† (x2 )φ̂(x1 )|0i
which cancel using (7.32) (at equal times (x1 − x2 )2 is spacelike). So
∂2ν h0|T (φ̂(x1 )φ̂† (x2 ))|0i = h0|T (φ̂(x1 )∂2ν φ̂† (x2 ))|0i.
Now consider
∂1µ ∂2ν h0|T (φ̂(x1 )φ̂† (x2 ))|0i = ∂1µ h0|T (φ̂(x1 )∂2ν φ̂† (x2 ))|0i =
∂1µ {θ(t1 − t2 )h0|φ̂(x1 )∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )|0i + θ(t2 − t1 )h0|∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )φ̂(x1 )|0i}.
As before, if µ = j the derivative passes through the θ-functions and we get h0|T (∂1j φ̂(x1 )∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )|0i.
On the other hand, if µ = 0 we get
δ(t1 − t2 )h0|φ̂(x1 )∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )|0i + θ(t1 − t2 )h0|∂10 φ̂(x1 )∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )|0i
−δ(t1 − t2 )h0|∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )φ̂(x1 )|0i + θ(t2 − t1 )h0|∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )∂10 φ̂(x1 )|0i.
= h0|T (∂10 φ̂(x1 )∂2ν φ̂† (x2 ))|0i + h0|[φ̂(x1 ), ∂2ν φ̂† (x2 )]|0iδ(t1 − t2 ).
If ν is a spatial index, the equal time commutator vanishes, as can be seen by differentiating
(7.32) with respect to a spatial component of x2 . But if ν = 0 then the equal time
commutator is
˙
[φ̂(x1 ), φ̂† (x2 )]δ(t1 − t2 ) = iδ 3 (x1 − x2 )δ(t1 − t2 ).
These results establish (7.140).
Chapter 8
8.2 We use (8.25), and the mode expansion (7.16) in (8.23), to obtain
√
hs+ , p0 |ĵem,s
µ
(x)|s+ , pi = ie 4EE 0 h0|â(p0 )[φ̂† ∂ µ φ̂ − (∂ µ φ̂† )φ̂]â† (p)|0i
√ d3 k0
Z
0 0
= ie 4EE 0 h0|â(p0 ){ √ [â† (k 0 )eik ·x + b̂(k 0 )e−ik ·x ]
3
(2π) 2ω 0
Z 3
d k
× √ [−ik µ â(k)e−ik·x + ik µ b̂† (k)eik·x ]}â† (p)|0i
(2π)3 2ω
−(∂ µ φ̂† )φ̂ term

q
2
p p
where E = M 2 + p2 , E 0 = M 2 + p0 2 , ω = M 2 + k2 , and ω 0 = M 2 + k0 . We
p
evaluate the φ̂† ∂ µ φ̂ term. The â and b̂ operators commute with each other, so we can
move the b̂(k) all the way to the right where it will give zero on |0i; similarly the b̂† (k 0 )
will give zero on h0|. This term therefore reduces to
√ d3 k0 d3 k
Z Z
0
0
0
ie 4EE h0|â(p ) √ â† (k 0 )eik ·x √ − ik µ â(k)e−ik·x â† (p)|0i.
3
(2π) 2ω 0 (2π)3 2ω
We then use
â(k)â† (p) = â† (p)â(k) + (2π)3 δ 3 (k − p),
and similarly for the product â(p0 )â† (k 0 ), together with
â(k)|0i = h0|â† (k 0 ) = 0,
to get rid of all the operators. The δ-functions allow all the momentum integrals to be
µ µ
performed, setting k = p and k0 = p0 so that ω = E, ω 0 = E 0 , k µ = pµ , and k 0 = p0 .
This term becomes simply
0
epµ e−i(p−p )·x ;
µ
the (∂ µ φ̂† )φ̂ term supplies the p0 contribution to (8.27).
8.3 We use (8.32) to obtain
√
hs− , p0 |ĵem,s
µ
(x)|s− , pi = ie 4EE 0 h0|b̂(p0 ){same expression for
the current as in problem 8.2}b̂† (p)|0i.

This time, in the φ̂† ∂ µ φ̂ term of the current, we can move â(k 0 ) to the right to annihilate
on |0i, and â† (k 0 ) to the left to annihilate on h0|. This leaves an expression of the form
h0|b̂(p0 ).....b̂(k 0 )....b̂† (k)....b̂† (p)|0i.
But we must remember to normally order the operators in the current: this means that
the above expression should in fact be
h0|b̂(p0 ).....b̂† (k)....b̂(k 0 )....b̂† (p)|0i.
We now use the commutation relations for b̂(p0 ) and b̂† (k) to get b̂† (k) anihilating on
|0i, and similarly for b̂(k 0 ) and b̂† (p) to get b̂(k 0 ) annihilating on |0i. This leaves delta-
functions δ(p − k0 ) and δ(k − p0 ), allowing the momentum integrals (in this first term) to
be performed, setting k = p0 , k0 = p, and hence ω = E 0 , ω 0 = E, k = p0 and k 0 = p. The
result is
µ 0
−ep0 e−i(p−p )·x
for this first term. The second supplies the −epµ part, and the whole matrix element is
indeed the negative of the one in problem 8.2.
8.4 We consider a Lorentz transformation along the x1 -axis. Then
†
jx0 = ψ 0 αx ψ 0 = ψ † eαx ϑ/2 αx eαx ϑ/2 ψ
= ψ † αx eαx ϑ ψ
= ψ † αx (cosh ϑ + αx sinh ϑ)ψ
= cosh ϑ jx + sinh ϑ ρ
as in (4.86), where we have used (4.90), and (4.91) with ϑ/2 replaced by ϑ.
8.5 (a) We are assuming E = E 0 , as in the required application. Then

!
0
φ1
u† (k 0 , s0 = 1)u(k, s = 1) = (E + m) 1† 1† σ ·k
φ φ (E+m) σ ·k φ1
(E+m)
k · k0 σ · k0 × k

1† 1
= (E + m) 1 + φ + i φ
(E + m)2 (E + m)2
which reduces immediately to the given expression.

8.5 (b) We have
1 1 2 0
φ = , and φ = .
0 1
Also
Az Ax − iAy
σ·A= .
Ax + iAy −Az
Then, by straightforward matrix multiplication we obtain, for instance,
†
φ1 σ · Aφ2 = Ax − iAy .
Generally,
†
φi σ · Aφj = (σ · A)ij .
(c) The expression S of (8.46) is
1 0† † † †
S= {|u s0 =1 us=1 |2 + |u0 s0 =1 us=2 |2 + |u0 s0 =2 us=1 |2 + |u0 s0 =2 us=2 |2 }.
2
† †
Part (a) evaluated u0 s0 =1 us=1 , and u0 s0 =2 us=2 is the same but with φ1 replaced by φ2 .
†
Since φ1 φ2 = 0, we find
†
† iφ1 σ · k0 × kφ2
u0 s0 =1 us=2 = (E + m)
(E + m)2
†
and similarly for u0 s0 =2 us=1 . The result follows after noting that
† † † †
|φ1 σ · Aφ1 |2 + |φ1 σ · Aφ2 |2 + |φ2 σ · Aφ1 |2 + |φ2 σ · Aφ2 |2 = 2A2 .
(d)
( 2 )
2 k2 cos θ (k2 )2 sin2 θ
S = (E = m) 1+ +
(E + m)2 (E + m)4
( 2 2 )
E − m E − m
= (E + m)2 1+ cos θ + sin2 θ
E+m E+m
= {[(E + m) + (E − m) cos θ]2 + (E − m)2 sin2 θ}
= (E + m)2 + 2k2 cos θ + (E − m)2
= 2(E 2 + m2 + k2 cos θ)
= 2[E 2 + m2 + k2 (1 − 2 sin2 θ/2)]
k2
= 4E 2 (1 − sin2 θ/2)
E2
and the result follows using v = |k|/E.
8.6 The manipulations are similar to those in problem 8.2 except that anticommutation rela-
tions are used.
8.7 γ µ = (γ 0 , γ 0 α). So
† †
γ µ † = (γ 0 , α† γ 0 ) = (γ 0 , αγ 0 ).
Hence
γ 0 γ µ † γ 0 = ((γ 0 )3 , γ 0 α(γ 0 )2 ) = (γ 0 , γ 0 α) = γ µ .
8.8
Tr[(6 k 0 + m)γ µ (6 k + m)γ ν ] = Tr(6 k 0 γ µ 6 kγ ν ) + mTr(γ µ 6 kγ ν )

+mTr(6 k 0 γ µ γ ν ) + m2 Tr(γ µ γ ν ).
The terms linear in m vanish by (8.73); (8.74) gives Tr(γ µ γ ν ) = 4g µν , and (8.75) implies
that
µ ν
Tr[6 k 0 γ µ 6 kγ ν ] = 4[k 0 k ν + k 0 k µ − k 0 · kg µν ].
These results establish (8.78).
8.9
0
L00 = 2[2k 0 k 0 − (k 0 · k)] + 2m2 .
0 0
Here, k 0 = (m2 + k2 )1/2 = k 0 ≡ E; k 0 · k = k 0 k 0 − k · k0 = E 2 − k2 cos θ. So
L00 = 2[E 2 + k2 cos θ] + 2m2

= 2[E 2 + m2 + k2 cos θ]
and the result follows as in problem 8.5(d).

8.11 Using (8.27), (8.55), and the Fourier transform of (7.119) (compare (6.98) and (7.58)),
the term written explicitly in (8.93) becomes
(−i)2
Z Z
0
d4 x1 d4 x2 {e(p + p0 )µ e−i(p−p )·x1
2
d4 l −il·(x1 −x2 ) i[−gµν + (1 − ξ)lµ lν /l2 ]

Z
0
× e . . − eū(k 0 , s0 )γ ν u(k, s)e−i(k−k )·x2 }.
(2π)4 l2
The integral over x1 gives (2π)4 δ 4 (p+l−p0 ), and that over x2 gives (2π)4 δ 4 (l+k 0 −k). The
integral over l can now be done using one of these delta functions, which sets l = k −k 0 = q
everywhere, including in the other delta function. This gives one half times (8.95) - the
other half is supplied by the ‘(x1 ↔ x2 )’ part of (8.93).
8.12 Using 0 0
∂µ e−i(p−p )·x = −i(p − p0 )µ e−i(p−p )·x ,
we find from (8.27)
2 0
∂µ hs+ , p0 |ĵem,s
µ
(x)|s+ , pi = −ie(p2 − p0 )e−i(p−p )·x
2
which vanishes since p2 = p0 = M 2 . Similarly,
0
∂µ he− , k 0 , s0 |ĵem,e
µ
(x)|e− , k, si = ieū0 (6 k− 6 k 0 )ue−i(k−k )·x
which vanishes since 6 ku = mu and ū0 6 k 0 = mū0 . (The particles in the external states
are ‘on-shell’ - i.e. their wavefunctions satisfy the free-particle equations of motion, or
equivalently their 4-momenta satisfy the energy-momentum condition for a free particle.]
8.13 We have
µ ν
Lµν Tµν = 2[k 0 k ν + k 0 k µ + (q 2 /2)g µν ](p + p0 )µ (p + p0 )ν .
It is advantageous to write p0 = p + q, so that (p + p0 )µ = (2p + q)µ , and similarly for

(p + p0 )ν , and then drop the qµ qν part using (8.188). Then
Lµν Tµν = 8[2p · k 0 p · k + (q 2 /2)p2 ]

= 8[2p · k 0 p · k + (q 2 /2)M 2 ].
8.14 We have (correcting the misprint in (8.134))
e−|x|/a 3
Z Z
−iq ·x
2
F (q ) = e 3
ρ(x)d x = e−iq ·x d x
8πa3
Z
1
= e−i|q ||x| cos θ e−|x|/a |x| d|x| 2πd(cos θ).
8πa3
The integral over cos θ can be done with the result
1 i|q ||x|
e − e−i|q ||x|
i|q||x|
so that F (q 2 ) becomes
Z ∞
1
F (q 2 ) = 3
|x|e−|x|/a (ei|q ||x| − e−i|q ||x| ) d|x|.
4a i|q| 0
One way of doing the |x|-integral is to write it as

Z ∞
∂
e−|x|/a (ei|q ||x| − e−i|q ||x| ) d|x|,
∂(−1/a) 0
where now the simple exponential integrals can be done, and the differentiation with
respect to a performed, after using
∂ ∂
= a2 .
∂(−1/a) ∂a
This leads to (8.135).

8.15 After replacing µ by kµ , (8.161) becomes (after correcting the misprints in it)
(6 p + 6 k + m)
−e2 ∗ν (k 0 , λ0 )ū(p0 , s0 )γ ν 6 ku(p, s)
(p + k)2 − m2
(6 p − 6 k 0 + m) ν
−e2 ∗ν (k 0 , λ0 )ū(p0 , s0 )6 k γ u(p, s).
(p − k 0 )2 + m2
In the first term, replace 6 ku(p, s) by
(6 k 0 + 6 p0 − 6 p)u(p, s) = (6 k 0 + 6 p0 − m)u(p, s) = (6 p + 6 k − m)u(p, s)
using the Dirac equation and 4-momentum conservation. Also note that
(6 p + 6 k + m)(6 p + 6 k − m) = (p + k)2 − m2 .
The first term is then

−e2 ∗ν (k 0 , λ0 )ūγ ν u.
In the second term, replace ū(p0 , s0 )6 k by
ū(p0 , s0 )(6 k 0 + 6 p0 − 6 p) = ū(p0 , s0 )(6 k 0 − 6 p + m) = −ū(p0 , s0 )(6 p − 6 k 0 − m).

The second term becomes

e2 ∗ν (k 0 , λ0 )ūγ ν u
which cancels the first. Similarly when ∗ν (k 0 , λ0 ) is replaced by kν0 .
8.16 (a) We work in the massless limit, as in section 8.6.3. We have
X (s) (u)∗ e4 X
Mγe− Mγe− =
su
λ,λ0 ,s,s0 λ,λ0 ,s,s0
∗ν (k 0 , λ0 )ρ (k 0 , λ0 )µ (k, λ)∗σ (k, λ)ū(p0 , s0 )γ ν (6 p + 6 k)γ µ u(p, s)ū(p, s)γ ρ (6 p − 6 k 0 )γ σ u(p0 , s0 )
e4
= gνρ gµσ Tr{γ ν (6 p + 6 k)γ µ 6 pγ ρ (6 p − 6 k 0 )γ σ 6 p0 }
su
e4
= Tr{γ ν (6 p + 6 k)γ µ 6 pγν (6 p − 6 k 0 )γµ 6 p0 }.
su
We now use
γ µ 6 pγν (6 p − 6 k 0 )γµ = −2(6 p − 6 k 0 )γν 6 p
from (J.5), and then
γ ν (6 p + 6 k)(6 p − 6 k 0 )γν = 4(p + k) · (p − k 0 )
from (J.4), and finally

Tr(6 p6 p0 ) = 4p · p0
from (J.30) to obtain
X (s) (u)∗ e4
Mγe− Mγe− = −32 (p + k) · (p − k 0 ) p0 · p.
su
λ,λ0 ,s,s0
Now
(p + k) · (p − k 0 ) = p2 − p · k 0 + k · p − k · k 0
= − p0 · k + k · p − k · k 0
since p · k 0 = p0 · k in the massless limit for all external lines (as follows from squaring
p − k 0 = p0 − k). Hence
(p + k) · (p − k 0 ) = k · (p − p0 − k 0 ) = −k 2 .
This therefore vanishes when the photon is on-shell (k 2 = 0).

8.17 The interference term calculated in problem 8.16 (a) had the value
X (s) (u)∗ e4
Mγe− Mγe− = −32 (p + k) · (p − k 0 ) p0 · p.
su
λ,λ0 ,s,s0
This time (with k 2 = −Q2 ) we have
(p + k) · (p − k 0 ) = p2 − p · k 0 + k · p − k · k 0
= − p · k 0 + k 0 · p0 + Q2 /2 − k · k 0
using k · p = k 0 · p0 + Q2 /2 (from squaring k + p = k 0 + p0 ). So
(p + k) · (p − k 0 ) = Q2 /2 + k 0 · (p0 − p − k) = Q2 /2 − (k 0 )2 = Q2 /2.
Hence using p · p0 = −t/2, we obtain

1 X (s) (u)∗ 2tQ2
Mγe− Mγe− = e4 .
4 su
λ,λ0 ,s,s0
There are two such terms in the product

∗
(s) (u) (s) (u)
Mγe− + Mγe− Mγe− + Mγe− ,
which are equal.

µν
8.18 (a) We calculate Lµν Meff using (8.185) and (8.190).
µν
Lµν Meff = 4[kµ0 kν + kν0 kµ + (q 2 /2)gµν ][2pµ pν + (q 2 /2)g µν ]
= 4[4k 0 · p k · p + q 2 k · k 0 + q 2 p2 + 4(q 2 /2)2 ]
= 4[4k 0 · p k · p + q 2 (−q 2 /2) + q 2 M 2 + (q 2 )2 ]
= 8[2k 0 · p k · p + (q 2 )2 /4 + q 2 M 2 /2].
In ‘laboratory’ frame with pµ = (M, 0), neglecting the electron mass so that ω = |k| ≡
k, ω 0 = |k0 | ≡ k 0 , and using (8.219), the preceding expression becomes
µν
Lµν Meff = 8[2kk 0 M 2 + 4k 2 k 02 sin4 θ/2 − 2kk 0 M 2 sin2 θ/2]
= 8[2kk 0 M 2 (1 − sin2 θ/2) + 4k 2 k 02 sin4 θ/2]
kk 0
= [16kk 0 M 2 cos2 θ/2][1 + 2 2 sin2 θ/2 tan2 θ/2]
M
= [16kk 0 M 2 cos2 θ/2][1 − (q 2 /2M 2 ) tan2 θ/2]
The first factor is exactly that in (K.24), leading to the ‘no-structure’ cross section.
(b) Returning to line 3 of part (a):
µν
Lµν Meff = 4[4k 0 · p k · p + q 2 k · k 0 + q 2 p2 + 4(q 2 /2)2 ].
With all particles massless, s = 2k · p, t = −2k · k 0 , and u = −2p · k 0 . Hence our expression
becomes
4[−us − t2 /2 + t2 ] = 4[−us + t2 /2].
dσ/dt is then given by
dσ 1 (4πα)2 u t2
= 2
4[− + 2 ].
dt 16π t s 2s
In the massless case we have s + t + u = 0 so that t2 = (u + s)2 , leading to the required
expression for dσ/dt.
From (K.41), (K.46) and (K.50) we find
k 02 dt
dy = 2π 02 .
2πkM 2k
But in this frame s = (k + p)2 = 2kM . Hence dt = sdy and the result is established.
8.19 (a) We shall label the 4-momentum and spin of the ingoing e− by k, s, of the ingoing e+
by k1 , s1 , of the outgoing µ− by p0 , r0 , and of the outgoing µ+ by p1 , r1 . The Mandelstam
variables are
Q2 = (k + k1 )2 = (p0 + p1 )2 , t = (k1 − p1 )2 = (k − p0 )2 , u = (k − p1 )2 = (k1 − p0 )2 .
The amplitude is
−igµν
iev̄(k1 , s1 )γ µ u(k, s) ieū(p0 , r0 )γν v(p1 , r1 ).
Q2
Note that the v̄γ µ u factor depends only on the e− and e+ momenta, while the ūγν v factor
depends only on the momenta of the µ− and µ+ .
(b) The spin-averaged squared cross matrix element is then
1 e2 X

|M|2 = v̄(k1 , s1 )γµ u(k, s)ū(k, s)γν v(k1 , s1 )
4 Q2 s,s
1
X
× ū(p0 , r0 )γ µ v(p1 , r1 )v̄(p1 , r1 )γ ν u(p0 , r0 )
r 0 ,r 1
(4πα)2
= L(e)µν L(µ)µν
Q4
where
1
L(e)µν = Tr[(6 k1 − m)γµ (6 k + m)γν ]
2
and
1
L(µ)µν = Tr[(6 p0 + M )γ µ (6 p1 − M )γ ν ],
2
using (7.61).
(c) Using the trace theorems as in (8.78), the lepton tensors are
L(e)µν = 2[k1µ kν + k1ν kµ − (k1 · k)gµν ]
and
L(µ)µν = 2[p0µ pν1 + p0ν pµ1 − (p0 · p1 )g µν ]
where now (in the massless limit) Q2 /2 = p0 · p1 = k1 · k. Hence
2
e
|M|2 = 4[2p0 · k1 p1 · k + 2p0 · k p1 · k1 − Q2 p0 · p1 − Q2 k1 · k + (Q2 )2 ]
Q2
2
e u2 t2
= 2
4[2 + 2 − Q2 Q2 /2 − Q2 Q2 /2 + (Q2 )2 ]
Q 4 4
2
e
= 2[t2 + u2 ].
Q2
In the massless limit, all 3-momenta have equal modulus which (slightly confusingly) we
denote by k. Then
t = −2k 2 (1 − cos θ), u = −2k 2 (1 + cos θ)
so that
t2 + u2 = 8k 4 (1 + cos2 θ).
Since Q2 = 4k 2 the result follows.
Crossing symmetry implies that the amplitude for
e− (k, s) + e+ (k1 , s1 ) → µ− (p0 , r0 ) + µ+ (p1 , r1 )
is equal to (minus) the amplitude for
e− (k, s) + µ− (−p1 , −r1 ) → µ− (p0 , r0 ) + e− (−k1 , −s1 ).
We can therefore obtain this amplitude from the one calculated in section 8.7 by making
the replacements
p, r → −p1 , −r1 and k 0 , s0 → −k1 , −s1 .
The spin labels disappear at the Trace stage, of course, and
q 2 (section 8.7) = (k − k 0 )2 → (k + k1 )2 = Q2 .
So (8.185) and (8.186) become
(8.185) → 2[−k1µ kν − k1ν kµ + (Q2 /2)gµν ]
and
(8.186) → 2[−p0µ pν − p0ν pµ + (Q2 /2)g µν ]
leading to exactly the same result for |M|2 .
(d) Using the formula (6.129) for the differential cross section for elastic scattering in the
centre of mass, and replacing |Mfi |2 by |M|2 , we obtain
Z Z
dσ 1
σ= = 16π 2 α2 (1 + cos2 θ) 2π d cos θ
dΩ 64π 2 Q2
1
α2 cos3 θ

= 2π cos θ +
4Q2 3 −1
= 4πα2 /3Q2
as required.
8.20 We have
σ µν
µ ν
γ γ − γν γµ

0 0 1
ū(p )i qν u(p) = iū(p ) i (p0ν − pν )u(p)
2M 2 2M
1
= − ū(p0 )(γ µ 6 p0 − γ µ 6 p − 6 p0 γ µ + 6 pγ µ )u(p)
4M
1 1
= − ū(p0 )[γ µ 6 p0 + 6 pγ µ ]u(p) + ū(p0 )γ µ u(p).
4M 2
Now
ū(p0 )γ µ 6 p0 u(p) = ū(p0 )γ µ γ ρ p0ρ u(p)

= ū(p0 )(2g µρ − γ ρ γ µ )p0ρ u(p)
= ū(p0 )2p0µ u(p) − ū(p0 )6 p0 γ µ u(p)
= ū(p0 )2p0µ u(p) − M ū(p0 )γ µ u(p),
and similarly
ū(p0 )6 pγ µ u(p) = ū(p0 )2pµ u(p) − M ū(p0 )γ µ u(p).
These formulae establish the required result.
Chapter 9
9.1 Using (8.206) with F1 = 1 and κ = 0 for the current matrix elements, and cancelling a
factor of e2 , we obtain
1 X 1 d3 p0
Welµν = ū(p, s)γ µ u(p0 , s0 )ū(p0 , s0 )γ ν u(p, s)(2π)4 δ 4 (p + q − p0 )
8πM 0 (2π)3 2E 0
s,s
1 1 d3 p0
= Tr{γ µ (6 p0 + M )γ ν (6 p + M )}(2π)4 δ 4 (p + q − p0 )
8πM (2π)3 2E 0
where the Trace is 2M µν (see (8.186)). Equation (9.104) then becomes

2
d3 p0 d3 k0

4πα 1 µν 4 4 0
dσ = Lµν M (2π) δ (p + q − p ) .
q2 4[(k · p)2 − m2 M 2 ]1/2 2E (2π) 2ω 0 (2π)3
0 3
This is precisely the formula which which yields the cross section for elastic eµ scattering
(see Appendix K for the flux and phase space factors).
9.2 (a) Omitting the terms involving qµ and qν from the expression (9.10) for W µν , we need
to evaluate
Lµν W µν = 2[k 0µ k ν + k 0ν k µ + (q 2 /2)g µν ][−gµν W1 + (pµ pν /M 2 )W2 ]

= 2[(−2k 0 · k − 2q 2 )W1 + (2p · k 0 p · k + q 2 p2 /2)W2 /M 2 ].
In the ‘laboratory’ system, and neglecting the electron mass (compare (8.217) and (8.218)),
p · k 0 = ω 0 M, p · k = ωM, q 2 = −2k · k 0 ,
and so
(2p · k 0 p · k + q 2 p2 /2)/M 2 = 2ωω 0 + q 2 /2 = 2ωω 0 − k · k 0 .
Writing as usual k = ω = |k|, k 0 = ω 0 = |k0 |, we have
k · k 0 = kk 0 (1 − cos θ) = 2kk 0 sin2 θ/2
and
2ωω 0 − k · k 0 = kk 0 (1 + cos θ) = 2kk 0 cos2 θ/2.
Hence
Lµν W µν = 4kk 0 [2W1 sin2 θ/2 + W2 cos2 θ/2]
and, from (9.104),
2
d3 k0

4πα 1 0 2 2
dσ = 4πM 4kk [2W 1 sin θ/2 + W 2 cos θ/2] .
q2 4[(k · p)2 − m2 M 2 ]1/2 2ω 0 (2π)3
Now (q 2 )2 = 16k 2 k 02 sin4 θ/2, and (neglecting the electron mass)

[(k · p)2 − m2 M 2 ]1/2 = kM . Also,
d3 k0 = k 02 dk 0 dΩ.
Hence
α2
dσ = [2W1 sin2 θ/2 + W2 cos2 θ/2]dk 0 dΩ
4k 2 sin4 θ/2
as required.
(b) We have
Q2 = 2kk 0 (1 − cos θ) and ν = k − k 0 .
Hence
1
d cos θ dk 0 = 2
dQ2 dν
∂Q ∂Q2
∂ cos θ ∂k0

∂ν ∂ν
∂ cos θ ∂k0

1 1
= 0
dQ2 dν = dQ2 dν.
2k(1 − cos θ) 2kk 0
2kk

0 1
Using dΩ = 2πd cos θ and the result of part (a), this leads to (9.16) from (9.12).
Similarly, since
x = Q2 /2M ν and y = ν/k,
we have
1
dQ2 dν = ∂x ∂x
dx dy

∂Q2 ∂ν
∂y ∂y
∂Q2 ∂ν

1
= = 2M νk dx dy
1 Q2

2M ν − 2M ν 2

1
0 k

= 2M k 2 y dx dy
as in (9.19), leading straightforwardly to the formula for d2 σ/dxdy.

9.3 (a) The transverse polarization vectors are given in (9.38). These satisfy (λ = ±1) · p = 0
in the laboratory frame, and also (9.40). Hence in the product µ ∗ν W µν , with W µν given
by (9.10), only the contraction with −g µν W1 survives, leading to
1 X 1
µ (λ)∗ν (λ)W µν = [−µ (λ = 1)∗µ (λ = 1) − µ (λ = −1)∗µ (λ = −1)]W1
2 2
λ=±1
1
= [1 + 1]W1 = W1
2
and (9.46) follows from (9.45).
(b) From (9.47) the longitudinal/scalar virtual photon cross section is
σS = (4π 2 α/K)∗µ (λ = 0)ν (λ = 0)W µν
where W µν given by (9.10), and where µ (λ = 0) is real and given by (9.41), and satisfies
q · = 0 (see (9.49)). Thus in the contractions with W µν , terms involving q µ and q ν can
be dropped. The W1 term in ‘ · W ’ is then simply (− · )W1 = −W1 (note (9.42)),
while the W2 term is
1 1
2
(λ = 0) · p (λ = 0) · p W2 = 2 2 (q 3 M )(q 3 M )W2
M M Q
(q 3 )2 Q2 + (q 0 )2 ν2

= W2 = W2 = 1 + 2 W2 ,
Q2 Q2 Q
and (9.48) follows from these results.
From (9.46) we obtain
K
W1 = σT ,
4π 2 α
and substituting this into (9.48) gives the required result for W2 .
9.4 In the limit m → 0 the spinors φ and χ satisfy σ ·pφ = Eφ and σ ·pχ = −Eχ respectively,
where in both cases E = |p|. Hence φ satisfies
σ·p
φ=φ
|p|
which shows it has positive helicity (compare (4.67)); similarly χ has negative helicity.
(b) For example,

1 + γ5 1 − γ5 1
PR PL = = [1 − γ52 ] = 0.
2 2 4
When m 6= 0, the operators PR and PL still project out the φ and χ components of the
4-component spinor, but these 2-component objects are no longer (with m 6= 0) helicity
eigenstates (since, for example, (σ · p/|p|)φ is no longer equal to φ or −φ).
(c) We may write
ūγ µ u = u† (PR + PL )γ 0 γ µ (PR + PL )u.
We exploit the fundamental relation γ µ γ5 = −γ5 γ µ (see (J.11)). Consider one ‘cross’
term:
u† PR γ 0 γ µ PL u = u† γ 0 PL γ µ PL u
= u† γ 0 γ µ PR PL u
= 0.
Similarly for the term u† PL γ 0 γ µ PR u. The only surviving terms are
u† PR γ 0 γ µ PR u + u† PL γ 0 γ µ PL u
which is just ūR γ µ u + ūL γ µ u. Hence ‘R’ states connect only to ‘R’ states, and similarly
for ‘L’ states, and so helicity (in the massless limit) is conserved.
Note that ‘ūR ’ could perhaps more clearly be written as
uR
since we form it by taking the dagger of uR and then multiplying by γ 0 - i.e. we take the
Dirac ‘bar’ of uR . ūR is however the conventional notation.
(d) In this case a typical cross term is
u† PR γ 0 γ µ γ5 PL u = u† γ 0 PL γ µ γ5 PL u
= u† γ 0 γ µ PR γ5 PL u
= u† γ 0 γ µ γ5 PR PL u
= 0,
and again helicity is conserved.

(e) The Dirac mass term is
¯
ψ̂ ψ̂ = ψ̂ † (PR + PL )γ 0 (PR + PL )ψ̂.
Consider a ‘diagonal’ term:
ψ̂ † PR γ 0 PR ψ̂ = ψ̂ † γ 0 PL PR ψ̂ = 0,
and similarly for the other diagonal term. Only the ‘L-R’ and ‘R-L’ terms survive (the
daggers in the printed answer are a misprint).
9.5 Neglecting the positron and proton masses, their 4-momenta are pe+ = (k, 0, 0, −k), say,
and pp = (p, 0, 0, p). Then
2
WCM = (pe+ + pp )2 = (k + p)2 − (k − p)2 = 4kp.
√
So WCM = 2 kp = 300.3 GeV.
A leptoquark of mass Mlq formed as a resonance state of the e+ and the struck quark
would appear as a peak in the effective mass of the e+ and the quark, at
pan effective mass
equal to Mlq . In a simple parton model picture, this efective mass is (pe+ + xpp )2 . So
we expect a peak when
p2e+ + 2x pe+ · pp + x2 p2p = Mlq
2
,
2 2
or, neglecting the positron and proton masses, at x = Mlq /WCM .
2
9.6 (a) Using (9.92) for d σ/dx1 dx2 , we have
4πα2 X 2
Z
dσ
= dx 1 dx 2 e [qa (x1 )q̄a (x2 ) + q̄a (x1 )qa (x2 )]δ(q 2 − sx1 x2 )
dq 2 9q 2 a a
4πα2
Z X 1
= 2
dx1 dx2 e2a [qa (x1 )q̄a (x2 ) + q̄a (x1 )qa (x2 )] δ(q 2 /s − x1 x2 )
9q a
s
with the help of (E.29), and then writing 1/s = x1 x2 /q 2 and τ = q 2 /s we obtain the
desired formula.
(b)

∂q2 ∂q2
2 ∂x1 ∂x2
dq dxF = ∂x dx1 dx2

∂xF ∂x F
∂x2

1

sx2 sx1
= dx1 dx2
1 −1
= − s(x1 + x2 ) dx1 dx2 .
The minus sign can be absorbed by appropriate choice of limits in the q 2 − xF integration.
In the variables (x1 , x2 ), the integration is over the square 0 ≤ x1 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 1.
Consider performing the integration holding x1 fixed and integrating over x2 , and then
integrating over x1 . Take x1 = 1/2 as an example, with x2 running from x2 = 0 to x2 = 1.
In the q 2 − xF plane, this line maps into the line 2q 2 /s + xF = 1/2, and it is traversed in
the sense of q 2 /s increasing (from 0 to 1/2) but xF decreasing (from 1/2 to -1/2). We can
reverse the sense in which xF is covered by invoking the minus sign from the determinant.
The variables x1 and x2 are given in terms of xF and τ by x1 − x2 = xF and x2 = τ /x1 .
So we have
x1 − τ /x1 = xF .
Solving for x1 (which is greater than 0) we find
1
x1 = [xF + (x2F + 4τ )1/2 ],
2
and hence
1
x2 = [−xF + (x2F + 4τ )1/2 ],
2
so that x1 + x2 = (x2F + τ )1/2 . Hence
4πα2 X 2
d2 σ = e [qa (x1 )q̄a (x2 ) + q̄a (x1 )qa (x2 )] dx1 dx2
9q 2 a a
1
= {. . .} dq 2 dxF
(x1 + x2 )s
1 4πα2 τ X 2
= 2 ea [qa (x1 )q̄a (x2 ) + q̄a (x1 )qa (x2 )] dq 2 dxF
(xF + 4τ )1/2 9q 4 a
which leads to the desired expression.

9.7 Let the 4-momenta of the incoming q and q̄ be k and k1 respectively, and let those of
the outgoing µ− and µ+ be p0 and p1 . Then the q − q̄ − γ vertex, for scalar quarks, is
proportional to (k − k1 )µ , while the γ − µ− − µ+ vertex is same as in problem 8.19(b).
Thus in evaluating the unpolarized cross section we need the contraction
T = (k − k1 )µ (k − k1 )ν (p0µ p1ν + p0ν p1µ − (Q2 /2)gµν )
= 2p0 · (k − k1 ) p1 · (k − k1 ) − (Q2 /2)(k − k1 )2 .
Introduce the Mandelstam variables
s = (k + k1 )2 = Q2 , t = (k − p0 )2 = (k1 − p1 )2 , and u = (k − p1 )2 = (k1 − p0 )2 .
Then, negelecting lepton masses,

t u u t
T = 2[− + ][− + ] − (Q2 /2)(−Q2 )
2 2 2 2
1 1
= − (t − u)2 + (Q2 )2
2 2
1 1
= − (4k 2 cos θ)2 + (4k 2 )2
2 2
∝ (1 − cos2 θ)
where k is the CM momentum.
Chapter 10
10.1 We need to calculate the Jacobian for the change of variables
{x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 } → {x, y, z, X}. (A)
Each of these variables is in fact a 4-vector, with (therefore) four components, as is explicit
in the notation d4 x1 etc. Thus there are a total of 16 variables altogether, and we certainly
don’t want to deal with a 16 × 16 determinant. We can however write the 16-dimensional
integration element as
[dx01 dx02 dx03 dx04 ] [dx11 dx12 dx13 dx14 ] [dx21 etc]
0
and imagine doing the transformation first for the ‘ ’ components of the two sets in (A):
{x01 , x02 , x03 , x04 } → {x0 , y 0 , z 0 , X 0 },
then for the ‘ 1 ’ components, etc. The total Jacobian will then be the product of four
4 × 4 Jacobians, one for each of the components. But since they all have exactly the same
form, we shall suppress the explicit ‘component’ label, and write simply

∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x4
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
J = ∂x ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x4
1
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
∂x
∂X1 ∂x ∂x3 ∂x4
2

∂x ∂X ∂X ∂X
∂x 1 ∂x ∂x
2 3 4
for one of the determinants. Evaluating the partial derivatives, we obtain

1
0 −1 0
0 1 0 −1
J =
0 0 1 −1
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
 
1 0 −1 0 1 −1 
1 
= 0 1 −1 − 0 0 −1
4 
1 1 1 1 1 1

= 1.
Hence the full Jacobian is unity.

Inverting the relations giving {x, y, z, X} in terms of {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 }, we find
1
x1 = (4X + 3x − y + 2z)
4
1
x2 = (4X − x + 3y − 2z)
4
1
x3 = (4X − x − y + 2z)
4
1
x4 = (4X − x − y − 2z).
4
The exponentials in (10.3) then become
p0A −pB p0B −pA
ei( 4 )·(4X+3x−y+2z)
ei( 4 )·(4X−x+3y−2z)
which reduces to the exponentials given in (10.4). The propagator factors only depend on
the difference in the arguments of the two fields (see (6.98)).
10.2 The integral is
Z 1 1
1 1 1
= −
0 [A + x(B − A)]2 (B − A) A + x(B − A) 0

1 1 1 1
= − = .
A−B B A AB
10.3 The [. . .] bracket is
[k 2 − xk 2 − (1 − x)m2A + xq 2 − 2x q · k + xk 2 − xm2B + i]

= [k 2 − 2x q · k + xq 2 − xm2B − (1 − x)m2A + i]
= [(k − xq)2 − x2 q 2 + xq 2 − xm2B − (1 − x)m2A + i]
= [k 02 − {−x(1 − x)q 2 + xm2B + (1 − x)m2A } + i]
which is just [k 02 − ∆ + i]. Note that we have replaced ‘(1 − x)i + i’ by ‘i’ since all that
matters is the sign of this infinitesimal imaginary part, and (1 − x) can never be negative.
10.4 We have
−g 2 1
Z Z Λ
[2] u2 du
ΠC (q 2 ) = 2 2 3/2
.
8π 0 0 (u + ∆)
One way of evaluating the integral over u is to substitute u = ∆1/2 tan θ. Then
du = ∆1/2 sec2 θ dθ
and
(u2 + ∆)3/2 = ∆3/2 sec3 θ.
The integral over u becomes
tan2 θ sin2 θ
Z Z
2
3
sec θ dθ = dθ
sec θ cos θ
Z
1
= − cos θ dθ
cos θ
= ln(sec θ + tan θ) − sin θ
2
(u + ∆)1/2

u Λ
= ln 1/2
+ 1/2 − 2 .
∆ ∆ (u + ∆)1/2
This expression vanishes at u = 0 and has the value
Λ + (Λ2 + ∆)1/2

Λ
ln −
∆1/2 (Λ + ∆)1/2
at u = Λ (correcting the formula given in (10.51)).

[2]
10.5 ΠC (q 2 ) is given by (10.42) and its dependence on q 2 is contained in the quantity ∆ of
(10.43). Hence
[2] 1
dΠC (q 2 ) d4 k 0 −2
Z Z
d∆
= ig 2 dx
dq 2 0 (2π)4 (k 02 − ∆ + i)3 dq 2
1
d4 k 0
Z Z
2 2
= ig dx x(1 − x).
0 (2π)4 (k 02 − ∆ + i)3
The denominator of the k 0 integral now behaves like (k 0 )6 at large values of k 0 , which will
ensure convergence. In more detail, we now have, in place of (10.44), a k 00 integral of the
form
dk 00 1 ∂2 dk 00
Z Z
=
[(k 00 )2 − A]3 2 ∂A2 [(k 00 )2 − A]
which will result in a denominator (u2 +∆)5/2 in (10.50), so that the u-integral is manifestly
convergent, by counting powers of u at large values of u.
10.6 Consider the counter term
1
Lct = δZC ∂µ φ̂ph,C ∂ µ φ̂ph,C
2
where normal-ordering is understood. Remembering that ‘L = T − V ’, the correspond-
ing interaction potential is −Lct , and in the Dyson-Wick expansion it is ‘−i’ times the
interaction that appears. Hence the one-C matrix element required is
i
δZC hC, k|∂µ φ̂ph,C ∂ µ φ̂ph,C |C, ki
2
d3 k1
Z
i
= 2EδZC h0|âC (k) √ [âC (k1 )(−ik1µ )e−ik1 ·x + â†C (k1 )(ik1µ )eik1 ·x ]
2 (2π)3 2E1
d3 k2
Z
× √ [âC (k2 )(−ik 2µ )e−ik2 ·x + â†C (k2 )(ik 2µ )eik2 ·x ] â†C (k)|0i
(2π)3 2E2
where normal-ordering is understood but not shown explicitly. The only terms which give
a non-zero vev are those in which the number of â operators is equal to the number of â†
operators. One of these is
h0|âC (k)(ik1µ )â†C (k1 )(−ik 2µ )âC (k2 )â†C (k)|0i.
As usual, we write
âC (k)â†C (k1 ) = â†C (k1 )âC (k) + (2π)3 δ 3 (k − k1 ),
the â†C (k1 ) then annihilating on h0|, and similarly with âC (k2 )â†C |0i which yields a factor
(2π)3 δ 3 (k −k2 ). The k1 and k2 integrations can then be done, setting k1 = k and k2 = k,
and hence E1 = E, and E2 = E, and k1µ = k µ , k2µ = k µ . This term therefore finally yields
i
δZC k 2 .
2
The other surviving term is (after normal-ordering)
h0|âC (k)(ik 2µ )â†C (k2 )(−ik1µ )âC (k1 )â†C (k)|0i.
This contributes exactly the same result, removing the factor 12 as required. The 1-C
matrix element of the counter term involving φ̂2ph,C is very similar, lacking the k 2 factor
coming from the gradients.
Chapter 11
11.1 The Feynman rule for the counter term in the fermion propagator is given by (a) of (11.7).
The fermion analogue of (10.63) is then
i
S= .
6 p − m + (Z2 − 1)6 p − δm − Σ[2] (p)
For 6 p ≈ m we expand Σ[2] (p) as
dΣ[2]

[2] [2]
Σ (p) ≈ Σ (6 p = m) + (6 p − m) ,
d6 p 6p=m
so that
i
S≈
[2]
6 p − m + (Z2 − 1)6 p − δm − Σ[2] (6 p = m) − (6 p − m) dΣ
d6p
6p=m
i
= ,
dΣ[2] dΣ[2]
6 p[Z2 − d6p ]+m d6p − Σ[2] (6 p = m) − δm − m
6p=m 6p=m
where Z2 and δm must be chosen so that this expression is equal to i/(6 p − m). The
coefficient of 6 p therefore yields
dΣ[2]

Z2 = 1 + ,
d6 p 6p=m
while the mass terms may be written as
dΣ[2]

m − Σ[2] (6 p = m) − δm − m = m(Z2 − 1) − Σ[2] (6 p = m) − (m0 Z2 − m) − m
d6 p 6p=m
= − m + (m − m0 )Z2 − Σ[2] (6 p = m),
whence we require
m0 − m = −Z2−1 Σ[2] (6 p = m).
When these values are substituted back into the first expression for S, we obtain (11.10).
11.2 Consider QED for definiteness, with interaction Lagrangian
¯
L̂int (x) = −q ψ̂(x)γ µ ψ̂(x).
The amplitude for a typical closed fermion loop will involve (compare (10.3)) a sequence
of fermion propagators starting from a certain space-time point and ending at the same
point:
¯ ¯ ¯
h0|T (ψ̂(x1 )ψ̂(x2 ))|0ih0|T (ψ̂(x2 )ψ̂(x3 ))|0i . . . h0|T (ψ̂(xN )ψ̂(x1 ))|0i. (A)
Note that each propagator involves fields from different interaction Lagrangians in a term
of given order in the Dyson expansion analogous to (6.42), since each interaction involves
two fields at the same point. In a given ‘Dyson’ term, however, the interactions may be
written in any order within the overall time-ordering symbol T , for example (referring to
(A)) as
¯ ¯ ¯
h0| . . . T {. . . [ψ̂(x1 )6A(x1 )ψ̂(x1 )][ψ̂(x2 )6A(x2 )ψ̂(x2 )] . . . [ψ̂(xN )6A(x1 )ψ̂(xN )]} . . . |0i,
without introducing any sign changes. The product of contractions shown in (A) is now
¯
obtained after permuting ψ̂(x1 ) through an odd number of fermion fields (namely the
¯ ¯
single field ψ̂(x1 ) and the appropriate number of pairs ψ̂(x2 )ψ̂(x2 ), . . . , ψ̂(xN )ψ̂(xN )),
which produces an overall minus sign.
11.3 The amplitude arises from the second-order term in the Dyson expansion, which involves
the T -product
¯ µ ¯ ν
T (ψ̂ α (x1 )γαβ ψ̂β (x1 ) ψ̂ ρ (x2 )γρσ ψ̂σ (x2 )),
where we have indicated the (summed over) Dirac matrix indices α, β, ρ, σ explicitly.
Figure 11.2(b) corresponds to the contraction
µ ¯ ν ¯
. . . γαβ h0|T (ψ̂β (x1 )ψ̂ ρ (x2 ))|0iγρσ h0|T (ψ̂σ (x2 )ψ̂ α (x1 ))|0i . . .
which has the structure
µ ν
γαβ Sβρ (x1 − x2 )γρσ Sσα (x2 − x1 )
X
= [γ µ S(x1 − x2 )γ ν S(x2 − x1 )]αα
α
which exhibits the required Trace.
11.4 The result is (up to a factor of 2) the same as (8.78) with k 0 = k + q.
11.5 We have, from (11.32),
Π̄[2] 2 [2] 2 [2]
γ (q ) = Πγ (q ) − Πγ (0),
where from (11.23)

Z 1
Π[2] 2
γ (q ) = 8ie
2
dx x(1 − x)I(x, q 2 )
0
with
d4 k 0
Z
1
I(x, q 2 ) = ,
(2π)4 (k 02 − ∆γ (x, q 2 ) + i)2
where
∆γ (x, q 2 ) = −x(1 − x)q 2 + m2 .
As noted in the text, the k 0 -integral in I(x, q 2 ) has been evaluated in section 10.3.1 and
10.3.2, with the result (correcting (10.51))
( ! )
2 i Λ + (Λ2 + ∆γ (x, q 2 ))1/2 Λ
I(x, q ) = ln − 2 ,
8π 2 1/2
∆γ (x, q 2 ) (Λ + ∆γ (x, q 2 ))1/2
[2]
where Λ is the ultraviolet cut off. The quantity Π̄γ (q 2 ) involves the x-integral of the
subtracted quantity
I(x, q 2 ) − I(x, q 2 = 0),
and we shall see that this has a well-defined finite limit as Λ → ∞. We have
( !
1/2
2 2 i Λ + (Λ2 + ∆γ (x, q 2 ))1/2 ∆γ (x, q 2 = 0)
I(x, q ) − I(x, q = 0) = ln
8π 2 Λ + (Λ2 + ∆γ (x, q 2 = 0))1/2 1/2
∆γ (x, q 2 )

Λ Λ
− 2 + .
(Λ + ∆γ (x, q 2 ))1/2 (Λ2 + ∆γ (x, q 2 = 0))1/2
Now
Λ + (Λ2 + ∆γ (x, q 2 ))1/2
lim =1
Λ→∞ Λ + (Λ2 + ∆γ (x, q 2 = 0))1/2
and
Λ Λ
lim − + 2 = 0.
Λ→∞ (Λ2 2
+ ∆γ (x, q ))1/2 (Λ + ∆γ (x, q 2 = 0))1/2
Noting also that ∆γ (x, q 2 = 0) = m2 , we obtain
1
e2 m2
Z
[2] 2
Π̄ γ(q ) = − 2 dx x(1 − x) ln
2π 0 ∆γ (x, q 2 )
which is equivalent to (11.36).

11.7 For q 2 = −q 2 m2 we write
Z 1
2α
Π̄[2] 2
γ (q ) = dx x(1 − x) ln[1 + q 2 x(1 − x)/m2 ]
π 0
1
q2
Z
2α
≈ dx x(1 − x) x(1 − x)
π 0 m2
2 Z 1
2αq
= dx x2 (1 − x)2
πm2 0
which leads to (11.38).

11.8 In this case we are interested in q 2 = −|q 2 | m2 . We write
1
|q 2 |
Z
2α
Π̄[2] 2
γ (|q |) = dx x(1 − x) ln x(1 − x) + 1
π 0 m2
1
|q 2 | m2
Z
2α
= dx x(1 − x) ln x(1 − x)[1 + 2 ]
π 0 m2 |q |x(1 − x)
2α 1
2 2
|q |
Z
m
= dx x(1 − x) ln 2
+ ln[x(1 − x)] + O .
π 0 m |q 2 |
Then using
1 1
x2 x2
Z
1
x ln x dx = ln x − =−
0 2 4 0 4
and 1
1
x3 x3
Z
2 1
x ln x dx = ln x − =− ,
0 3 3 0 9
together with
Z 1 Z 1
x(1 − x) ln(1 − x) dx = x(1 − x) ln xdx,
0 0
we arrive at (11.54).
11.9 The e contributes 0.01639, the µ 0.00825 and the τ 0.00388 for a total of 0.0285.
11.10 In the system ~ = c = 1, with one independent dimension which we take to be mass (see
Appendix B), the electromagnetic field strength tensor F̂ µν has dimension M 2 , so that
the Maxwell action Z
1
− d4 xF̂ µν F̂µν
4
is dimensionless. Hence (F̂ µν F̂µν )2 has dimension M 8 , and therefore the coupling constant
‘E’ must have dimension M −4 so that
Z
E d4 x (F̂ µν F̂µν )2
is dimensionless.
In terms of the fields Ê and B̂,
2 2
F̂ µν F̂µν = 2(B̂ − Ê ).
Hence 2 2
E(F̂ µν F̂µν )2 = 4E(B̂ − Ê )2 .
This fourth-order (in the fields) interaction will contribute to γ − γ scattering, which does
not occur in the classical (Maxwell) theory. See for example The Quantum Theory of
Fields, volume 1, by S. Weinberg (CUP), pages 533-4.

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Gauge Theories in Particle Physics

Volume 1: From Relativistic Quantum

Outline solutions for selected problems

I J R Aitchison and A J G Hey

(approximately equal to the mass of the I = 3/2 ∆ resonance).

jy0 = ω 0† αy ω 0 = ω † e−iΣx α/2 αy eiΣx α/2 ω.

similarly αy Σx = −iαz ; and Σx αy Σx = −αy Σ2x = −αy . Hence

jy0 = ω † [cos2 α/2 αy + 2 sin α/2 cos α/2 αz − sin2 α/2 αy ]ω

4.10 Under (4.83):

and the exponentials cancel.

(1 − 21 σx x )(E − σx px )(1 − 12 σx x )(1 + 21 σx x )uR = 0.

We need to evaluate the integral:

integral directly for r = s. So we have

and so π̂(y, t) is given by

with k · (x1 − x2 ) = E(t1 − t2 ) − k · (x1 − x2 ). For t1 = t2 the integral is

For the ‘ââ’ term the x-integral yields

φ̂ commutes with (∂ φ̂/∂y)2 , and the non-vanishing term on the RHS is

The second term is Z ∞ Z ∞

[φ̂(x1 , t1 ), φ̂(x2 , t2 )] δ(t1 − t2 ) = −iδ(x1 − x2 )δ(t1 − t2 )

Introducing x and X as in problem 6.6, this becomes

and |k| = |k0 | by energy conservation. Hence

u = (pA − p0B )2 = (0, (k − k0 ))2 = −(k − k0 )2 ≤ 0.

φs φs † = 1 (see problem 7.8) to obtain

Since k2 = ω 2 − m2 this becomes

which is in fact the matrix βm + α · k + ω using (4.31). For the ‘ vv † ’ term, we

Now note that

where 6 k = ωβ − γ · k. We need to show that this is equal to

where in this case

We need to identify the terms in L which involve ∂ 0 A1 , ∂ 1 A1 , ∂ 2 A1 , ∂ 3 A1 . First, note

Substituting these expressions into the E-L equations for A1 we obtain

∂ 0 (∂1 A0 − ∂0 A1 ) + ∂ 2 (∂1 A2 − ∂2 A1 ) + ∂ 3 (∂1 A3 − ∂3 A1 ) = −jem 1 , (S)

which is the ν = 1 component of (7.62) (written with the index ν lowered).

(A(k 2 )g νµ + B(k 2 )k ν k µ )(−k 2 gµσ + kµ kσ ) = gσν .

Multiplying out the brackets,

−k 2 A(k 2 )gσν + A(k 2 )k ν kσ − k 2 B(k 2 )k ν kσ + B(k 2 )k ν k 2 kσ = gσν ,

gσµ = (−k 2 g µν + (1 − 1/ξ)k µ k ν )(A(k 2 )gνσ + B(k 2 )kν kσ )

ĤS = π̂ † π̂ + ∇φ̂† · ∇φ̂ + m2 φ̂† φ̂,

Ĥ = π̂(π̂ † − iq φ̂Â0 ) + π̂ † (π̂ + iq φ̂† Â0 )

which establishes (7.139).

∂2ν h0|T (φ̂(x1 )φ̂† (x2 )|0i =

which cancel using (7.32) (at equal times (x1 − x2 )2 is spacelike). So

−(∂ µ φ̂† )φ̂ term

the current as in problem 8.2}b̂† (p)|0i.

h0|b̂(p0 ).....b̂(k 0 )....b̂† (k)....b̂† (p)|0i.

h0|b̂(p0 ).....b̂† (k)....b̂(k 0 )....b̂† (p)|0i.

8.5 (a) We are assuming E = E 0 , as in the required application. Then

which reduces immediately to the given expression.

Tr[(6 k 0 + m)γ µ (6 k + m)γ ν ] = Tr(6 k 0 γ µ 6 kγ ν ) + mTr(γ µ 6 kγ ν )

L00 = 2[E 2 + k2 cos θ] + 2m2

and the result follows as in problem 8.5(d).

d4 l −il·(x1 −x2 ) i[−gµν + (1 − ξ)lµ lν /l2 ]

It is advantageous to write p0 = p + q, so that (p + p0 )µ = (2p + q)µ , and similarly for

Lµν Tµν = 8[2p · k 0 p · k + (q 2 /2)p2 ]

8.14 We have (correcting the misprint in (8.134))

One way of doing the |x|-integral is to write it as

This leads to (8.135).

(6 k 0 + 6 p0 − 6 p)u(p, s) = (6 k 0 + 6 p0 − m)u(p, s) = (6 p + 6 k − m)u(p, s)

(1 − 21 σx x )(E − σx px )(1 − 12 σx x )(1 + 21 σx x )uR = 0.

σS = (4π 2 α/K)∗µ (λ = 0)ν (λ = 0)W µν

[k 2 − xk 2 − (1 − x)m2A + xq 2 − 2x q · k + xk 2 − xm2B + i]