Theory of Architecture

Design Philosophy of Master Architects

 Traditional
Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Timelines

Classical
architecture
Modern
architecture
Evolutionary
architecture
Development of architectural style

Classical Modern Evolutionary

architecture architecture architecture
General theories

Classical Modern Evolutionary

architecture architecture architecture

Dictated by Industrial Shift of

Vitruvian Revolution design
Theory Arts & paradigm
technology Gilles
(Bauhaus) Delueze
Theory
 vitruvian theory
repetition/unity proportion emphasis

symmetry

based euclidean geometry

Supported by modern movement
 vitruvian Louis Sullivan- Form follows function

theory
Bauhaus and Walther Gropius
• Architecture supported by “mother sciences”
• Construction Economy “matchbox architecture”

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Less is

more

euclidean geometryLe Corbusier

White box

Frank Lloyd Wright

Form and function as one

Otto Wagner
Moderne Arckitektur

indeterministic rules
uncertainty multiplicity of forces randomness

non-euclidian geometry
multiplicity of non-linear manner
folding + unfolding
Deleuze, Gilles. “The Fold-Leibniz and the Baroque: The Pleats of Matter.”
Architectural Design Profile No.102: Folding in Architecture (1993): 18
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Classical

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Classical

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio

- Author of the oldest research on

architecture
- Wrote an extensive summary of all
the theory on construction - Had a
thorough knowledge of earlier
Greek and Roman writings “Ten
Books on Architecture”

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Classical

- De architectura libri decem

- Consists mostly of normative theory of design
(based on practice)
- A collection of thematic theories of design with no
method of combining them into a synthesis
-Presents a classification of requirements set for
buildings:

: DURABILTIY (firmitas)
: PRACTICALITY or “convenience” (utilitas)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Classical

: PLEASANTNESS (venustas)
Vitruvian Rules of Aesthetic
Form

- Based on Greek traditions

of architecture - Teachings of
Pythagoras : applying
proportions of numbers

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Classical

- Observations of tuned string of

instruments - Proportions of human body

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Middle Ages

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Middle Ages
Monastery Institutions

- Most documents retrieved from the

Middle Ages
- However, archives contain only
few descriptions of buildings
- Described only as “according to
the traditional model” - “There’s no

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Middle Ages
accounting for tastes” was the rule
of thumb
Development of Building Style

- With hardly or no literary research

present
- Villard de Hannecourt’s “sketchbook” in 1235
- Rotzer’s Booklet on the right way of making pinnacles
- Only through guidance of old masters

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Middle Ages
- Tradition binding and precise in close guilds of builders
Monastery Institutions

- Most documents retrieved from the Middle Ages -

However, archives contain only few descriptions of
buildings
- Described only as “according to the traditional model”
- “There’s no accounting for tastes” was the rule of
thumb

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Renaissance

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Renaissance

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Renaissance

Leon Bautista Alberti (1404-72)

- Person in charge of constructions commanded

by Pope
- “On Building” : De re aedifficatoria
: one of the greatest works of the theory of
architecture
: completed in 1452, published in 1485
: more emphasis on decoration of building exteriors
Sebastino Serlio

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Renaissance

-“Regole generall di architectura”

Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola

- “Regola delle cinque ordini”
- Concise, facts and easily applicable rules of the
five column systems
- Based his design instructions on four things:
: idea of Pythagoras
: proportions of small number
: properties and other instruments
: good taste

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Renaissance

Andrea Palladio (1508-80)

- “I Quattro libri dell’architectura”
-The father of modern picture books of architecture

Philibert de L’orme
- One of French theorist who are critical of italians
- Prove that Pantheon’s Corinthian columns had
3 different proportions
- Rejected the doctrine of absolute beauty of

measures

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Art Nouveau

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Art Nouveau

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Glasgow School of Art

Charles Rennie
Macintosh

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Metropolitain Station

Hector Guimard
Henry van de Velde
 Art Nouveau
Theatre des Champs Elysees
Art Nouveau

- The first architectural style

independent of the tradition of
antiquity after the Gothic style -
The example set by Art
Nouveau encourage some of the
most skillful architects of the
20th century to create their
private form language

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Art Nouveau

Five points of Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Art Nouveau

(1926, Le Corbusier)

1. pilotis
2. free plan
3. free façade
4. the long horizontal sliding window
5. the roof garden

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Art Nouveau

Copying from Antiquity

-Architecture form antiquity came to a print of
perfection

Eugene Viollet-le-Duc (1863)

-the first theorist who set out to create a totally new
system of architectural forms independent of
antiquity

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Art Nouveau

Owen Jones
-used forms inspired from nature, especially plants -
Architecture as Space (Bruno Zeri)

“The crux of architecture is not the sculptural pattern,

but instead the building interiors. These can be seen
as “negative solids”, as voids which the artist
divides, combines, repeats and emphasizes in the
same way as the sculptor treats his “positive” lumps
of substance.”

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Art Nouveau

- The “personal style” of architects are not

necessarily based on laws of nature or on logical
reasoning. More important is that they exhibit a
coherent application of an idea which also must be
clear that the public can find it out. An advantage
is also if the style includes symbolical
undertones.

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

1910’s

2 Art movements that influenced

1. Futurism – simultaneity of movement

2. Cubism – interpretation of space
Modern
Architecture
1930’s
International Style
-Brutalism

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

1950’s
The period of ReassessmentModern
Architecture

- Universalism -
Personalism
1920’s

The Bauhaus

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism
-“Art and Technology, the new unity”

Established architects
Modern

Frank Lloyd Wright “organic

architecture”Architecture
Le Corbusier
Mies Van Der Rohe / Gropius

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

Industrial Revolution (1768)

Arts and Crafts Movement

-William Morris
-John Ruskin
Modern
Electicism Architecture
-architecture of borrowing

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

1900’s

- European architecture was notified

-Person to notify:
Modern
Otto Wagner Architecture
Adolf Loos “ornament is a crime”
Frank Lloyd Wright

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

H.P. Berlage

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Seagram Building

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 arts and
technology

Walter Gropius Bauhaus, Dessau

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Unite d’ Habitacion, France

Le Corbusier

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism
Marcel Breuer

Wassily Chair

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Erich Mendelsohn

Functionalism

Einstein Tower, Potsdam

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

Catedral de Brasilia

Oscar Niemeyer

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Industrial Revolution

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism
Fruits of Industrial Revolution

Joseph Paxton – Crystal Palace, 1851

Elisha Graves Otis – Elevator, 1857

Manufacturing of “Rolled SteelModern”
Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

Chrystal Palace

Modern
Architecture

Joseph Paxton

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism
Modern
Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Louis Sullivan
- “form follows function”

Louis Sullivan

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism
Modern Architecture

Otto Wagner

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Modern

Adolf Loos

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Architecture Functionalism

Taliesin West, Arizona

Frank Lloyd Wright

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Functionalism

1910’s

-Office of Peter Behrens

Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe “less in more”

Walter Gropius Modern
Le Corbusier Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Postmodernism

The center of Postmodernism:

Robert Venturi “less is bore”

Philip Johnson
- say that a portion of Chippendale building in New
York has no function

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Introduce the element of “Discovery”

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Michael Graves Portland Building, Oregon

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Vanna Venturi House

Robert Venturi

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Philip Johnson At & T Building, NY

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Jubilee Church, Rome

Richard Meier

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Church of the Light, Osaka Postmodernism

Tadao Ando

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Tjibao Cultural Center, New Caledonia

Renzo Piano

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism
Torre Agbar

Richard Rogers Lloyds Building, London

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Minoru Yamasaki

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism
Kenzo Tange

Fuji TV Headquarters

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism
Staatsgallerie, Stuttgart

James Stirling

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism
Cesar Pelli Petronas Towers, KL

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Postmodernism

Buckminster Fuller Geodesic Dome

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture
Symbolic Architecture

1. Mathematical Analogy
2. Biological Analogy
- use of plants and ornaments 3.
Romantic Architecture
- uses exotic language of form
- vastness; trying to surprise;
huge 4. Linguistic Analogies

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture
- grammar; uses words with
proper grammar
5. Mechanical Analogies
- Buckminster Fuller
6. Ad Hoc Analogy
- any materials that you can
get or available in your
environment such as wood in
forest 7. Stage Analogy

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture

Canadian War Museum,

Ottawa, Canada

Designer:
Raymond Oriyama

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture

Erasmus Bridge,
Rotterdam, Zuid, Holland

Designer:
UNstudio

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture
Sharp Center for Design,
Toronto, Canada

Designer
SMC Alsop

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture
Ciudad de las Artes,
Valencia, Spain

Designer
Santiago Calatrava

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture
Cybertecture Egg,
Mumbai, India

Designer:
James Law

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture
London City Hall

Norman Foster

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture

El Auditorio de Tenerife

Santiago Calatrava

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture

Pier Luigi Nervi Turin Exhibition Hall

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century
Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Images courtesy of Corus Building Systems
using Kalzip cladding

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century
Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 shift of
DESIGN PARADIGM
indeterministic rules
uncertainty multiplicity of forces randomness

non-euclidian geometry
multiplicity of non-linear manner
folding + unfolding
Deleuze, Gilles. “The Fold-Leibniz and the Baroque: The Pleats of Matter.”
Architectural Design Profile No.102: Folding in Architecture (1993): 18
1995

guggenheim museum bilbao, frank gehry

shift of
DESIGN PARADIGM
followed by research in the academe

Gregg Lyn (1993)

University of California, Los Angeles

“Theory of emergence-looks up at natural phenomena ”

John Frazer (1995)

Architectural Association (London)

“the use of genetic algorithm as “a a class of highly parallel evolutionary,

adaptive search procedures.”

Eugene Tsui (1999)

University of California, Berkeley
 “study of nature’s processes, organisms, structures and materials at a
multitude of levels”

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Torre Agbar

Zaha Hadid
Frank Gehry

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Torre Agbar

Zaha Hadid

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 CCTV China

Rem Koolhaas

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Thom Mayne Torre Agbar

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Symbolic Architecture
 Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Peter Eisenman

Max Reinhardt House, Germany

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 Symbolic Architecture

Jacques Herzog and

Pierre de Meuron

Allianz Arena

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

One North Masterplan (Singapore,

Singapore)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Freshwater Plaza (Abu Dhabi, United Arab

Emirates)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Paik Nam June Media Bridge (Seoul, South

Korea)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Mixed Use Development (Los Angeles,

United States)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Seoul Young-Dong Development Project (Seoul, South

Korea)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Seoul Young-Dong Development Project (Seoul, South

Korea)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

POP Music Center (Kaohsiung City, Taiwan)

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 21st Century Architecture

Classical Middle Ages Renaissance Art Nouveau Functionalism Postmodernism Symbolic Architecture 21st Century
Architecture
 arcstudio
center for advanced architecture