The word "trigonometry" comes from two Greek words meaning

"triangle measure." Trigonometry concerns the relationships

among the sides and angles of triangles. It also concerns the
properties and applications of these relationships, which extend
far beyond triangles to real-world problems.

Evidence of a knowledge of elementary trigonometry dates to the

ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. Led by Ptolemy, the Greeks
added to this field of knowledge during the first millennium b.c.e.;
simultaneously, similar work was produced in India. Around 1000
c.e., Muslim astronomers made great advances in trigonometry.
Inspired by advances in astronomy, Europeans contributed to the
development of this important mathematical area from the twelfth
century until the days of Leonhard Euler in the eighteenth
century.

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Trigonometric Ratios
To understand the six trigonometric functions, consider right
triangle ABC with right angle C. Although triangles with identical
angle measures may have sides of different lengths, they are
similar. Thus, the ratios of the corresponding sides are equal.
Because there are three sides, there are six possible ratios.

Working from angle A, label the sides as follows:

side c represents the hypotenuse ; leg a represents the side
opposite angle A ; and leg b is adjacent to angle A. The
definitions of the six trigonometric functions of angle A are listed
below.
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For any angle congruent to angle A, the numerical value of any

of these ratios will be equal to the value of that ratio for
angle A. Consequently, for any given angle, these ratios have
specific values that are listed in tables or can be found on
calculators.

Basic Uses of Trigonometry. The definitions of the six functions

and the Pythagorean Theorem provide a powerful means of
finding unknown sides and angles. For any right triangle, if the
measures of one side and either another side or angle are
known, the measures of the other sides and angles can be
determined.

For example, suppose the measure of angle A is 36° and

side c measures 12 centimeters (and angle Cmeasures 90°). To
determine the measure of angle B, subtract 36 from 90 because
the two non-right angles must sum to 90°. To determine
sides a and b, solve the equations sin and cos , keeping in mind
that sin 36° and cos 36° have number values. The results are a =
12sin 36° ≈ 7.1 cm and b = 12cos 36° ≈9.7 cm.

Two theorems that are based on right-triangle trigonometry—the

Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines—allow us to solve for the
unknown parts of any triangle, given sufficient information. The
two laws, which can be expressed in various forms, follow.

Law of Cosines: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

Expanded Uses of Trigonometry

The study of trigonometry goes far beyond just the study of
triangles. First, the definitions of the six trigonometric functions
must be expanded. To accomplish this, establish a rectangular
coordinate system with P at the origin. Construct a circle of any
radius, using point P as the center. The positive horizontal axis
represents 0°. As one moves counter-clockwise along the circle, a
positive angle A is generated.

Consider a point on the circle with coordinates (u, v ). (The

reason for using the coordinates (u, v ) instead of (x, y ) is to
avoid confusion later on when constructing graphs such as y =
sin x. ) By projecting this point onto the horizontal axis as shown
below, a direct analogy to the original trigonometric functions can
be made. The length of the adjacent side equals the u -value, the
length of the opposite side equals the v -value, and the length of
the hypotenuse equals the radius of the circle. Thus the six
trigonometric functions are expanded because they are no longer
restricted to acute angles.

For any circle, similar triangles are created for equal central
angles. Consequently, one can choose whatever radius is most
convenient. To simplify calculations, a circle of radius 1 is often
chosen. Notice how four of the functions, especially the sine and
cosine functions, become much simpler if the radius is 1.

These expanded definitions, which relate an angle to points on a

circle, allow for the use of trigonometric functions for any angle,
regardless of size. So far the angles discussed have been
measured in degrees. This, however, limits the applicability of
trigonometry. Trigonometry is far less restricted if angles are
measured in units called radians .

Using Radian Measure. Because all circles are similar, for a

given central angle in any circle, the ratio of an intercepted arc to
the radius is constant. Consequently, this ratio can be used
instead of the degree measure to indicate the size of an angle.
Consider for example a semicircle with radius 4 centimeters. The
arc length, which is half of the circumference, is exactly
4π centimeters. In radians, therefore, the angle is the ratio
4π centimeters to 4 centimeters, or simply π. (There are no units
when radian measure is used.) This central angle also measures
180°. Recognizing that 180° is equivalent to π (when measured in
radians), there is now an easy way of converting to and from
degrees and radians. This can also be used to determine that an
angle of 1 radian, an angle which intercepts an arc that is
precisely equal to the radius of the circle, is approximately 57.3°.

Now the domain for the six trigonometric functions may be

expanded beyond angles to the entire set of real numbers. To do
this, define the trigonometric function of a number to be
equivalent to the same function of an angle measuring that
number of radians. For example, an expression such as sin 2 is
equivalent to taking the sine of an angle measuring 2 radians.
With this freedom, the trigonometric functions provide an
excellent tool for studying many real-world phenomena that are
periodic in nature.

The figure below shows the graphs of the sine, cosine, and
tangent functions, respectively. Except for values for which the
tangent is undefined, the domain for these functions is the set of
real numbers. The domain for the parts of the graphs that are
shown is −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. Each tick mark on the x -axis
represents units, and each tick mark on the y -axis represents
one unit.

To understand the graphs, think back to a circle with radius 1.

Because the radius is 1, the sine function, which is defined as ,
simply traces the vertical value of a point as it moves along the
circumference of the circle. It starts at 0, moves up as high as 1
when the angle is (90°), retreats to 0, goes down to −1, returns to
0, and begins over again. The graph of the cosine function is
identical except for being (90°) out of phase. It records the
horizontal value of a point as it moves along the unit circle.

The tangent is trickier because it concerns the ratio of the vertical

value to the horizontal value. Whenever the vertical component is
0, which happens at points along the horizontal axis, the tangent
is 0. Whenever the horizontal component is 0, which happens at
points on the vertical axis, the tangent is not defined—or infinite.
Thus, the tangent has a vertical asymptote every π units.

A Practical Example. By moving the sine, cosine, and tangent

graphs left or right and up or down and by stretching them
horizontally and vertically, these trigonometric functions serve as
excellent models for many things. For example, consider the
function, in which x represents the month of the year and , in
which x represents the average monthly temperature measured
in Fahrenheit.

The "parent" function is the cosine, which intercepts the vertical

axis at its maximum value. In our model, we find the maximum
value shifted 7 units to the right, indicating that the maximum
temperature occurs in the seventh month, July.

The normal period of the cosine function is 2π units, but our

transformed function is only going as fast, telling us that it takes
12 units, in this case months, to complete a cycle.

The amplitude of the parent graph is 1; this means that its highest
and lowest points are both 1 unit away from its horizontal axis,
which is the mean functional (vertical) value. In our example, the
amplitude is 22, indicating that its highest point is 22 units
(degrees) above its average and its lowest is 22 degrees below
its average. Thus, there is a 44-degree difference between the
average temperature in July and the average temperature in
January, which is half a cycle away from July.
Finally, the horizontal axis of the parent function is the x -axis; in
other words, the average height is 0. In this example, the
horizontal average has been shifted up 54 units. This indicates
that the average spring temperature—in April to be specific—is
54 degrees. So too is the average temperature in October.
Combining this with the amplitude, it is found that the average
July temperature is 76 degrees, and the average January
temperature is 32 degrees.

Trigonometric equations often arise from these mathematical

models. If, in the previous example, one wants to know when the
average temperature is 65 degrees, 65 is substituted for y, and
the equation is solved for x. Any of several techniques, including
the use of a graph, can work. Similarly, if one wishes to know the
average temperature in June, 6 is substituted for x, and the
equation is solved for y.

See also Angles, Measurement of.