ARTICLE 29

ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS

SE-650 Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
[ASTM E 650-85
(1992)]

SE-976 Standard Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sensor
[ASTM E 976-84 Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
(R1988)]

SE-1211 Standard Practice for Leak Detection and Location Using Surface-Mounted Acoustic
[ASTM E 1211-87 Emission Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
(1992)]

SE-1419 Standard Test Method for Examination of Seamless, Gas-Filled Pressure Vessels
(ASTM E 1419-96) Using Acoustic Emission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674.1

655 A99

ASME B&PVC sec5$$u460 04-29-99 05:30:34 pd: sec5a Rev 14.04

 SE-650 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
STANDARD GUIDE FOR MOUNTING
PIEZOELECTRIC ACOUSTIC EMISSION SENSORS
SE-650
[Identical with ASTM Specification E 650-85 (1992)]
1. Scope
1.1 This document provides guidelines for mounting
piezoelectric acoustic emission (AE) sensors.
1.2 This standard does not purport to address all
of the safety problems associated with its use. It is
the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish
appropriate safety and health practices and determine
the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2. Applicable Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
E 610 Terminology Relating to Acoustic Emission
E 976 Guide for Determining the Reproductability of
Acoustic Emission Response
3. Terminology
3.1 Description of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.1.1 bonding agent — a couplant that physically
attaches the sensor to the structure
3.1.2 couplant — a material used at the structure-
to-sensor interface to improve the transfer of acoustic
energy across the interface
3.1.3 mounting fixture — a device that holds the
sensor in place on the structure to be monitored
3.1.4 sensor — a detection device that transforms
the particle motion produced by an elastic wave into
an electrical signal
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SE-650
3.1.5 waveguide, acoustic — a device that couples
acoustic energy from a structure to a remotely mounted
sensor. For example, a solid wire or rod, coupled to
a sensor at one end and to the structure at the other.
3.2 Definitions
3.2.1 For definitions of additional terms relating
to acoustic emission, refer to Terminology E 610.
4. Significance and Use
4.1 The methods and procedures used in mounting
AE sensors can have significant effects upon the per-
formance of those sensors. Optimum and reproducible
detection of AE requires both appropriate sensor-mount-
ing fixtures and consistent sensor-mounting procedures.
5. Mounting Methods
5.1 The purpose of the mounting method is to hold
the sensor in a fixed position on a structure and to
ensure that the acoustic coupling between the sensor and
the structure is both adequate and constant. Mounting
methods will generally fall into one of the following
categories:
5.1.1 Compression Mounts — The compression
mount holds the sensor in intimate contact with the
surface of the structure through the use of force. This
force is generally supplied by springs, torque-screw
threads, magnets, tape, or elastic bands. The use of a
couplant is strongly advised with a compression mount
SE-650 1998 SECTION V
to maximize the transmission of acoustic energy through
the sensor-structure interface.
5.1.2 Bonding — The sensor may be attached
directly to the structure with a suitable adhesive. In
this method, the adhesive acts as the couplant. The
adhesive must be compatible with the structure, the
sensor, the environment, and the test procedure.
6. Mounting Requirements
6.1 Sensor Selection — The correct sensors should
be chosen to optimally accomplish the acoustic-emission
test objective. Sensor parameters to be considered are
as follows: size, sensitivity, frequency response, surface-
motion response, and environmental and material com-
patibility. When a multichannel acoustic-emission test is
being conducted, a subset of sensors with characteristics
similar to each other should be selected. See Guide E
976 for methods of comparing sensor characteristics.
6.2 Structure Preparation — The contacting surfaces
should be cleaned and mechanically prepared. This will
enhance the detection of the desired acoustic waves
by assuring reliable coupling of the acoustic energy
from the structure to the sensor. Preparation of these
surfaces must be compatible with the construction mate-
rials used in both the sensor and the structure. Possible
losses in acoustic energy transmission caused by coat-
ings such as paint, encapsulants, loose-mill scale, weld
splatter, and oxides as well as losses due to surface
curvature at the contact area must be considered.
6.3 Couplant or Bonding Agent Selection:
6.3.1 The type of couplant or bonding agent
should be selected with appropriate consideration for
the effects of the environment (for example, temperature,
pressure, composition of gas, or liquid environment)
on the couplant and the constraints of the application.
It should be chemically compatible with the structure
and not be a possible cause of corrosion. In some
cases, it may be a requirement that the couplant be
completely removable from the surface after testing.
In general, the selection of the couplant is as important
from an environmental standpoint as it is from the
acoustical standpoint.
6.3.2 For sensors that are primarily sensitive to
particle motion perpendicular to their face, the viscosity
of the couplant is not an important factor. Most liquids
or greases will work as a couplant if they wet the
surfaces of both the structure and the sensor. For those
few sensors which are sensitive primarily to motion in
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SE-650
the plane of their face, very high viscosity couplant
or a rigid bond is recommended.
6.3.3 The thickness of the couplant may alter
the effective sensitivity of the sensor. The thinnest
practical layer of continuous couplant is usually the
best. Care should be taken that there are no entrapped
voids in the couplant. Uneveness, such as a taper from
one side of the sensor to the other, can also reduce
sensitivity or produce an unwanted directionality in the
sensor response.
6.3.4 A useful method for applying a couplant
is to place a small amount of the material in the center
of the sensor face, then carefully press the sensor on
to the structure surface, spreading the couplant uniformly
from the center to the outside of the sensor face.
6.3.5 In some applications, it may be impractical
to use a couplant because of the nature of the environ-
ment (for example, very high temperatures or extreme
cleanliness requirements). In these situations, a dry
contact may be used, provided sufficient mechanical
force is applied to hold the sensor against the structure.
The necessary contact pressure must be determined
experimentally. As a rough guide, this pressure should
exceed 0.7 MPa (100 psi).
6.3.6 Great care must be taken when bonding a
sensor to a structure. Surface deformation, which can
be produced by either mechanical loading or thermal
expansion, may cause a bond to crack, peel off, or,
occasionally, destroy the sensor. Bond cracking is a
source of acoustic emission. A compliant adhesive may
work in some cases. If differential expansion between
the sensor, the bond, and the surface is a possibility,
a suitable bonding agent should be confirmed by exper-
iment.
6.3.7 When bonds are used, the possibility of
damaging either the sensor or the surface of the structure
during sensor removal must be considered.
6.3.8 The use of double-sided adhesive tape as
a bonding agent is not recommended.
6.4 Mounting Fixture Selection:
6.4.1 Mounting fixtures must be constructed so
that they do not create extraneous acoustic emission
or mask valid acoustic emission generated in the struc-
ture being monitored.
6.4.1.1 The mount must not contain any loose
parts or particles.
 SE-650 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
6.4.1.2 Permanent mounting may require special
techniques to prevent sensor movement caused by envi-
ronmental changes.
6.4.1.3 Detection of surface waves may be sup-
pressed if the sensor is enclosed by a welded on fixture
or located at the bottom of a threaded hole. The
mounting fixture should always be designed so that it
does not block out a significant amount of acoustic
energy from any direction of interest.
6.4.2 The mounting fixture should provide support
for the signal cable to prevent the cable from stressing
the sensor or the electrical connectors. In the absence
of a mounting fixture, some form of cable support
should be provided. Care should be taken to ensure
that the cable can neither vibrate nor be moved easily.
False signals may be generated by the cable striking
the structure and by triboelectric effects produced by
cable movement.
6.4.3 Where necessary, protection from the envi-
ronment should be provided for the sensor or sensor
and mounting fixture.
6.4.4 The mounting fixture should not affect the
integrity of the structure being monitored.
6.4.4.1 Permanently installed mounting fixtures
must be constructed of a material compatible with the
structure. Possible electrolyte effects or other forms
of corrosion must be considered when designing the
mounting fixture.
6.4.4.2 Alterations of the local environment by
the mount, such as removal of the insulation, must be
carefully evaluated and corrected if necessary.
6.4.5 The mounting fixture should be designed
to have a minimal effect on the response characteristics
of the sensor.
6.5 Waveguides — When adverse environments
make direct contact between the sensor and the structure
undesirable, an acoustic waveguide may be used to
convey the acoustic signal from the structure to the
sensor. The use of a waveguide inserts another interface
with its associated losses between the structure and the
sensor and will distort, to some degree, the characteris-
tics of the acoustic wave.
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SE-650
6.5.1 An acoustic waveguide should be mounted
so as to ensure that its surface will not contact any
materials that will cause signal damping in the
waveguide.
6.5.2 If acoustic waveguides are used, when
acoustic-emission source location is being performed,
the extra time delay in the waveguides must be ac-
counted for in the source location program.
7. Verification of Response
7.1 After the sensor(s) are mounted on a structure,
adequate response should be verified by injecting acous-
tic signals into the structure and examining the detected
signal either on an oscilloscope or with the AE system
to be used in the test. If there is any doubt as to the
sensor response, the sensor should be remounted.
7.1.1 The test signal may be injected by an
external source such as the Hsu-pencil source, or a
gas jet (helium or other suitable gas), or by applying
an electrical pulse to another sensor mounted on the
structure. For a description of these methods see Guide
E 976.
7.2 Periodic Verification — On an extended acoustic
emission test, it may be desirable to verify the response
of the sensors during the test. Verification should be
performed whenever circumstances indicate the possibil-
ity of a change in the coupling efficiency.
7.3 Post Verification — At the end of an acoustic
emission test, it is good practice to verify that all
sensors are still working and that there have been no
dramatic changes in coupling efficiencies.
8. Report
8.1 Any report of the mounting practice should
include details of the sensor mounting fixture(s), surface
preparation method, and the couplant that was used.
9. Keywords
9.1 acoustic emission; acoustic emission sensors;
acoustic emission transducers; AE; bonding agent;
couplant; mounting fixture; waveguide
SE-976 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
STANDARD GUIDE FOR
DETERMINING THE REPRODUCIBILITY OF
ACOUSTIC EMISSION SENSOR RESPONSE
SE-976
[Identical with ASTM Specification E 976-84 (R1988)]
1. Scope
1.1 This guide defines simple economical procedures
for testing or comparing the performance of acoustic
emission sensors. These procedures allow the user to
check for degradation of a sensor or to select sets
of sensors with nearly identical performances. The
procedures are not capable of providing an absolute
calibration of the sensor nor do they assure transferabil-
ity of data sets between organizations.
1.2 This standard may involve hazardous materials,
operations, and equipment. This standard does not
purport to address all of the safety problems associated
with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this
standard to establish appropriate safety and health
practices and determine the applicability of regulatory
limitations prior to use.
2. Applicable Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
E 610 Terminology Relating to Acoustic Emission
E 650 Practice for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emis-
sion Sensors
E 750 Practice for Measuring the Operating Characteris-
tics of Acoustic Emission Instrumentation.
3. Significance and Use
3.1 Acoustic emission data is affected by several
characteristics of the instrumentation. The most obvious
of these is the system sensitivity. Of all the parameters
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SE-976
and components contributing to the sensitivity, the
acoustic emission sensor is the one most subject to
variation. This variation can be a result of damage or
aging, or there can be variations between nominally
identical sensors. To detect such variations, it is desir-
able to have a method for measuring the response of
a sensor to an acoustic wave. Specific purposes for
checking sensors include: (1) checking the stability of
its response with time; (2) checking the sensor for
possible damage after accident or abuse; (3) comparing
a number of sensors for use in a multichannel system
to ensure that their responses are adequately matched;
and (4) checking the response after thermal cycling or
exposure to a hostile environment. It is very important
that the sensor characteristics be always measured with
the same sensor cable length and impedance as well
as the same preamplifier or equivalent. This guide
presents several procedures for measuring sensor re-
sponse. Some of these procedures require a minimum
of special equipment.
4. Principles of Application
4.1 The procedures given in this guide are designed
to measure the response of an acoustic emission sensor
to an arbitrary but repeatable acoustic wave. These
procedures in no way constitute a calibration of the
sensor. The absolute calibration of a sensor requires a
complete knowledge of the characteristics of the acoustic
wave exciting the sensor or a previously calibrated
reference sensor. In either case, such a calibration is
beyond the scope of this guide.
SE-976 1998 SECTION V
4.2 The fundamental requirement for comparing sen-
sor responses is a source of repeatable acoustic waves.
The characteristics of the wave do not need to be
known as long as the wave can be reproduced at will.
The sources and geometrics given in this guide will
produce primarily compressional waves. While the sen-
sors will respond differently to different types of waves,
changes in the response to one type of wave will imply
changes in the responses to other types of waves.
4.3 These procedures all use a metal test block. Such
a block provides a convenient mounting surface for
the sensor and when appropriately marked, can ensure
that the source and the sensor are always positioned
identically with respect to each other. A block also
provides mechanical loading of the sensor similar to
that experienced in actual use. Care must be taken
when using these blocks to minimize resonances in the
block so that the characteristics of the sensor are not
masked by these resonances.
4.4 These procedures allow comparison of responses
only on the same test setup. No attempt should be
made to compare responses on different test setups,
whether in the same or separate laboratories.
5. Apparatus
5.1 The essential elements of the apparatus for these
procedures are: (1) the acoustic emission sensor under
test; (2) a metal block; (3) a signal source; and (4)
measuring and recording equipment.
5.1.1 Block diagrams of some of the possible
experimental setups are shown in Fig. 1.
5.2 Metal Blocks — The design of the metal block
is not critical. However, the use of a “nonresonant”
block is recommended for use with an ultrasonic trans-
ducer and is required when the transducer drive uses
any form of coherent electrical signal. The preferred
materials are aluminum and low-alloy steel.
5.2.1 Conical “Nonresonant” Block — The Beattie
block, shown in Fig. 2, can be machined from a 10
cm (4 in.) diameter metal billet. After the bottom is
faced and the taper cut, the block is clamped at a 10
deg. angle and the top face is milled. The dimensions
given will provide an approximate circle just over 2.5
cm (1 in.) in diameter for mounting the sensor. The
acoustic excitation should be applied at the center of
the bottom face. The conic geometry and lack of any
parallel surfaces reduce the number of mechanical
resonances that the block can support. A further reduc-
tion in possible resonances of the block can be achieved
662
SE-976
by roughly machining all surfaces except where the
sensor and exciter are mounted and coating them with
a layer of metal-filled epoxy.
5.2.2 Gas-Jet Test Block — Two gas-jet test blocks
are shown in Fig. 3. The block shown in Fig. 3(a) is
used for opposite surface comparisons, which produce
primarily compressional waves. That shown in Fig.
3(b) is for same surface comparisons which produce
primarily surface waves. The “nonresonant” block de-
scribed in 5.2.1 can also be used with a gas jet in
order to avoid exciting many resonant modes. The
blocks in Fig. 3 have been used successfully but their
design is not critical. However, it is suggested that the
relative positions of the sensor and the jet be retained.
5.3 Signal Sources — Three signal sources are
recommended: an electrically driven ultrasonic trans-
ducer, a gas jet, and an impulsive source produced by
breaking a pencil lead.
5.3.1 Ultrasonic Transducer — Repeatable acoustic
waves can be produced by an ultrasonic transducer
permanently bonded to a test block. The transducer
should be heavily damped to provide a broad frequency
response and have a center frequency in the 2.25 to
5.0 MHz range. The diameter of the active element
should be at least 1.25 cm (0.5 in.) to provide measurable
signal strength at the position of the sensor under
test. The ultrasonic transducer should be checked for
adequate response in the 50 to 200 kHz region before
permanent bonding to the test block.
5.3.1.1 White-Noise Generator — An ultrasonic
transducer driven by a white-noise generator produces
an acoustic wave that lacks coherent wave trains of
many wave lengths at one frequency. This lack of
coherent wave trains greatly reduces the number and
strength of the mechanical resources excited in a struc-
ture. Therefore, an ultrasonic transducer driven by a
white-noise generator can be used with a resonant
block having parallel sides. However, the use of a
“nonresonant” block such as that described in 5.2.1 is
strongly recommended. The generator should have a
white noise spectrum covering at least the frequency
range from 10 kHz to 2 MHz and be capable of an
output level of 1 V rms.
5.3.1.2 Sweep Generator — The ultrasonic trans-
ducer can be driven by a sweep generator in conjunction
with a “nonresonant” block. Even with this block, some
resonances will be produced that may partially mask
the response of the sensor under test. The sweep
generator should have a maximum frequency of at least
2 MHz and the sweep speed should be compatible
SE-976 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
FIG. 1 BLOCK DIAGRAMS OF POSSIBLE EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS
with the XY recorder used. It is recommended that a
sweep generator be used with an a-c voltmeter with a
logarithmic output.
5.3.1.3 Pulse Generator — The ultrasonic trans-
ducer may be excited by a pulse generator. The pulse
width should be either slightly less than one-half the
period of the center frequency of the transducer (≤0.22
ms for a 2.25 MHz transducer) or longer than the
damping time of the sensor, block, and transducer
(typically >10 ms). The pulse repetition rate should be
low (<100 pulses/s) so that each acoustic wave train
is damped out before the next one is excited.
5.3.1.4 The pulse generator should be used with
an oscilloscope and camera or, in single-pulse mode,
with the counter in an acoustic emission system. Not
663
SE-976
enough energy is generated above 200 kHz for effective
use with a spectrum analyzer.
5.3.2 Gas Jet — Suitable gases for this apparatus
are extra dry air, helium, etc. A pressure between 150
and 200 kPa (20 to 30 psi) is recommended for helium
or extra dry air. Once a pressure and a gas have been
chosen, all further tests with the apparatus should use
that gas and pressure. The gas jet should be permanently
attached to the test block [see Figs. 3(a) and 3(b)].
5.3.3 Pencil Lead Break — A repeatable acoustic
wave can be generated by carefully breaking a pencil
lead against the test block. When the lead breaks, there
is a sudden release of the stress on the surface of the
block where the lead is touching. This stress release
generates an acoustic wave. The Hsu pencil source
SE-976
FIG. 2 THE BEATTIE BLOCK
uses a mechanical pencil with a 0.3 mm diameter lead
(0.5 mm lead is also acceptable but produces a larger
signal). The Nielsen shoe, shown in Fig. 4, can aid
in breaking the lead consistently. Care should be taken
to always break the same length of the same type of
lead (lengths between 2 and 3 mm are preferred).1 The
lead should always be broken at the same spot on the
block with the same angle and orientation of the pencil.
The most desirable permanent record of a pencil lead
break is the wave form captured by a transient recorder
or oscilloscope.
5.4 Measuring and Recording Equipment — The
output of the sensor under test must be amplified before
it can be measured. After the measurement, the results
1 Pentel 2H lead has been found satisfactory for this purpose.
1998 SECTION V SE-976
should be stored in a form that allows an easy compari-
son, either with another sensor or with the same sensor
at a different time.
5.4.1 Preamplifier — The preamplifier, together
with the sensor to preamp coaxial cable, provides an
electrical load for the sensor, amplifies the output, and
filters out unwanted frequencies. The electrical load on
the sensor can distort the low-frequency response of
a sensor with low inherent capacitance. To prevent this
from occurring, it is recommended that short sensor
cables (< 2 m) be used and the resistive component
of the preamplifier input impedance be 20 kV or greater.
The preamplifier gain should be fixed. Either 40 to 60
dB gains are suitable for most sensors. The bandpass
of the preamplifier should be at least 20 to 1200 kHz.
It is recommended that one preamplifier be set aside
664
SE-976 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
FIG. 3 GAS-JET TEST BLOCKS
to be used exclusively in the test setup. However, it
may be appropriate at times to test a sensor with the
preamplifier assigned to it in an experiment.
5.4.2 Spectrum Analyzers — A very useful instru-
ment for testing sensor response is the spectrum ana-
lyzer. Spectrum analyzers can be used with acoustic
signals generated by ultrasonic transducers that are
driven by either white-noise generators or tracking-
sweep generators, by gas-jet sources or by acoustic
signals, produced by any source, that are captured on
a transient recorder and replayed into the spectrum
665
SE-976
analyzer. A suitable spectrum analyzer should be capable
of displaying a spectrum covering the frequency range
from 20 kHz to 1.2 MHz. The amplitude should be
displayed on a logarithmic scale covering a range from
at least 50 dB in order to display the entire dynamic
range of the sensor. The spectrum can be recorded
photographically from an oscilloscope. However, the
most useful output is an XY plot of the spectrum as
shown in Fig. 5.
5.4.3 Voltmeters — An a-c voltmeter can be used
to measure sensor outputs produced by signals generated
SE-976 1998 SECTION V SE-976

by an ultrasonic transducer driven by a sweep generator.

The response of the voltmeter should be flat over the
frequency range from 10 kHz to 2 MHz. It is desirable
that the voltmeter either have a logarithmic output or
be capable of driving a logarithmic converter. The
output of the voltmeter or converter is recorded on an
XY recorder as a function of frequency.

5.4.3.1 The limited dynamic range of an rms

voltmeter makes it less desirable than an a-c averaging
voltmeter when used with a sweep generator. However,
a rough estimate of a sensor performance can be
obtained by using an rms or a-c sensor voltmeter to
measure the output of a sensor driven by a wide band
source such as a white-noise generator or a gas jet.

5.4.4 Acoustic Emission System — A sensor can

be characterized by using an acoustic emission system
and an impulsive source such as a pencil lead break
or an ultrasonic transducer driven by a pulse generator.
The acoustic emission count from a single pulse should
be measured at three different gain settings, spanning
at least 20 dB and with the lowest gain such that the
signal is only marginally detectable. An average of the FIG. 4 GUIDE RING FOR IMPULSIVE SOURCE
count from at least 10 pulses should be taken at each
gain level. Data recorded will be the average count,
gain setting and all other significant settings of the
acoustic emission system.
several measurements before the final data is recorded to
5.4.5 Transient Recorders and Storage Oscillo- ensure reproducibility. During the initial measurements,
scopes — The waveform generated by a sensor in display the preamplifier output on an oscilloscope to
response to a single pulse or a pencil lead break can see that the signals are not being clipped by overdriving
be measured and stored by a transient recorder, digital the preamplifier. Establish written procedures and follow
oscilloscope, or some other storage oscilloscope. This them to ensure reproducibility over long periods of time.
waveform can then be recorded either photographically
or, if the capability exists, on an XY recorder. Digitiza-
tion rates should be at least 10 samples per highest
frequency period in the waveform. Lower rates will
result in distortion of the wave shape. When comparing 7. Interpretation of Results
wave forms, emphasis should be placed on the initial
7.1 Short-term reproducibility of results, covering
few cycles and on the large amplitude features. Small
such actions as removing and remounting the sensor,
variations late in the waveform are often produced by
should be better than 3 dB if the test is conducted under
slight changes in the coupling or position of the sensor
normal working conditions. Long-term reproducibility of
under test.
the test system should be checked periodically by the
use of a reference sensor that is not exposed to the
risk of environmental damage. Variations of sensor
response greater than 4 dB indicates damage or degrada-
6. Procedure
tion, and the cause of the discrepancy should be further
6.1 Place the sensors under test on the test block investigated. While there are no set criteria for accept-
in as near to identical positions as possible. Use identical able limits of sensor degradation, a sensor whose sensi-
forces to hold the sensor and block together. A low- tivity had fallen by more than 6 dB would generally be
viscosity couplant is desirable to ensure reproducible considered unfit for further service in acoustic emission
and thin couplant thicknesses. For all setups, take measurements.

666
SE-976 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS SE-976

FIG. 5 EXAMPLE OF AN X-Y RECORDER PLOT FROM A SPECTRUM ANALYZER

(150 kHz RESONANT SENSOR)

667
SE-1211 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS SE-1211

STANDARD PRACTICE FOR

LEAK DETECTION AND LOCATION USING
SURFACE-MOUNTED ACOUSTIC EMISSION SENSORS
SE-1211

[Identical with ASTM Specification E 1211-87 (1992)]

1. Scope E 750 Practice for Characterizing Acoustic Emission In-

strumentation
1.1 This practice describes a passive method for
E 976 Guide for Determining the Reproductability of
detecting and locating the steady state source of gas
Acoustic Emission Response
and liquid leaking out of a pressurized system. The
E 1002 Method for Testing for Leaks Using Ultrasonics
method employs surface-mounted acoustic emission sen-
E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
sors (for noncontact sensors see Method E 1002), or
sensors attached to the system via acoustic waveguides
(for additional information, see Terminology E 1316),
and may be used for continuous in-service monitoring
and hydrotest monitoring of piping and pressure vessel
systems. High sensitivities may be achieved, although
the values obtainable depend on sensor spacing, back- 3. Summary of Practice
ground noise level, system pressure, and type of leak.
This practice is not intended to provide a quantitative 3.1 This practice requires the use of contact sensors,
measure of leak rates. amplifier electronics, and equipment to measure their
output signal levels. The sensors may be mounted
1.2 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be before or during the test period and are normally left
regarded as the standard. SI units are provided for in place once mounted rather than being moved from
information only. point to point.

1.3 This standard does not purport to address all
of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use.
It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to
establish appropriate safety and health practices and
determine the applicability of regulatory limitations
prior to use.
3.2 Detection of a steady-state leak is based on
detection of the continuous, broadband signal generated
by the leak flow. Signal detection is accomplished
through measurement of some input signal level, such
as its root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude.

3.3 The simplest leak test procedure involves only

detection of leaks, treating each sensor channel individu-
ally. A more complex test requires processing the signal
2. Applicable Documents
levels from two or more sensors together to allow
2.1 ASTM Standards: computation of the approximate leak location, based
E 650 Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emis- on the principle that the leak signal amplitude decreases
sion Sensors as a function of distance from the source.

669
SE-1211 1998 SECTION V
4. Significance and Use
4.1 Leakage of gas or liquid from a pressurized
system, whether through a crack, orifice, seal break,
or other opening, may involve turbulent or cavitational
flow, which generates acoustic energy in both the
external atmosphere and the system pressure boundary.
Acoustic energy transmitted through the pressure bound-
ary can be detected at a distance by using a suitable
acoustic emission sensor.
4.2 With proper selection of frequency passband,
sensitivity to leak signals can be maximized by eliminat-
ing background noise. At low frequencies, generally
below 100 kHz, it is possible for a leak to excite
mechanical resonances within the structure that may
enhance the acoustic signals used to detect leakage.
5. Interferences
5.1 External or internal noise sources can affect the
sensitivity of an acoustic emission leak detection system.
Examples of interfering noise sources are:
5.1.1 Turbulent flow or cavitation of the inter-
nal fluid;
5.1.2 Noise from grinding or machining on the
system;
5.1.3 Airborne acoustic noise, in the frequency
range of the measuring system;
5.1.4 Metal impacts against, or loose parts fre-
quently striking the pressure boundary; and
5.1.5 Electrical noise pick-up by the sensor
channels.
5.2 Stability or constancy of background noise can
also affect the maximum allowable sensitivity, since
fluctuation in background noise determines the smallest
change in level that can be detected.
5.3 The acoustic emission sensors must have stable
characteristics over time and as a function of both the
monitoring structure and the instrumentation system
test parameters, such as temperature.
5.4 Improper sensor mounting, electronic signal con-
ditioner noise, or improper amplifier gain levels can
decrease sensitivity.
6. Basic Information
6.1 The following items must be considered in prepa-
ration and planning for monitoring.
670
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6.1.1 Known existing leaks and their distance from
the areas to be monitored should be noted so that their
influence on the capabilities of the method can be
evaluated.
6.1.2 Type of vessel, pipeline, or installation to
be examined, together with assembly, or layout draw-
ings, or both, giving sufficient detail to establish dimen-
sions, changes of shape likely to affect flow characteris-
tics, positions of welds, and the location of components
such as valves or flanges, and attachments to the vessel
or pipe such as pipe hangers where leaks are most
likely to arise. Regions with restricted accessibility due
to walls, the existence or location of cladding, insulation,
or below surface components must be specified.
6.1.3 When location of the peak is of primary
interest, quantitative information regarding the leakage
rates of interest and whenever possible the type of leak
is necessary.
6.1.4 Extent of monitoring, for example, entire
volume of pressure boundary, weld areas only, etc.
6.1.5 Material specifications and type of surface
covering (for example, paint or other coating) to allow
the acoustic propagation characteristics of the structure
to be evaluated.
6.1.6 Proposed program of pressure application or
process-pressure schedule, specifying the pressurization
schedule together with a layout or sketch of the pressure-
application system and specifying the type of fluid used
during the test, for example, gas, water, or oil.
6.1.7 Time of monitoring, that is, the point(s) in
the manufacturing process, or service life at which the
system will be monitored, or both.
6.1.8 Frequency range to be used in the monitoring
equipment.
6.1.9 Environmental conditions during examination
that may affect instrumentation and interpretation of
results; for example, temperature, moisture, radioactiv-
ity, vibration, pressure, and electromagnetic interference.
6.1.10 Limitations or restrictions on the sensor
mounting procedure, if applicable, including restrictions
on couplant materials.
6.1.11 The location of sensors or waveguides and
preparation for their installation to provide adequate
coverage of the areas specified in 6.1.3. Where particular
sections are to be examined with particular sensors,
the coverage of the vessel or system by sensor subgroups
shall be specified. The sensor locations must be given
SE-1211 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
as soon as possible, to allow positioning difficulties to
be identified.
6.1.12 The communications procedure between the
acoustic emission staff and the control staff, the time
intervals at which pressure readings are to be taken,
and the procedure for giving warning of unexpected
variations in the pressure system.
6.1.13 Requirements for permanent records, if ap-
plicable.
6.1.14 Content and format of test report, if required.
6.1.15 Acoustic Emission Examiner qualifications
and certification, if required.
7. Apparatus
7.1 Sensors — The acoustic emission sensors are
generally piezoelectric devices and should be mounted
in accordance with Practice E 650 to ensure proper
signal coupling. The frequency range of the sensors
may be as high as 1 MHz, and either wideband or
resonant sensors may be employed. The higher frequen-
cies can be used to achieve greater discrimination
against airborne or mechanical background noise.
7.2 Amplifiers — Amplifiers should have sufficient
gain to allow the signal processing equipment to detect
the level of acoustic background noise on the pressurized
system. The sensor/amplifier bandwidth should be se-
lected to minimize background noise.
7.3 Signal Processor — The signal processor mea-
sures the RMS level, the acoustic emission signal power,
the average signal level, or any other similar parameters
of the continuous signal. A leak location processor to
compute the source location from signal levels and
attenuation data may be included. Alarm set-points may
also be included as a processor function.
7.4 Leak Signal Simulator:
7.4.1 A device for simulating leaks should be
included to evaluate the effectiveness of the monitor
system. The following could be considered: a sensor
on the pressure boundary driven from a random noise
generator, a small water jet, or a gas jet.
7.4.2 When leak location processing is to be
performed, leak simulation should be carried out initially
over a sufficiently large number of diverse points to
verify proper operation of the location algorithm.
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8. Verification of Equipment Performance
8.1 Characterization consists of two stages. The first
stage concerns periodic calibration and verification of
the equipment under laboratory conditions. This proce-
dure is beyond the scope of this practice (see Practice
E 750) but the results must be made available to the
system owners if requested. The second stage concerns
in-situ verification to check the sensitivities of all
channels and the satisfactory operation of the detection
equipment. For every calibration operation, a written
procedure shall be prepared.
8.2 In-situ sensitivity check of all sensors should be
performed by placing a leak signal simulator (see Guide
E 976) at a specified distance from each sensor and
recording the resulting output level from the amplifier,
as referred to the amplifier input terminal. Amplifier
gains may also be adjusted as appropriate to correct
for sensitivity variations.
8.3 Periodic sensitivity checks shall be made during
long tests (days) or if any environmental changes occur.
The relative sensitivity check is accomplished by driving
various sensors or activating various leak simulation
devices such as water or gas jets and measuring the
outputs of the receiving sensors. The ratio of the outputs
of two receiving sensors for a given injection point
should remain constant over time. Any change in the
ratio indicates a deviation in performance. In this way,
all sensors on a system may be compared to one or
several reference signals and proper adjustments made
(see Guide E 976).
8.4 When leak location calculations are to be per-
formed, the acoustic attenuation between sensors should
be characterized over the frequency band of interest,
especially if the presence of discontinuities, such as
pipe joints, may be suspected to affect the uniformity
of attenuation. The measurements should then be fac-
tored into the source location algorithm.
9. Procedure
9.1 Pre-Examination Requirements:
9.1.1 Before beginning the acoustic emission moni-
toring, ensure that the following requirements are met:
9.1.1.1 Evaluate attenuation effects, that is, the
change in signal amplitude with sound-propagation dis-
tance, so as to define the effective area covered by
each individual sensor; and in the case of sensor
subgroups, the maximum distance between sensing
points.
SE-1211 1998 SECTION V
9.1.1.2 Ensure that sensors are placed at the
predetermined positions. If it is necessary to modify
these positions during installation, record the new sensor
locations. Record the method of attachment of the
sensors and the couplant used.
9.1.1.3 Review the operating schedule to identify
all potential sources of extraneous acoustic noise such as
nozzle-plug movement, pump vibration, valve stroking,
personnel movement, fluid flow, and turbulence. Such
sources may require acoustic isolation or control so
that they will not mask relevant leak emission within
the vessel or structure being examined. Uncontrolled
generation of acoustic interference by conditions such
as rain, sleet, hail, sand, wind (for unprotected vessels),
chipping, or grinding, shall be evaluated and its effect
minimized by acoustic isolation insofar as is practical.
A record shall be made of such sources.
9.2 Acoustic Emission Monitoring:
9.2.1 The noise level of each channel or each
group shall be continuously or periodically recorded,
as required. Pressure or other significant parameters,
or both, will normally be recorded to allow correlation
with the acoustic emission data response.
9.2.2 When an increase in noise level attributable
to a leak has been detected, the examiner shall inform
the system owner who will then look for the origin
of the leak and its nature. If the leak is found to be
outside the area of interest on the structure being
monitored (extraneous leak) it must be stopped or
reduced to a level necessary to ensure satisfactory
monitoring. If extraneous leaks cannot be stopped, then
the effect of such signals on the acoustic emission
system sensitivity shall be noted. A report shall be
prepared following the visual (or other) examination
for leaks.
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10. Report
10.1 Report the following information:
10.1.1 date of examination;
10.1.2 identity of examining personnel;
10.1.3 sensor characteristics and locations;
10.1.4 method of coupling sensors to the structure;
10.1.5 acoustic emission system and its character-
istics;
10.1.6 operating conditions;
10.1.7 initial calibration results (laboratory);
10.1.8 in-situ calibration results and equipment
verification;
10.1.9 results of measurements;
10.1.10 analysis and verification of results;
10.1.11 results of visual (or other) examination(s);
10.1.12 presentation of the numbers and locations
of leaks detected;
10.1.13 analysis of background noise measure-
ments;
10.1.14 estimate of quality and measurement and
causes of any reduced sensitivity; and
10.1.15 conclusions and recommendations.
11. Keywords
11.1 acoustic emission; continuous monitoring; hy-
drotest; leak detection; nondestructive testing; piping
system; pressure vessels.
SE-1211 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS SE-1211

APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. APPLICATIONS EXAMPLES

X1.1 The following examples were selected to illus-
trate applications of acoustic emission leak detection,
and are not intended to provide detailed descriptions
of the application.
X1.1.1 Acoustic Emission Leak Detection of a
Safety/Relief Valve — A safety/relief valve having a
leaking pilot-disk seat was tested under laboratory
conditions in order to determine the correlation of the
leak noise with leak rate or second-stage pressure. The
leak rate, downstream temperature, and the RMS voltage
of the acoustic signal were plotted against the second-
stage pressure in Fig. X1.1. The acoustic emission
sensor was clamped onto the external housing of the
pilot works. The signal was bandpass filtered in the
range from 5 to 10 kHz. The downstream temperature
was measured by a thermocouple in the vicinity of the
“pilot valve discharge line.” As the second stage pressure
increased from 40 to 200 psi (280 to 1400 kPa), the
leak rate increased 59%, the temperature increased 9%, FIG. X1.1 EXAMPLE OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION LEAK
and the acoustic emission RMS voltage increased 370%. DETECTION IN A SAFETY/RELIEF VALVE OF A
Therefore, the sensitivity of the acoustic detection was NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
excellent (see Fig. X1.1).
X1.1.2 Acoustic Emission Leak Detection from
Seawater Ball Valves — The U.S. Navy Acoustic
Valve Leak Detector (AVLD) monitors leak-associated
acoustic emission energy in the frequency range of 10
to 100 kHz. This frequency range was chosen because
there is significant energy emitted by leaky valves, and
energy in this range is rapidly attenuated with increasing
distance from the source. Therefore, background noise
can be electronically separated from the signal. Figure
X1.2 shows the estimated leak rate versus acoustic
emission level for a 4 in. ball valve.
X1.1.3 Acoustic Emission Leak Detection of a
Submerged Crude Oil Transfer Line — A section of
12 in. diameter steel pipe terminating on an offshore
drilling platform was inspected for confirmation of a
suspected leak. During acceptance hydro testing of the
line it was noted that pressure delayed at about 60
psi/h (410 kPa/h) starting at about 3200 psig (22 MPa). FIG. X1.2 ESTIMATING LEAK RATE FROM
These signal readings were compared with readings ACOUSTIC EMISSION LEVEL IN 4 in.
taken on two adjacent pipes, and on the nearest support SEAWATER BALL VALVES

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SE-1211 1998 SECTION V SE-1211

TABLE X1.1
SIGNAL READINGS

Location RMS Reading Comment

6-in. pipe riser 0.200 at 60 dB gain reference
10-in. pipe riser 0.210 at 60 dB gain reference
12-in. pipe riser 0.300 at 60 dB gain leaking pipe
Corner support leg 0.210 at 60 dB gain reference

Location RMS Reading Comment

6-in. pipe riser 0.200 at 60 dB gain reference
10-in. pipe riser 0.200 at 60 dB gain reference
12-in. pipe riser 0.200 at 60 dB gain leak noise is stopped
Corner support leg 0.210 at 60 dB gain reference

leg for the structure (see Table X1.1). The additional

readings were used to determine the amount of signal
that was caused by sea motion and other structural
interfering noise. The initial readings were taken with
the platform in a shut-down condition and all construc-
tion workers onshore. The readings indicated about a
50% increase in signal level on the leaking pipe as
compared to the other two risers and the support leg.
This indicated leakage in close proximity to the detection
point, in effect, verifying that leakage was in the
connecting spool piece flanges. Following tightening
by a diver of the identified leakage flange, the acoustic
emission examiner determined that the leak had been
stopped. No further indications of leakage were detected;
either by mechanical means (pressure drop) or by
acoustic emission.

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 SE-1419 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR EXAMINATION OF
SEAMLESS, GAS-FILLED PRESSURE VESSELS USING
ACOUSTIC EMISSION1
SE-1419
(Identical with ASTM Specification E 1419-96)
1. Scope
1.1 This test method provides guidelines for acoustic
emission (AE) tests of seamless pressure vessels (tubes)
of the type used for distribution of industrial gases.
1.2 This test method requires pressurization to a
level greater than normal use. Pressurization medium
may be gas or liquid.
1.3 This test method does not apply to vessels in
cryogenic service.
1.4 The AE measurements are used to detect and
locate emission sources. Other nondestructive test
(NDT) methods must be used to evaluate the significance
of AE sources. Procedures for other NDT techniques
are beyond the scope of this test method. See Note 1.
NOTE 1 — Shear wave, angle beam ultrasonic inspection is com-
monly used to establish circumferential position and dimensions of
flaws that produce AE.
1.5 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be
regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses
are for information only.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of
the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It
is the responsibility of the user of this standard to
establish appropriate safety and health practices and
determine the applicability of regulatory limitations
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-
7 on Nondestructive Testing and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee E07.04 on Acoustic Emission Method.
Current edition approved May 10, 1996. Published July 1996.
Originally published as E 1419-91. Last previous edition E 1419-91.
674.1
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A99
prior to use. Specific precautionary statements are given
in Section 7.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
A 388/A 388M Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of
Heavy Steel Forgings2
E 543 Practice for Evaluating Agencies That Perform
Nondestructive Testing3
E 650 Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emis-
sion Sensors3
E 976 Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of
Acoustic Emission Sensor Response3
E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations3
2.2 ASNT Standards:4
SNT-TC-1A Recommended Practice for Nondestructive
Testing Personnel Qualification and Certification
ANSI/ASNT CP-189 Standard for Qualification and Cer-
tification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel
2.3 Military Standard:
MIL-STD-410 Nondestructive Testing Personnel Quali-
fication and Certification5
2 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 01.05.
3 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.03.
4 Available from American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1711
Arlingate Plaza, P.O. Box 28518, Columbus, OH 43228-0518.
5 Availablefrom Standardization Documents Order Desk, Bldg. 4
Section D, 700 Robbins Ave., Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094, Attn:
NPODS.
pd: sec5a Rev 14.04
 SE-1419 1998 SECTION V
2.4 Code of Federal Regulations:
Section 49, Code of Federal Regulations, Hazardous Ma-
terials Regulations of the Department of Transporta-
tion, Paragraphs 173.34, 173.301, 178.36, 178.37, and
178.456
2.5 Compressed Gas Association Standard:
Pamphlet C-5 Service Life, Seamless High Pressure Cyl-
inders7
3. Terminology
3.1 Definitions — See Terminology E 1316 for
general terminology applicable to this test method.
3.2 Descriptions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.2.1 fracture critical flaw — a flaw that is large
enough to exhibit unstable growth at service conditions.
3.2.2 marked service pressure — pressure for
which a vessel is rated. Normally this value is stamped
on the vessel.
3.2.3 normal fill pressure — level to which a
vessel is pressurized. This may be greater, or may be
less, than marked service pressure.
4. Summary of Test Method
4.1 The AE sensors are mounted on a vessel, and
emission is monitored while the vessel is pressurized
above normal fill pressure.
4.2 Sensors are mounted at each end of the vessel
and are connected to an acoustic emission signal proces-
sor. The signal processor uses measured times of arrival
of emission bursts to determine linear location of emis-
sion sources. If measured emission exceeds a prescribed
level (that is, specific locations produce enough events),
then such locations receive secondary (for example,
ultrasonic) inspection.
4.3 Secondary inspection establishes presence of flaws
and measures flaw dimensions.
4.4 If flaw depth exceeds a prescribed limit (that is,
a conservative limit that is based on construction mate-
rial, wall thickness, fatigue crack growth estimates, and
fracture critical flaw depth calculations), then the vessel
must be removed from service.
6 Available
from Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
7 Available from Compressed Gas Association, Inc., 1235 Jefferson
Davis Highway, Arlington, VA 22202.
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5. Significance and Use
5.1 Because of safety considerations, regulatory agen-
cies (for example, U.S. Department of Transportation)
require periodic tests of vessels used in transportation
of industrial gases (see Section 49, Code of Federal
Regulations). The AE testing has become accepted as
an alternative to the common hydrostatic proof test. In
the common hydrostatic test, volumetric expansion of
vessels is measured.
5.2 An AE test should not be used for a period of
one year after a common hydrostatic test. See Note 2.
NOTE 2 — The Kaiser effect relates to decreased emission that is
expected during a second pressurization. Common hydrostatic tests
use a relatively high test pressure (167% of normal service pressure).
(See Section 49, Code of Federal Regulations.) If an AE test is
performed too soon after such a pressurization, the AE results will
be insensitive to a lower test pressure (that is, the lower pressure
that is associated with an AE test).
5.3 Pressurization:
5.3.1 General practice in the gas industry is to
use low pressurization rates. This practice promotes
safety and reduces equipment investment. The AE tests
should be performed with pressurization rates that allow
vessel deformation to be in equilibrium with the applied
load. Typical current practice is to use rates that approxi-
mate 500 psi/h (3.45 MPa/h).
5.3.2 Gas compressors heat the pressurizing me-
dium. After pressurization, vessel pressure may decay
as gas temperature equilibrates with ambient conditions.
5.3.3 Emission from flaws is caused by flaw growth
and secondary sources (for example, crack surface
contact and contained mill scale). Secondary sources
can produce emission throughout vessel pressurization.
5.3.4 When pressure within a vessel is low, and
gas is the pressurizing medium, flow velocities are
relatively high. Flowing gas (turbulence) and impact
by entrained particles can produce measurable emission.
Considering this, acquisition of AE data may commence
at some pressure greater than starting pressure (for
example, 1⁄3 of maximum test pressure).
5.3.5 Maximum Test Pressure — Serious flaws
usually produce more acoustic emission (that is, more
events, events with higher peak amplitude) from second-
ary sources than from flaw growth. When vessels are
pressurized, flaws produce emission at pressures less
than normal fill pressure. A maximum test pressure
that is 10% greater than normal fill pressure allows
measurement of emission from secondary sources in
flaws and from flaw growth.
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 SE-1419 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS SE-1419

5.3.6 Pressurization Schedule — Pressurization

should proceed at rates that do not produce noise
from the pressurizing medium and that allow vessel
deformation to be in equilibrium with applied load.
Pressure holds are not necessary; however, they may
be useful for reasons other than measurement of AE.
5.4 Excess background noise may distort AE data
or render them useless. Users must be aware of the
following common sources of background noise: high
gas-fill rate (measurable flow noise); mechanical contact
with the vessel by objects; electromagnetic interference
(EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) from
nearby broadcasting facilities and from other sources;
leaks at pipe or hose connections; and airborne sand
particles, insects, or rain drops. This test method should
not be used if background noise cannot be eliminated
or controlled. FIG. 1 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE APPARATUS

6. Basis of Application
6.1 Personnel Qualification — The NDT personnel
shall be qualified in accordance with a nationally recog-
nized NDT personnel qualification practice or standard
such as ANSI/ASNT CP-189, SNT-TC-1A, MIL-STD-
410, or a similar document. The practice or standard
used and its applicable revision shall be specified in
the contractual agreement between the using parties.
6.2 Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Agen-
cies — If specified in the contractual agreement, NDT
agencies shall be qualified and evaluated as described
in Practice E 543. The applicable edition of Practice
E 543 shall be specified in the contractual agreement.
6.3 Time of Examination — The time of examination
shall be in accordance with 5.2 unless otherwise spec-
ified.
6.4 Procedures and Techniques — The procedures
and techniques to be used shall be as described in
this test method unless otherwise specified. Specific
techniques may be specified in the contractual
agreement.
6.5 Extent of Examination — The extent of examina-
tion shall be in accordance with 4.2 and 10.9 unless
otherwise specified.
7. Apparatus
7.1 Essential features of the apparatus required for this
test method are provided in Fig. 1. Full specifications are
in Annex A1.
7.2 Couplant must be used to acoustically connect
sensors to the vessel surface. Adhesives that have
acceptable acoustic properties, and adhesives used in
combination with traditional couplants, are acceptable.
7.3 Sensors may be held in place with magnets,
adhesive tape, or other mechanical means.
7.4 The AE sensors are used to detect strain-induced
stress waves produced by flaws. Sensors must be held
in contact with the vessel wall to ensure adequate
acoustic coupling.
7.5 A preamplifier may be enclosed in the sensor
housing or in a separate enclosure. If a separate pream-
plifier is used, cable length, between sensor and preamp,
must not exceed 6 ft (1.83 m).
7.6 Power/signal cable length (that is, cable between
preamp and signal processor) shall not exceed 500 ft
(152.4 m). See A1.5.
7.7 Signal processors are computerized instruments
with independent channels that filter, measure, and
convert analog information into digital form for display
and permanent storage. A signal processor must have
sufficient speed and capacity to independently process
data from all sensors simultaneously. The signal proces-
sor should provide capability to filter data for replay.
A printer should be used to provide hard copies of
test results.
7.7.1 A video monitor should display processed
test data in various formats. Display format may be
selected by the equipment operator.

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 SE-1419 1998 SECTION V
7.7.2 A data storage device, such as a floppy disk,
may be used to provide data for replay or for archives.
7.7.3 Hard copy capability should be available
from a graphics/line printer or equivalent device.
8. Safety Precautions
8.1 As in any pressure test of metal vessels, ambient
temperature should not be below the ductile-brittle
transition temperature of the pressure vessel construction
material.
9. Calibration and Standardization
9.1 Annual calibration and verification of pressure
transducer, AE sensors, preamplifiers (if applicable),
signal processor (particularly the signal processor time
reference), and AE electronic waveform generator
should be performed. Equipment should be adjusted so
that it conforms to equipment manufacturer’s specifica-
tions. Instruments used for calibrations must have cur-
rent accuracy certification that is traceable to the Na-
tional Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST).
9.2 Routine electronic evaluations must be performed
any time there is concern about signal processor per-
formance. An AE electronic waveform generator should
be used in making evaluations. Each signal processor
channel must respond with peak amplitude reading
within ⫾2 dBV of the electronic waveform generator
output.
9.3 A system performance check must be conducted
immediately before, and immediately after, each test.
A performance check uses a mechanical device to
induce stress waves into the vessel wall at a specified
distance from each sensor. Induced stress waves stimu-
late a sensor in the same way as emission from a flaw.
Performance checks verify performance of the entire
system (including couplant).
9.3.1 The preferred technique for conducting a
performance check is a pencil lead break. Lead should
be broken on the vessel surface no more than 1.5 in.
(3.8 cm) from the sensor. The 2H lead, 0.5-mm diameter,
3-mm long should be used (see Fig. 4 of Guide E 976).
10. Procedure
10.1 Visually examine accessible exterior surfaces
of the vessel. Note observations in test report.
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10.2 Isolate vessel to prevent contact with other
vessels, hardware, and so forth. When the vessel cannot
be completely isolated, indicate, in the test report,
external sources which could have produced emission.
10.3 Connect fill hose and pressure transducer. Elimi-
nate any leaks at connections.
10.4 Mount an AE sensor at each end of each tube.
Use procedures specified in Guide E 650. Sensors must
be at the same angular position and should be located
at each end of the vessel so that the AE system can
determine axial locations of sources in as much of the
vessel as possible.
10.5 Adjust signal processor settings. See Appendix
X1 for example.
10.6 Perform a system performance check at each
sensor (see 9.3). Verify that peak amplitude is greater
than a specified value (see Table X1.2). Verify that
the AE system displays a correct location (see Note
3) for the mechanical device that is used to produce
stress waves (see 9.4 and Table X1.2). Prior to pressur-
ization, verify that there is no background noise above
the signal processor threshold setting.
NOTE 3 — If desired location accuracy cannot be attained with
sensors at two axial locations, then more sensors should be added
to reduce sensor spacing.
10.7 Begin pressurizing the vessel. The pressurization
rate shall be low enough that flow noise is not recorded.
10.8 Monitor the test by observing displays that
show plots of AE events versus axial location. If
unusual response (in the operator’s judgment) is ob-
served, interrupt pressurization and conduct an investi-
gation.
10.9 Store all data on mass storage media. Stop the
test when the pressure reaches 110% of normal fill
pressure or 110% of marked service pressure (whichever
is greater). The pressure shall be monitored with an
accuracy of ⫾2% of the maximum test pressure.
10.9.1 Examples:
10.9.1.1 A tube trailer is normally filled to a
gage pressure of 2640 psi (18.20 MPa). Pressurization
shall stop at 2904 psi (20.02 MPa).
10.9.1.2 A gas cylinder is normally filled to a
gage pressure of 613 psi (4.23 MPa). The marked
service pressure is 2400 psi (16.55 MPa). Pressurization
shall stop at 2640 psi (18.20 MPa).
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 SE-1419 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS
10.10 Perform a system performance check at each
sensor (see 9.3). Verify that peak amplitude is greater
than a specified value (see Table X1.2).
10.11 Reduce pressure in vessel to normal fill pressure
by bleeding excess gas to a receiver, or vent the vessel.
10.12 Raw AE data should be filtered to eliminate
emission from nonstructural sources, for example, elec-
tronic noise.
10.13 Replay test data. Examine the location distribu-
tion plots (AE events versus axial location) for all
vessels in the test.
10.14 Based on data replay, determine whether sec-
ondary examination (ultrasonic examination) is required.
(Ultrasonic examination should be performed in accord-
ance with Practice A 388/A 388M.) Appendix X1
provides examples of such determinations.
11. Report
11.1 Prepare a written report from each test. Report
the following information:
11.1.1 Name of the owner of the vessel and the
vehicle number (if appropriate).
11.1.2 Test date and location.
11.1.3 Previous test date and previous maximum
test pressure. See Note 4.
NOTE 4 — If the operator is aware of situations where the vessel
was subject to pressures that exceeded normal fill pressure, these
should be described in the report.
11.1.4 Any U.S. Department of Transportation
(DOT) specification that applies to the vessel.
11.1.5 Any DOT exemption numbers that apply
to the vessel.
ANNEX
(Mandatory Information)
A1. INSTRUMENTATION SPECIFICATIONS
A1.1 Sensors
A1.1.1 The AE sensors shall have high sensitivity
within the frequency band of 20 to 1200 kHz. Sensors
may be broad band or resonant.
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11.1.6 Normal fill pressure and marked service
pressure.
11.1.7 Pressurization medium.
11.1.8 Pressure at which data acquisition com-
menced.
11.1.9 Maximum test pressure.
11.1.10 Locations of AE sources that exceed ac-
ceptance criteria. Location shall include distance from
end of vessel that bears the serial number (usually this
is stamped in the vessel wall).
11.1.11 Signature of test operator.
11.1.12 Stacking chart that shows relative locations
of vessels (if a multiple vessel array is tested).
11.1.13 Visual examination results.
11.1.14 AE test results, including events versus
location plots for each vessel and cumulative events
versus pressure plot for each vessel.
12. Precision and Bias
12.1 Location accuracy is influenced by factors that
affect elastic wave propagation, by sensor coupling,
and by signal processor settings.
12.2 It is possible to measure AE and produce AE
source locations that cannot be verified by other NDT
methods. If such emission are measured, and are pro-
duced by flaws, such flaws are small and are not of
structural significance.
13. Keywords
13.1 acoustic emission; cylinders; flaws; gas pressure;
seamless; steel
A1.1.2 Sensitivity shall be greater than −77 dBV
(referred to 1 V/␮bar, determined by face-to-face ultra-
sonic test) within the frequency range of intended use.
A1.1.3 Sensitivity within the range of intended
use shall not vary more than 3 dB over the intended
range of temperatures in which sensors are used.
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 SE-1419 1998 SECTION V
A1.1.4 Sensors shall be shielded against electro-
magnetic interference through proper design practice
or differential (anticoincidence) element design, or both.
A1.1.5 Sensors shall be electrically isolated from
conductive surfaces by means of a shoe (a wear plate).
A1.2 Signal Cable
A1.2.1 The sensor signal cable which connects
sensor and preamplifier shall not sensor output more
than 3 dB [6 ft (1.83 m) is a typical maximum length].
Integral preamplifier sensors meet this requirement.
They have inherently short, internal, signal cables.
A1.2.2 Signal cable shall be shielded against elec-
tromagnetic interference. Standard coaxial cable is gen-
erally adequate.
A1.3 Couplant
A1.3.1 A couplant shall provide adequate ultrasonic
coupling efficiency throughout the test.
A1.3.2 The couplant must be temperature stable
over the temperature range intended for use.
A1.3.3 Adhesives may be used if they satisfy
ultrasonic coupling efficiency and temperature stability
requirements.
A1.4 Preamplifier
A1.4.1 The preamplifier shall have noise level no
greater than 7 ␮V rms (referred to a shorted input)
within the bandpass range.
A1.4.2 The preamplifier gain shall vary no more
than ⫾1 dB within the frequency band and temperature
range of use.
A1.4.3 The preamplifier shall be shielded from
electromagnetic interference.
A1.4.4 The preamplifiers of differential design
shall have a minimum of 40-dB common mode rejection.
A1.4.5 The preamplifier shall include a bandpass
filter with a minimum of 24-dB/octave signal attenuation
above and below the 100 to 300-kHz frequency band.
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A1.5 Power/Signal Cable
A1.5.1 The power/signal cables provide power to
preamplifiers, and conduct amplified signals to the main
processor. These shall be shielded against electromag-
netic interference. Signal loss shall be less than 1 dB/
100 ft (30.48 m) of cable length. Standard coaxial
cable is generally adequate. Signal loss from a power/
signal cable shall be no greater than 3 dB.
A1.6 Power Supply
A1.6.1 A stable, grounded, power supply that
meets the signal processor manufacturer’s specification
shall be used.
A1.7 Signal Processor
A1.7.1 The electronic circuitry gain shall be stable
within ⫾2 dB in the temperature range from 40 to
100°F (4.4 to 37.8°C).
A1.7.2 Threshold shall be accurate within ⫾2 dB.
A1.7.3 Measured AE parameters shall include:
threshold crossing counts, peak amplitude, arrival time,
rise time, and duration for each hit. Also, vessel internal
pressure shall be measured.
A1.7.4 The counter circuit shall count threshold
crossings within an accuracy of ⫾5% of true counts.
A1.7.5 Peak amplitude shall be accurate within
⫾2 dBV.
A1.7.6 Arrival time at each channel shall be accu-
rate to within ⫾1.0 ␮s.
A1.7.7 Duration shall be accurate to within ⫾10 ␮s.
A1.7.8 Threshold shall be accurate to within
⫾1 dB.
A1.7.9 Arrival time shall be accurate to 0.5 ␮s.
A1.7.10 Rise time shall be accurate to ⫾10 ␮s.
A1.7.11 Parametric voltage readings from pressure
transducers shall be accurate to within ⫾5% of the
marked service pressure.
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 SE-1419 ARTICLE 29 — ACOUSTIC EMISSION STANDARDS SE-1419

APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. EXAMPLE INSTRUMENT SETTINGS AND on the cylindrical portion or end of the tube, then that
REJECTION CRITERIA part of the tube must be inspected with a secondary
NDT method (for example, ultrasonic inspection). Any
X1.1 A database and rejection criteria are established
flaw that is detected must be precisely located, and
for some DOT specified vessels. These have been
flaw dimensions must be determined.
described in the NDT Handbook.8 More recent criteria
are described in this section. Some vessel types, typical
dimensions, and service pressures are listed in Table
X1.1. X1.4 Rejection Criterion:

X1.2 Criteria for determining the need for secondary

inspection were established while working with AE X1.4.1 Vessels that contain flaws that are large
equipment with setup conditions listed in Table X1.2. enough to be “fracture critical flaws,” or that contain
flaws large enough to grow to fracture critical size
X1.3 Need for secondary inspection is based on
before another retest is performed, shall be removed
examination of location distribution plots (that is, plots
from service.
of AE events versus axial location) after AE data
acquisition is completed.

X1.3.1 Cylindrical Portion of Vessel — The DOT
3AAX and 3T 3AA and 107A tubes are currently
retested with this AE test method. For 3AAX and 3T
and 3AA tubes, if five or more AE events occur within
an 8-in. (20.3-cm) axial distance, on the cylindrical
portion of a tube, then that part of the tube must be
inspected with a secondary NDT method (for example,
ultrasonic inspection). Any flaw that is detected must
be precisely located, and flaw dimensions must be
determined.
X1.3.2 Ends of Vessel — For DOT 3AAX and
3T and 3AA tubes, if five or more AE events are
measured outboard of a sensor, each of these events
is detected by both sensors, and the peak amplitude
at the “first hit” sensor is 43 dBV or more, then the
end of the tube at the “first hit sensor” (that is, the
sensor with five or more first hits) must be inspected.
Any flaw that is detected must be precisely located,
and flaw dimensions must be determined using second-
ary NDT method (for example, ultrasonic inspection).
X1.3.3 The DOT 107A tubes are tested with
sensors mounted on the end flanges. If five or more
AE events occur within 8-in. (20.3-cm) axial distance
8 Miller,
R. K., and McIntire, P., Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
2nd ed., Vol 5, Acoustic Emission Testing, American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH, 1987, pp. 161–165.
X1.4.2 “Fracture critical” flaw dimensions are
based upon fracture mechanics analysis of a vessel
using strength properties that correspond to materials
of construction.
X1.4.3 Analyses of DOT 3AAX and 3T tubes are
described by Blackburn and Rana.9 Fracture critical
flaw depths were calculated, and fatigue crack growth
(under worst case conditions) was estimated. Flaw
depths that could grow to half the fracture critical size
were judged too large. They should not remain in
service. Based upon this conservative approach, DOT
Specification 3AAX and 3T tubes with maximum flaw
depths of 0.10 in. (2.54 mm), or more, should be
permanently removed from service.
X1.4.3.1 The DOT 3AAX and 3T cylinders
have been evaluated by Blackburn and Rana.9 The
maximum allowable flaw depth was calculated to be
0.10 in. (2.54 mm).
9 Blackburn, P. R., and Rana, M. D., “Acoustic Emission Testing
and Structural Evaluation of Seamless, Steel, Tubes in Compressed
Gas Service,” Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol 108, May
1986, pp. 234–240.

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 SE-1419 1998 SECTION V SE-1419

TABLE X1.1
SPECIFIED CYLINDERS, TYPICAL DIMENSIONS, AND SERVICE PRESSURES

DOT DOT DOT DOT DOT

Specification 3AAX 3T 3A 3AA 107A
Outside diameter, in. (cm) 22 (55) 22 (56) 9.63 (25) 9.63 (25) 18 (46)
Nominal wall thickness, in. (cm) 0.54 (1.37) 0.42 (1.07) 0.31 (0.79) 0.25 (0.64) 0.75 or 0.86 (1.9 or 2.2)
Length, ft (m) 18 to 40 (0.5 to 12) 12 to 32 (4 to 10) 33 (10)
Typical service pressure, psi (MPa) 2400 (16.6) 2600 or 3300
(18 or 23)
Typical fill pressure, psi (MPa) 600 to 3000 (14.14 to 20.68) 2600 to 3300

Alternate retest method hydrostatic test, at 1.67 times marked service pressure every five years with volumetric expansion
measurement

TABLE X1.2 X1.4.3.2 The DOT 3AA and 3A cylinders were

ACOUSTIC EMISSION EQUIPMENT, evaluated by Blackburn.10 Maximum allowable depths
CHARACTERISTICS, AND SETUP CONDITIONS were calculated and 0.06 in. (1.524 mm) was specified
for both specifications.
Sensor sensitivity −77 dBV ref. 1V/␮bar, at ~150 kHz
Couplant silicone grease
Preamplifier gain 40 dB (×100)
Preamplifier filter 100 to 300-kHz bandpass X1.4.3.3 The DOT 107A cylinders have been
Power/signal cable length <500 ft (152.4 m) evaluated by Toughiry.11 The maximum flaw depth was
Signal processor threshold 32 dBV (for example, 1 uV p 0 dBV calculated to be 0.150 in. (3.81 mm).
at preamplifier input)
Signal processor filter 100 to 300-kHz bandpass 10 Docket No. 11099, Application for Exemption, Appendix II, “Maxi-
Dead time 10 ms
mum Allowable Flaw Depth, 3A and 3AA Tubes,” U.S. Department
Background noise <27 dBV (for example, 1 uV p 0 dBV of Transportation, Jan. 14, 1988.
at preamplifier input) 11 Toughiry, M. M., Docket No. 11059, Application for Exemption
Sensitivity check >80 dBV (for example, 1 uV p 0 dBV
from the Requirements of Hazardous Materials Regulations of the
at preamplifier input) DOT, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Helium Field Operation, June 1993.

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