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Prepared by: Alethea Patricia L. Del Castillo, MA, RPm investigated through research, thus yielding research o Causality holds that behavior is a function of
Reference: Feist, Feist & Roberts (2013). Theories of Personality (Eight data the past experiences
Edition) New York: McGraw-Hill. - Organizes research data into a meaningful structure o Teleology is the explanation of behavior in
and provides explanation for the results terms of future goals or purposes
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY - Generates Research: - Conscious versus Unconscious determinants of
o A useful theory will stimulate both behavior
I. What Is Personality? descriptive research and hypothesis o Are they aware of what and why they are
- Latin word: persona = the mask people wear or the role testing. doing it? Or do unconscious forces impinge
they play in life. (But its more than just a façade) o Descriptive research provides a framewor k on them?
- a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique for an evolving theory whereas hypothesis - Biological versus Social Influences on personality
characteristics that give both consistency and testing expands our knowledge of a scientific o Are people creatures of biology? Or are they
individuality to human behavior discipline. shaped largely by their social relationships?
- Traits: it may be unique, common to some group, or - Is Falsifiable: - Uniqueness versus similarities among people
shared by the entire species BUT the pattern is different o It must generate research that can either o Is the salient feature of people their
for each individual (consistency & stability of behavior over confirm or disconfirm its major tenets. individuality or is it their common
time) o A negative result will contradict the theory and characteristics?
- Characteristics: unique qualities of an individual that force the theorist to either discard it or modify
include such attributes as temperament, physique and it >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
intelligence o A theory that can explain everything explains
nothing CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
II. What is a Theory? - Organizes Data: (PSYCHOANALYSIS)
A. Theory Defined o It should be able to fit current research data
- Set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use into an intelligible framework and to I. Biography of Sigmund Freud
logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable integrate new information into its structure. - Sisigmund (Sigmund) Freud
hypotheses - Guides Action: - Born in the Czech Republic in 1856 and died (of cancer)
- Set: A single assumption can never fill all the o practical tools that guide a road map for in London in 1939, Freud spent nearly 80 years of his
requirements of a good theory making day-to-day decisions. life in Vienna.
- Related: Isolated assumptions can neither generate o Example: what kind of psychotherapy - Freud was the first born of his father and mother ,
meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal technique is going to be used to the client? although his father already had 2 grown sons
consistency - Is Internally consistent: - He was the favorite of his mother over the 7 other
- Assumptions: not proven facts but accepted as if they o includes operational definitions that define siblings (he was not close to any of them)
were true concepts in terms of specific operations to be - His relationship with his father appears to be cold if not
- Logical Deductive Reasoning: to deduce a clearly carried out by the observer. (logically occasionally hostile
stated hypothesis compatible) - When he was 1 ½ year old, his mother gave birth to
- Testable: must suggest the possibility that scientists - Is Parsimonious: Julius (who died at 6 months) Freud developed hostility to his
o When two theories are equal on the first five brother and unconsciously wished him dead. He had carried into
B. Why Different Theories? criteria, the simpler one is preferred. adulthood the guilt, he thought he was the cause of his death
- Theories are built not on proven facts but on (straightforward theories) - A physician who never intended to practice general
assumptions (assumed to be true) that are subject to medicine, Freud was intensely curious about human
individual interpretations III. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity nature.
- Reflection of their personal background, their - Determinism versus Free choice - Early in his professional career, Freud believed that
philosophical orientation, and the data they chose to o Are people’s behaviors determined by forces hysteria was a result of being seduced during childhood
observe over which they have no control or can people by a sexually mature person, often a parent or other
- Its usefulness depends on its ability to generate choose to be what they wish to be? relative. But in 1897, he abandoned his seduction
research and to explain research data and other - Pessimism versus Optimism theory and replaced it with his notion of the Oedipus
observations o Are people doomed to live miserable or can complex.
they change and grow into psychologically - Some scholars have contended that Freud's decision to
C. What Makes a Theory Useful? healthy and fully functioning individual? abandon the seduction theory in favor of the Oedipus
complex was a major error and influenced a generation o Unconscious: ideas can slip past the vigilant - They cannot be avoided through flight response
of psychotherapists to interpret patients' reports of early censor and enter into the preconscious in a - Every basic drive is characterized by:
sexual abuse as merely childhood fantasies. disguised form o Impetus – amt. of force it exerts
- He fell in love with Martha Bernays and marry her in o Source – region of the body in tension
1886. They had 6 children. The youngest is Anna Freud C. Conscious o Aim – seek pleasure by removing tension
who held a special place in his heart - Only level of mental life directly available to us, but it o Object – person or thing where the aim is
- He was mentored by Jean-Martin Charcot (hypnotic plays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory. satisfied
technique for treating hysteria) and Josef Breuer - Conscious ideas stem from either the perception of - 2 primary instincts—sex (Eros) and aggression
(catharsis) external stimuli; that is, our perceptual conscious (Thanatos, or the destructive instinct).
- He then gradually discovered free association system, or from unconscious and preconscious images - Sex (libido)
technique after they have evaded censorship. o Aim: to seek pleasure, through the erogenous
- Studies of Hysteria: after its publication, Freud and zones = mouth, anus, and genitals.
Breuer had a professional disagreement and became III. Provinces of the Mind (Structural Model) o Object: any person or thing that brings sexual
estranged A. The Id (das Es) pleasure.
- Interpretation of Dreams: contains many of Freud’s - completely unconscious o For example, narcissism, love, sadism, and
own dreams. Soon after his publication his friendship - serves the pleasure principle and seeks constant and masochism all possess large components of
with Fliess began to cool immediate satisfaction of instinctual needs the sexual drive even though they may
- Freud and Jung interpreted each other’s dreams that - not altered by the passage of time or by experiences of appear to be nonsexual.
eventually led to the end of their relationship the person. o All infants possess primary narcissism, or
- It is illogical and entertain incompatible ideas self-centeredness, but the secondary
II. Levels of Mental Life (Topographic Model) - Primary process (basic drives) narcissism (moderate degree of self-love) of
A. Unconscious B. The Ego (das Ich) adolescence and adulthood is not universal.
- The unconscious consists of drives and instincts that - secondary process, is governed by the reality principle; o Sadism, which is the reception of sexual
are beyond awareness, yet they motivate many of our - partly conscious, preconscious and unconscious pleasure from inflicting pain on another, and
behaviors. - responsible for reconciling the unrealistic demands of o Masochism, which is the reception of sexual
- Unconscious drives can become conscious only in both the id and the superego with the demands of the pleasure from painful experiences, satisfies
disguised or distorted form, such as dream images, real world. (decision-making branch) both sexual and aggressive drives.
slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms. - It becomes anxious and would use defense o If carried to an extreme, sadism and
- Unconscious processes originate from two sources: (1) mechanisms as protect itself masochism is considered a sexual perversion
repression, or the blocking out of anxiety -filled - It has no energy of its own but borrows from id but in moderation is a common need
experiences and (2) phylogenetic endowment, or - Psychologically healthy people have a well-developed - Aggression
inherited experiences that lie beyond an individual's ego. o The destructive instinct aims to return the
personal experience. (only as last resort in explaining C. The Superego (Uber Ich) person to an inorganic state, but it is ordinarily
behavior) - serves the idealistic principle, has two subsystems— the directed against other people and is called
- The unconscious mind of one person can communicate conscience and the ego-ideal aggression.
with the unconscious of another without either person - The conscience results from punishment for improper o It can take a number of form like teasing,
being aware of the process behavior (guilt), gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor &
- Unconscious forces constantly strive to become - whereas the ego-ideal stems from rewards for socially enjoyment of other people’s suffering
conscious acceptable behavior (inferiority feelings – when the ego fails to o Commandments such as “Love thy neighbor
B. Preconscious meet the standards of perfection) as thyself” is a way of inhibiting the strong
- Contains images that are not in awareness but that can - Neither the id nor the superego is in contact with reality drive to inflict pain to others. These are
become conscious either quite easily or with some level - Development: Age 5 to 6 reaction formations
of difficulty. B. Anxiety
- Experiences that are forgotten are in the preconscious. - Only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and
- 2 sources: IV. Dynamics of Personality outside world can each be a source of anxiety.
o Conscious perception: when the focus of The term dynamics of personality refers to those forces - Neurotic anxiety is apprehension about an unknown
attention shifts to another idea (usually free that motivate people. The concept includes both instincts and danger and stems from the ego's relation with the id;
from anxiety) anxiety. - Moral anxiety is similar to guilt and results from the
A. Drives (instinct or impulse) – a stimulus within an individual ego's relation with the superego; and
- Realistic anxiety is similar to fear and is produced by the VI. Stages of Development
ego's relation with the real world. Freud saw psychosexual development as proceeding VII. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory
from birth to maturity through four overlapping stages—the A. Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique
V. Defense Mechanisms infantile stage, the latency stage, the genital stage and the - Freud used a very aggressive technique whereby he strongly
A. Repression psychologically mature stage. suggested to patients that they had been sexually seduced as
- Forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into the A. Infantile period children.
unconscious. - Encompasses the first 4 to 5 years of life and is divided - He later abandoned this technique, with a belief that he may
- It is the most basic of all defense mechanisms because into three subphases: have elicited memories of seduction from his patients and that
it is an active process in each of the others. o oral phase: pleasure through sucking Weaning is he lacked clear evidence that these memories were real
- Many repressed experiences remain unconscious for a the principal source of frustration during this stage. B. Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique
lifetime but others become conscious in a disguised o Emergence of teeth as a defense against - Goal: uncover repressed memories through the free
form or in an unaltered form environment is called oral sadistic association and dream analysis = to strengthen the ego
B. Reaction Formation o anal phase: satisfaction gained through aggressive - Transference: strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or
- Repression of one impulse and the pretentious behavior and excretory function (sadistic-anal) negative, that patients develop towards the analyst during the
expression of its exact opposite. o occurs at about the second year of life, when toilet course of treatment
C. Displacement training is the child's chief source of frustration. - Negative transference: form of hostility must be explained to
- Redirecting of unacceptable urges and feelings onto o If parents use disciplinary training methods, a child the client to overcome resistance to treatment
people and objects in order to disguise or conceal their may develop the anal triad of orderliness, stinginess, C. Dream Analysis
true nature. and obstinacy, all of which mark the anal character. - manifest content (conscious description) from the
- Unlike, reaction formation, it does not exaggerate or o Phallic phase: boys and girls begin to have differing - latent content (unconscious meaning of the dream that lies
overdo the disguised behavior psychosexual development, which occurs around hidden from the dreamer).
D. Fixation ages 3 or 4 years. - Nearly all dreams are wish-fulfillments, although the wish is
- When psychic energy is blocked at one stage of o For both genders, suppression of masturbation is the usually unconscious and can be known only through dream
development, making psychological change difficult. principle source of frustration. interpretation.
- Permanent attachment of the libido to an earlier stage o young children experience the Oedipus complex = - Dreams that are not wish-fulfillments follow the principle of
of development having sexual feelings for one parent and hostile repetition compulsion and often occur after people have had a
- They are universal feelings for the other. traumatic experience, now called a post-traumatic stress
E. Regression o The male castration complex breaks up the male disorder.
- When a person reverts to earlier, more infantile modes Oedipus complex and results in a well-formed male - To interpret dreams Freud used both dream symbols and the
of behavior superego. dreamer's associations to the dream content.
- Usually, temporary o For girls, the castration complex, in the form of penis D. Freudian Slips
F. Projection envy, precedes the female Oedipus complex, a - slips of the tongue or pen, misreadings, incorrect hearings,
- Seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or situation that leads to only a gradual and incomplete misplacing of objects, and temporary forgetting of names or
behaviors that actually reside in one's own shattering of the female Oedipus complex and a intentions are not chance accidents but reveal a person's
unconscious. weaker, more flexible female superego. unconscious intentions.
- When carried to extreme, projection can become B. Latency Period
paranoia, which is characterized by delusions of - From about age 5 years until puberty—in which the
persecution. sexual instinct is partially suppressed.
G. Introjection - It is believed that this may have roots in our
- Incorporation of positive qualities of another person in phylogenetic endowment
order to reduce feelings of inadequacy. C. Genital Period VIII. Critique of Freud
- Hero worship might be a good example. - Begins with puberty when adolescents experience a Freud regarded himself as a scientist, but many critics
H. Sublimation reawakening of the genital aim of Eros, and it continues consider his methods to be outdated, unscientific, and permeated
- Contribute to the welfare of society throughout adulthood. with gender bias. On the six criteria of a useful theory,
- They involve elevating the aim of the sexual instinct to D. Maturity psychoanalysis, we rate its ability to generate research as high,
a higher level and are manifested in cultural - Freud hinted at a stage of psychological maturity in its openness to falsification as very low, and its ability to organize
accomplishments, such as art, music, and other socially which the ego would be in control of the id and superego data as average. We also rate psychoanalysis as average on its
beneficial activities. and in which consciousness would play a more ability to guide action and to be parsimonious. Because it lacks
important role in behavior. operational definitions, we rate it low on internal consistency.
IX. Concept of Humanity - He was interested in social relationships – siblings and - The Striving Force as Compensation
Freud's view of humanity was deterministic and peers o the striving force is innate = feelings of inferiority
pessimistic. He also emphasized causality over teleology , - Adler developed a strong rivalry with Sigmund—a rivalry goal of superiority
unconscious determinants over conscious processes, and biology that was similar to his later relationship with Freud. o The goal is to overcome these feelings through
over culture, but he took a middle position on the dimension of - Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became their natural tendency to move toward completion.
uniqueness versus similarities of people. a charter member of the Wednesday Psychological Society o The goal may take many forms. It is not
- However, personal and professional differences between necessarily a mirror image of the deficiency even
Freud and Adler led to Adler's departure from the Vienna if it is a compensation for it
Psychoanalytic Society in 1911. o The striving force can take one of two courses—
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> - Adler soon founded his own group, the Society for personal gain or community benefit.
Individual Psychology. - Striving for Personal Superiority
- His strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his o Goals are personal ones (sometimes with little or
insightful ability to understand family dynamics. no concern for others)
- Adler married Raissa Epstein who was a feminist. They had o Largely motivated by exaggerated feelings of
4 children inferiority (inferiority complex)
- During the last few years of his life, Adler lived in the United o Others, although they may appear to be interested
States and earned a reputation as a gifted public speaker. in others, their basic motivation is personal benefit.
He died in 1937 in Scotland while on a lecture tour. - Striving for Success
o Psychologically healthy people strive for the
II. Introduction to Adlerian Theory success of all humanity, but they do so without
- People are born with weak and inferior bodies losing their personal identity.
feelings of inferiority and dependence to other people B. Subjective Perceptions: People's subjective view of the
feelings of unity with others (social interest) world—not reality—shapes their behavior.
A. Striving for Success or Superiority: The sole dynamic - Fictionalism
force behind all our actions o People's beliefs and expectations of the future.
- Transformation of drive: aggression masculine o Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because
protest Striving for Superiority Striving for people act as if these fictions are true.
success (personal superiority/success) o Example: a belief in an omnipotent God who
- The Final Goal rewards good and punishes evil
o The final goal of success or superiority toward - Physical Inferiorities
which all people strive unifies personality and o All humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorities
makes all behavior meaningful. that stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority and
o Its fictional and has no objective existence move people toward perfection or completion
o Product of creative power (age 4 or 5): people’s o Deficiencies do not cause a particular style of life;
ability to free shape their behavior and create their they are motivation for reaching goals
own personality C. Unity of Personality: all behaviors are directed toward a
o Reduces the pain of inferiority feelings and leads single purpose and that the entire personality functions in a
the person to either superiority or success self-consistent manner.
o If children felt neglected or pampered their goals - Organ Dialect
CHAPTER 3: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY will remain unconscious o People sometimes use a physical disorder to
o If children experience love and security, they set express style of life
I. Biography of Alfred Adler goals that are largely conscious and clearly o A boy wetting his bed sends a message that he
- Born in 1870 in a Viennese suburb, a second son of middle - understood does not wish to obey his parents
class Jewish parents. o People are not always conscious of their final goal, - Conscious and Unconscious
- As a young child he was weak and sickly (he nearly died of even though they may be aware of their immediate o Conscious and unconscious processes are unified
pneumonia at the age of 5), a condition that contrasted subgoals. and operate to achieve a single goal.
sharply with his strong, healthy older brother, Sigmund. o When an individual’s final goal is known, all actions o The part of our goal that is not clearly understood is
- The death of his younger brother (infant) motivated him to make sense and subgoals takes on new unconscious (thoughts that are not helpful)
become a physician significance
o to the extent that we comprehend our goal it is contribute to it by generating subjective and - Second borns (like Adler himself) are likely to have
conscious (helpful in striving for success) exaggerated feelings of inferiority. strong social interest, provided they do not get trapped
D. Social Interest: Gemeinschaftsgefϋhl = a feeling of - Pampered Style of Life trying to overcome their older sibling.
oneness with all of humanity o develop low levels of social interest - Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack
- Origins of Social Interest o continue to have an overriding drive to establish a independence, whereas only children may have even
o both mothers and fathers have crucial roles in permanent parasitic relationship with their mother or less social interest and tend to expect others to take
furthering the social interest of their children and a mother substitute. care of them.
that the parent/child relationship is so strong that it o They believe they are entitled to be first in B. Early Recollections
negates the effects of heredity. (until age 5) everything - Adler believed that ERs are not chance memories but
- Importance of Social Interest o They have not received too much love rather they templates on which people project their current style of
o Without social interest, societies could not exist, feel unloved (parents doing too much for them) life.
because individuals could not protect themselv es - Neglected Style of Life - ERs need not be accurate accounts of early events;
from danger. o Children who feel neglected often use these they have psychological importance because they
o Thus, an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward feelings as building material for a useless style of reflect our current view of the world.
a nurturing person. life—one characterized by distrust of other people. C. Dreams
o social interest is "the sole criterion of human B. Safeguarding Tendencies - provide clues to solving future problems.
values," and the "barometer of normality." The - means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These - dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and
worthiness of all one's actions must be viewed by safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic status quo usually require interpretation by another person.
these standards. and protect a person from public disgrace. D. Psychotherapy
E. Style of Life: product of interaction of heredity, - Excuses - create a relationship between therapist and patient that
environment and person’s creative power o Frequently take the form of "Yes, but" or "If only." fosters social interest. The therapist adopts both a
o healthy individuals are marked by flexible behavior By making excuses for their shortcomings, people maternal and a paternal role.
and that they have some limited ability to change can preserve their inflated sense of personal worth. V. Critique of Adler
their style of life. - Aggression - High in: generate research, organize data, and guide
F. Creative Power: freedom of choice o Behaving aggressively toward themselves or the practitioner.
- Ultimately style of life is shaped by our creative power; others. - Moderate in: parsimony,
that is, by our ability to freely choose which building o May take the form of depreciating others' - Low in: internal consistency & falsification
materials to use and how to use them. accomplishments, accusing others of being VI. Concept of Humanity
- People have considerable ability to freely choose their responsible for one's own failures, and accusing self Adler saw people as forward moving, social animals
actions and their personality. as a means of inflicting suffering on others. who are motivated by goals they set (both consciously and
unconsciously) for the future. People are ultimately responsible
for their own unique style of life. Thus, Adler's theory rates high
on free-choice, social influences, and uniqueness; very high on
optimism and teleology; and average on unconscious influences.
VIII. Psychotherapy
The goal of Klein's therapy was to reduce depressive
anxieties and persecutory fears and to lessen the harshness of
internalized objects. To do this, Klein encouraged patients to
reexperience early fantasies and pointed out the differences
between conscious and unconscious wishes.
5. Critique of Kelly
Kelly's theory probably is most applicable to relatively
4. Personal Constructs normal, intelligent people. Unfortunately, it pays scant attention
Kelly believed that people look at their world through to problems of motivation, development, and cultural influences.
templates that they create and then attempt to fit over the realities On the six criteria of a useful theory, it rates very high on
of the world. He called these templates personal constructs, parsimony and internal consistency and about average on its
which he believed shape behavior. ability to generate research. However it rates low on its ability to
A. Basic Postulate be falsified, to guide the practitioner, and to organize knowledge.
Kelly expressed his theory in one basic postulate and
11 supporting corollaries. The basic postulate assumes that 6. Concept of Humanity
human behavior is shaped by the way people anticipate the Kelly saw people as anticipating the future and living
future. their lives in accordance with those anticipations. His concept of
B. Supporting Corollaries elaborative choice suggests that people increase their range of
The 11 supporting corollaries can all be inferred from future choices by the present choices they freely make. Thus,
this basic postulate. (1) Although no two events are exactly alike, Kelly's theory rates very high in teleology and high in choice and
we construe similar events as if they were the same, and this is optimism. In addition, it receives high ratings for conscious
Kelly's construction corollary. (2) The individuality corollary influences and for its emphasis on the uniqueness of the
states that because people have different experiences, they can individual. Finally, personal construct theory is about average on
interpret the same event in different ways. (3) The organizational social influences.
corollary assumes that people organize their personal constructs
in a hierarchical system, with some constructs in a superordinate
position and other subordinate to them. (4) The dichotomy
corollary assumes that people construe events in an either/or
manner, e.g., good or bad. (5) Kelly's choice corollary assumes
that people tend to choose the alternative in a dichotomized
construct that they see as extending the range of their futur e
choices. (6) The range corollary states that constructs are
limited to a particular range of convenience; that is, they are not
relevant to all situations. (7) Kelly's experience corollary
suggests that people continually revise their personal constructs
as the result of their experiences. (8) The modulation corollary
assumes that only permeable constructs lead to change; concrete
constructs resist modification through experience. (9) The
fragmentation corollary states that people's behavior can be
inconsistent because their construct systems can readily admit
incompatible elements. (10) the commonality corollary