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Living Ghats of Varanasi

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Amita Sinha is the author of Landscapes
in lndia: Forms and Meanings (University
Press of Colorado, 2006; reprinted by
Asia Educational Services, 2011 ) editor of
Landscape Percepflon (Academic Press,
1995) and Natural Heiiage ofDef,l(UStEF
and INTACH, 2009), and co-editor of
Cultural Landscapes of South Asia: Sfudles
in Heritage Conservation and Management
(Routledge, 2017). She has been involved
in planning and designing of heritage
landscapes in lndia including the Taj Mahal
in Agra with Terence Harkness, Champaner-
Pavagadh in Gujarat, Govardhan in Braj,
Amber in Rajasthan, Orchha in Madhya
Pradesh, Gomti Riverfront in Lucknow and
Ghats of Varanasi.
Documenting and Understanding Cultural Landscape TypoLogies 103
L&v*n:g ffihmtm *f Vareffies*
AMITA SINHA
ABSTRAET
At Varanasi, y,here the Gonga rererses its flow, the 81 ghats in a 6.8 km
,stretch are an icortic intoge ctf the city. Their buih./Abri(, sy6f 1'scl oyg.y
600 years Jront sel/-organized s.y'stems ctf v,ctrship and pilgrimage. The
cultural landscape of'the ghots i.s de/ined by situcttec! er)ents, natural
.flooding, silting, and changingflot,of the Gcmgo; antl utlhral inclLrdinc'
rituol actit,ities and perJot'tnLtnces thot suslain the public life. Mt,poper
v'ill interpret the built.fabric of the ghttts in ternts o;f its ort,hitectttrul
and spatiol language ancl comtrtore rhe historic.pctlaces cutd temples
lining the riverJront v,ith the alc:oves, aedict.tles, pavilions, and pltttfbrns
thal poptrlate the .\teps and landings. TJte monuntental and t,et.naculctr
crrchitectw'e represent the dichotontl) o/'arts cmd c.rafis and are a sludy it
controst betw,een privctte and ptrblic spaces. The ghat .\tt.uctures ond their.
portable filrnittn'e have cm artisanal quolitl, to them, as the1, are bttilt d
local materials with a close Jit beru,een .fbrnt and.filnctiott, are improvised
and product oJ collective elJbrts. The enacted landscape is dt,nrtntic ancl
evolving, in .sustaining the spirituttl life of pilgritns and local re.sidents,
and bttilding comtnunities. I challenge the erclusiye.fbcus tdconservatic.tn
elJbrts on montmtental architecture and argue thqt the vernoculctr
landscape represents cm ctmolgant of material and in/angible heritage.
INTRT]DUCTItrN
The land-water interlace in the urban settlements on the holy river
Ganga's banks is fashioned out olthe need to access risir.tg and falling
-
104 Do.ume:ting and Lrr'rCerstandrng Cultural LanCscape Typolcgr:s
water levels in the monsoon and dry seasons. At
Varanasi, where the Ganga reverses its flow, the 84
ghats (steps and landings) in a 6.8 kilometre stretch
are a cultural landscape deflned by situated events;
natural including flooding, silting and changing flow of
the Ganga, and cultural including ritual activities and
performances that sustain public life. The built fabric
of the ghats is interpreted in terms of its architectural
and spatial language and historic palaces and temples
lining the riverfront are compared with the alcoves,
aedicules, pavilions, and platforms that populate the
steps and landings. The monumental and vernacular
architecture, despite sharing a design grarrrmar are a
study in contrasts between private and public spaces.
The ghat structures and their portable furniture have
an artisanal quality to them. Built of local materials
with a close fit between form and function, these are
improvised and a product of collective efforts. They
are a catalyst for diurnal and seasonal spatial practices
tied to the movement of sun, moon, and the Ganga.
The enacted landscape is dynamic and evolving in
sustaining the spiritual life of pilgrims, local residents
and building communities. The verracular landscape
represents an amalgam of material and intangible
heritage that require a rethinking ofcurrent heritage
policy exclusively focused on monumental architecture,
A new conservation approach for improving the
legibility of the spatial and temporal structure of public
life on the ghats is proposedl.
Not only are the ghats a threshold to the Ganga,
enabling the devotee to interact with the holy river in
various ways, they are also the public commons of
Varanasi with a rich social life. They are based upon
the archetypal built form with the purpose of gaining
access to rising and falling water levels in wells, tanks
and rivers. Built by royal and other wealthy patrons
over 800 hundred years, their simple and utilitarian
form is adjusted to local topographic conditions.
The Ganga, sun, and other gods and goddesses are
worshipped on the ghats, making it a liminal zone
where sacred exists amidst the profane. Varanasi is
the body of Shiva and the river is the goddess Ganga
incarnate, with the edge between them charged with
sacred energy that erupts in the forms of syam-bhu
(self-manifested) lingas (Shiva's aniconic form). As
Diana Eck (1983, p. 29) explains,
In one mahatmya, Shiva explains, "My lingas are
everywhere there, like little sprouts arisen out of sheer
bliss. Thus it is called the Forest of Bliss". A forest with
Shiva lingas as thick as the fresh sprouts of spring: this
is the vision of the sacred city as the Forest of Bliss, the
Anandavana or Anandakanana.
The landscape is inscribed by place making actions
of the faithful that affirm the sacred, Around and in-
between the many sacred 'centres', everyday life
swirls - commerce, recreation and craft making occur
in spatial practices of multiple communities. Spatial
practices 'structure the determining condifions of social
life'(de Certeau 1984, p. 96) and articulate the design
language ofthe ghats.
DEEiIGN GRAMMAR
Place-making by residents, use of local materials
and close fit between form and function define the
vemacular landscape of the ghats. The structures
are made by crafting building form, with material
consciousness, working with hands, using skills
grounded in physical practice, and drawing upon
collective shared knowledge (Sennett 2008). Two
principles can be discemed in interpreting the design
gmmmar of ghats; shared vocabulary between
historic buildings and steps and landings, andjugaad,
(improvised or make-do) implying innovation with
limited resources. The monumental temples and palaces
on the riverfront give it a majestic and imposing
skyline, while the small shrines and alcoves below on
the landings are unobtrusive until one sfumbles upon
them. Although differing in scale, they use the same
architectural prototypes.
The historic buildings are foft-like, solid and closed
below to protect against a flooding Ganga and open at
the top for views and breezes. In contrast, the shops and
site fumiture are human scale, appear to be temporary
and built with found materials. They are examples
ofjugaad, a way of thinking and acting in everyday
life in response to challenges and overcoming them
ingeniously (Radj ou, Prabhu, and Ahuja 2012). The
historic and vernacular illustrate the contrasting static
and kinetic city (Mehrotra 2008). Kinetic urbanism
is always in flux, occupies interstitial spaces between
monuments, where marginalised communities
participate in the informal urban economy. While
the static city is associated with architectural
monuments, the kinetic city is a temporal articulation
and occupation ofspace. The historic palaces are a
silent testimony to the passage of time and mostly
inaccessible to the public, closed up, illegally occupied
by tenants, or converted into hotels. Their solid walls
however are a backdrop to cremations, daily rituals,
spectacular events and social encounters.
While stairs are the dominant feature of the ghats,
temple spires, fort walls and marhi (octagonal
 Document.ing and Understanding Cultural Landscape TypoLogies 105

Skyline

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Formal Language

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Design Grammar of Manikarnika Ghat

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 Do.unentrng and Understanding Cultural -ardscape -ypologres 707
Landings and Steps-Noon
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structures dividing the steps into bays) appear in
syncopated rhythms. Spires are bunched up, walls
stretch or are cut short, stairs widen or narow, are
steep or gentle, and the marhis are close together or
spaced evenly. The prototypical elements in historic
architecture, such as spires, bastions, jharokhas
(balconies), appear again al lower levels, embedded in
steps and landings instead of in buildings. The corner
bastions offort-palaces, built to resist the flow of
the storming Ganga are reflected in marhis, temples
in aedicular shrines, andjharokhas and pavilions in
colonnades extruding from steps.
Tall temple spires punctuate the skyline of the ghats
and smaller shrines further down below on steps
and landings mimic their form. The Hindu temple
as interpreted byAdam Hardy (2007) is a symbol
of cosmos whose multiplicity is revealed in temple
facades and spires consisting of seemingly innumerable
Cycle of activities on Assl Ghaf
aedicules, carved in stone, each one a house for a god,
framing a deity, and topped by a spire. The shrines
on ghats consist of small aedicules in which the
deity is housed in a niche, equivalent ofthe garbha
griha (womb-house) in large temples. Occasionally
the shrine is fronted by a small nave, the space for
gathering before the deity. New forms and materials are
being used as the square aedicule becomes octagonal,
pyramidal spires turn domical, and carved walls
become plain and covered with tiles.
The alcove on the ternple exterior, as visible in
Panchkroshi Temple, climbs down to the ghats housing
lingas, Ganga, and other gods and goddesses. Brightly
painted, the alcoves are striking against the beige
steps and palace walls. They intemrpt the linearity of
steps in creating volumes and pauses. Some are solid
to strengthen steps, others house deities orpeople.
They occur in profusion on the river's edge in Kedar,
Manikarnika, and Panchganga Ghats where they are
square or octagonal, hollow or solid. Some hollow
cubes contain lingas, others are meant for yogis to
meditate. They conform to the image of Ganga washing
over the head ofShiva as a seated yogi or alinga,
celebrated in temple interiors. At Dashashwamedh and
Assi Ghats, the hollow cubes and prisms house barbers
and shopkeepers. Humans and gods populate the
alcoves on the ghats and their interiors could be either
sacred or profane spaces.
Arcades from the upper floors ofhistoric palaces
climb down, some are single storied, others two
storied, solid above and open below, appearing to
extrude out of the steps. At Lalita Ghat, they are just
above the Ganga and contain shrines to goddesses.
I I
108 Documenting and Understanding Cultura} Landscape Typologies
&iEr*riei3+iI!iF6
People sitting on a marhi
The octagonal freestanding pavilion is used for ritual
\vorship as in Manikarnika Ghat (where Visl.u.ru's
t-eet are enshrined) or is used fbr relaxing as in those
recently built at Assi Ghat. Dashashrvamedh Ghat
has a srn,ilar design grammar rvith aeclicules. i.narhis.
and alcoves popr-rlating the steps. This ghat has a
higher proportion ol semi-fixed and mor able takhts
(wooden cots). On this as rvell as on other ghats, the1,
are used for nrany pulposes such as fbr aarti (u,ar ing
ollamps) perfbnnances at dar'r,n and dusk. display of
rvares. ritr-Lals, massages. group con\ elsatiotrs. and
so on. Since the ghats are alu,ays bathed in sunshine"
thatched umbrellas cover them. adding a distinctir e
touch to the vievr,s. Old photographs and paintings
show the umbrellas in protiLsion. adding to the
picturesque eft-ect.r Neu, rraterials such as cloth and
plastic are being used these days to cover their ban.rboo
liamer'vork.
SPATIAL PRAtrTItrE5
In bridging the river as holy as Ganga and a city as
sacred as Varanasi, the ghats have become an iconic
image with the most famous skyline in India. Walking
to the wide-open and sunny ghats from the nalrow
dark lanes ofold Varanasi is a study in contrast in
kinesthetic and haptic perception. Walking along the
ghats is a different experience altogether, with the high
and solid buildings on one side and the expansive,
flowing river on the other. The body is immersed in the
flow of activities in moving through or pausing. The
experience is rich and stimulating, a total engagement
of the proximate senses in acoustic and olfactory
geographies. The soundscape ofthe ghats is dominated
by public recitation of mantras (sacred syllables) and
shlokas (sacred verses), singing ofbhajans (devotional
songs), chants of Ram Naam Satya Hai (God's name
is truth), and loud utterances of Om Namah Shivaya.
Music wafts down the ghats from rooftops and
courtyards of adjoining buildings, and social interaction
among many Western tourists revolves around the
vibrant sonic culture of Varanasi (Zara 2011, p. 2a\.
Public life in the ghats is sustained by multiple
communities of ghatiyas (ritual priests), boatmen,
aghoris (ascetics), barbers, washermen, vendors,
backpacker tourists, pilgrim groups, students,
mourners, among others.3 Some are actively engaged
in worship, making folk-art, crafting objects, and
selling wares; others observe, and participate in
casual social encounters and mesmerising spectacles.
Religious, commercial, and recreational activities
occur in close proximity and structures and spaces
have multiple functions. The mix of sacred and profane
and the intrusion of private in the public are intriguing
to visitors and tourists. There is a diurnal rhy'thm
to activities tied to movement of sun in the sky, in
worshipping, individually and collectively at dawn and
dusk. Events on ghats celebrate other rhythms as well,
of seasons tied to the movement of sun and the cycle
of the waxing and waning moon. The cosmic cycle of
creation and dissolution of the universe is symbolically
enacted in cremation rites (Parry 1981). Social,
biological and natural rhyhms interact to create the
lived experience of time. According to Lefebvre and
Regulier (2014,p.82):
 Documenting and Understanding Cultural Lanclscape Typologies 109
The study of everyday 1i1'e has alread.v clernonstrated this
banal and yet littlc-knorvn di1l-erence bet* een the cyclical
and tl-rc linear. betr'veen rh-vthmed tin-res atld the tiures ol'
brutal repetitions. This repetitior-r is tiring. erhar-Lsting trnd
tedior.rs, while the rctut-tt of a c.vcle has the appearance of
an event and trn advent. lts beginning. rvbich aftel all is
only a recommencement. ahr.'ays has the treshness of a in small groups olpilgrims. r''isitors. students. and
di:co\ el') atld att inr cttti,rn.
The sacred is reaffirmed daily though rituals ol
\ieneration to the Canga on the steps alld in the
shrines. Offerings of rnarigolds and bilva leaves.
application ol sandalu''ood and vermilion po\\'der.
ar.rd pouring of Ganga Jal (u,'ater from the river) o'r'er
thc linga re-appropriate and regenerate the p1ace.
Bathing, immersing ashes" u,ashing clothes in the
livcr and getting on and offthe boat, activate the
steps and shoreline tl.rrougl.rout the da.v. Floating
candle-wicks and watching the aarli on u 1911' ghats
ertcnd the activities into the Ganga at dusk. Although
socialising occurs throughout the day. iate r.norning and
cvenings are more active u'ith residents and tor-rrists
hanging out on the ghats. On a popular ghat such as
Dashashu,amedh. devotees offer their prayers and take
a holy dip, pilgrims engage in rituals. barbers ply their
trade, vendors set up their carts. and tourist stroll. ln
=
I
t
: .7e structure on Panchganga Ghat
the evening. the ghat is transfbmed rvith the spectacle
of tlie aarti cerelrlonv rvatched bv hundreds sitting on
steps and landings, on balconies and rooftops. and on
boats (Sinha 1015).
Space is generated in behaviour settings established
boatlren. sitting on marhi. and on steps and landings.
talking, playing cards, singin-e. listening to discourses
and eating. Boats arc madc and repaired b-v boannen
as are umbrellas and sn.raller cratt itenls such as flolver
garlands ancl clonas (leafvcssels). Food is prepared
over small stoves as is tea. a popular drink on the ghats.
Tl.re recun'ing patterns o1'behaviour and milieu reveal a
close flt or synomorphy (Barker 1968). The octagonal
fbnr of the marhi is especially conducive to groups
in a circle; the linearity, of steps lavours the display ol
artrvork and people rvatching.
Places are made using fbund materials. Bamboo
tianres are erected over marhis. wooden platfbrms are
supported by bricks and shaded by jr'rte cloth stretched
over bamboo poles, a metallic railing is installed
around a linga and covered ii,ith tin shade. Shade liort
the incessant sun is achieved in creative \vays" such as
lean-tos against the u,all. clotliiburlap strullg over ropes
=;- i "c?€a,q&,{,e€g
F
110 Doc.rmenting and UnderstarCirg Cult:ral Lan.lscape Typolcores
stretched between bamboo poles for astrologers and
chai shops. Shelter is ingeniously made using minimal
resources through jugaad. Surfaces become canvases
for public art by local artists who paint mythological
figures, sacred symbols, and natural forms. Graffiti
art ranges from advertisements to moral strictures
and quotes from great sages. Shiva and his family are
popular flgures as is Ganga and other goddesses.
Sculptures of Bhim, one of the five Pandava brothers
of the epic Mahabharata are crafted from silt deposited
on the ghats after every monsoon as the Ganga recedes.
The folk art celebrates living heritage by evoking
myths and legends that first created the places and
charged them with sacred energies.
A NEW trBNSERV.ATIEN APPREAtrH
It is widely acknowledged that Varanasi Ghats
embody cultural heritage but less understood are the
various ways in its material and intangible forms are
intertwined. Historic monuments built in the last three
centuries are the focus ofcurrent preservation efforts,
although most are in private use and do not contribute
to the public realm. The steps, landings and their
structures as an enacted landscape of a rich and vibrant
public life have been ignored so far (Dar 2005). This
vernacular landscape is shaped by spatial practices
that keep ancient traditions alive and vigorous. It is
always in flux, its temporality a function of the Ganga's
seasonal flow and the rhythm ofrituals and festivals
determined by planetary motion. The kinetic aspect
ofthe landscape necessitates rethinking the existing
monument-centric preservation practice (Sinha 201 7).
Although the ghats possess a vivid image, they
are not legible in the sense they are confusing and
disorienting, especially to a first time visitor. Legibility
is a quality of the landscape that allows comprehension
of its structure, that is, recognition of parts and their
organisation into a coherent pattern. This attribute
when applied to time means situating the present
in the continuum of history and revealing temporal
change (Lynch 197 2). Throttgh design interventions
and management of spatial practices, legibility can be
improved, resulting in better comprehension of the
temporal and spatial shucture of ghats.
The scope of conservation should expand beyond
historic palaces to include managing public spaces of
the ghats so that they are not encroached by private
interests. Conservation management entails regulating
practices that pollute the Ganga and promoting arts
and crafts. New structures should be based upon the
traditional design grarnrna\ instead of being fixed
and rigid, they should be deployable so that they can
adapt to kinetic urbanism. Local crafts such as bamboo
umbrellas, wooden boats, clay pottery and making
candle wick and flower garlands should be promoted
and incentivised through subsidies. Cultural events
such as Subh-e-Banaras held at dawn and aartis at
dusks in many ghats should be supplemented with
organised exhibitions of arts and crafts, and music
and dance festivals celebrating the Banaras Gharuta
(school). More specifically the historic monuments
should be integrated into the public realm; visual aids
should be designed for way-finding; narrative surfaces
should be designated for folk-art; and deployable
structures should be built for vending kiosks and visitor
facilities.
Historic palaces
The historic character of the ghats is most evident in
riverside palaces built by royalty and nobility from
all over the subcontinent for extended stay during
their pilgrimage and as a residence by elderly family
members who wished to spend their final days in
Varanasi (Hegewald 2005, Singh & Rana 2006). Most
palaces, no longer in active use by their rulers, have
been and are being converted into private hotels. Their
acquisition and renovation into a public facility, such
as a museum , art gallery, and performance centre,
would not only preserve architectural heritage but also
promote intangible heritage of fine and performing arts
of Varanasi. Their solid walls instead of being painted
over with graffiti as they are presently, can serve as
projection screens for sound and light shows on the
history and heritage ofghats.
Wsual aids
The ghats are entered into from the Ganga by boat,
taking the narrow lanes of the old cifi or arriving
at Assi Ghat in the south and Raj Ghat on the north.
Stretched over nearly seven kilometres they can be
walked their entire length in about 5-6 hours. Their
names are painted on walls and embankments, and can
be seen only from the boat. There is confusion about
ghat names as they have changed over time and it is not
clear where one ghats ends and the other begins. Way-
finding maps that can be downloaded as apps on smart
phones are proposed to aid tourists and pilgrims as they
walk to and along the ghats from the city or take the
boat. Informational and directional signage is proposed
on the ghats themselves orienting the visitor to the
place and its location on the riverfront.
 Documenting and Understanding Cultural Landscape Typologies 111
Nsrrutive sarfoces
The ghat landscape is replete with vibrant folk created
by local aftists, found on building facades, street walls,
water towers, stairs, embankments, and boats. These
seemingly random efforts should be coordinated in ar1
making festivals when ghat surfaces are periodically
cleaned and repainted; painted banners are hung from
bamboo poles; alcoves are decorated and temporary
dioramas built; sculptures made from silt and clay
and boats painted and decorated. In addition, planters,
portable trash cans, platforms, and embankment walls
should be canvases for folk art adding interest, colour,
and vibrancy to otherwise drab surfaces. Mythological
themes could be supplemented with artistic depictions
oflocal flora and fauna and issues such as pollution and
lack of communal harmony.
Deployable structarcs
The ghats are flooded during monsoons and activities
either cease or are relocated on upper landings' A11
structures, aedicules, alcoves, and pavilions, have to
be cleaned up and de-silted and the lean-tos have to
be dismantled and put together again once the waters
recede. Building permanent structures on the ghats
means exposing them to risks of flooding and structural
damage requiring maintenance. Fixed structures
reduce the flexibility of ways in which spaces are used
at different time of the day or in different seasons.
Recently Varanasi Municipality has erected concrete
shade structures mimicking the form of bamboo
umbrellas and changing cabins for women on a few
ghats. Their long-term sustainability is questionable
since they are not flexible, portable, lightweight, or
climate responsive and thus do not have the resilience
of kinetic urbanism. As David Hays (2010, p. 28)
describes:
Good performance in architecture has conventionally
meant resistance to change, including environmental
impacts. In contrast, sentient architecture gauges
performance in terms of responsiveness to change,
building on a model of navigation borrowed from the
theory of landscape architecture.
Deployable structures are an example of sentient
architecture. From a compact configuration they
can be transformed to a stable, expanded form with
energy input, demonstrating an efficient use of
space, materials, and energy (Androver 2015). Their
lightness and transportability are suited to changing
environmental conditions. Since they are erected
and dismantled quickly, they will respond readily to
changes in user flow and levels ofthe Ganga.
;
Thejugaad rvay oferecting lean-tos and other shade
devices on the ghats can be improved by organizing
the process to make deplo,vabie structllres with local
materials and utilizing building skills ollocal residents.
For example shade structures on top olmarhis and
alcoves in Panchganga. Manikarnika, and other ghats
are proposed to be r.ttade deployable u'ith fblding panels
that erpand to afford privac.v as changing rooms. The
simple u,ooden platform used fbr a variety olactivities
can be housed in a larger bamboo structure that can
be folded compactl.v and stored u'hen the ghats are
flooded. Foldable tables are proposed fbr vendors r'r'ho
presentl,v spread their wares on the groi-Lnd or on the
vn,ooden piatf-orm. These can be stacked and stored at
the encl of the day in a gumti (sr.l.ra1l vendirlg unit) lvith
erpanded storage space. The redesigned gumti can
function as a kiosk. made olrecycled lr-rmbar. l'n'here
pilgrims and tourists can get intbrmation and first aid.
Deplol'able structures carl be used for nerv proposed
uses such as musician gallery in Panchganga Chat
rihere the famous t.nusician Bismillah Khan used to
plal.his shehnai (oboe) on the banks ofthe Ganga.
CENCLUSIEN
TlTe ghats are a threshold to botl, the city and the
Ganga rvhere one prepares to enter into the Ganga, flnd
one's u,ay to the great temples of Varanasi, to embark
on the passagc fiom death to the beyond and to be
liberated fiorr the cycle of birth and re-birth. Activities
associated rvith private lif-e inclLrding death, worship,
bodily functions are on display in this public space.
Tlie intrr-rsion olprivate into public is unsettling and
provocative but also relaxing andjoyful. The ghats are
a liminal space betvr'een the holy river and sacred land
rvhere the eruption ofthe sacred in the profane creates
meaningiul pauses in everyday lif-e. Here pilgrims
engage in rites ofpassage. aghori ascetics in subversive
practices and tourists in stepping or'Ltside their cultural
fian,e olreference in a quest fbr spirituality. creating a
'third space' (Bhabha 1994). The distinction betrveen
monumental and vernacular is diffused in their shared
design grammar derived fiom archetypal symbols.
Places are found, built and appropriated. fbr rvorship,
play, comtrerce and commr-Lnity. tnaking the larrdscape
not just a t,iew but also a situated event. This dynamic
landscape structr-rred by natr-rral and cr'rltural el'ents and
cralted by traditional practices is olimmense heritage
valrLe and requires a ne\\ conservation approach based
r"rpon place-making.
Ll2 Documenting and Understandrng Cult.ural Landscape Typologres
Acknowledgement
All figures are from the Department of
Landscape Architecture, University of lllino s
at Urbana Champaign collection.
Bibliographic references
. Androver. ER 201 5. Deployable
Structures, Laurence King Publishing Ltd.,
London.
. Barker, R 1968, Ecologlcal Psychology:
Concepts and Methods for Studying
the Environment af Human Behavior.
Stanford Un versity Press, Palo Alto.
. Bhabha, H 1994 The Lacation of Culture.
Routledge. New York.
. Certeau, IVD '1984, The Practtce of
Everyday Life, Universrty of California
Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles.
. Coomaraswamy, A'1964, The Arts &
Crafts of lndia & Ceylon, Straus and
Company, New York.
. Dar. V 2005, Threats and Prospects,
G [,4 chell and RPB Singh (eds.), Banaras
The City Revealed, Marg Publications,
vol.57, no.2, pp. 139-43.
. Doron, A 2015, 'Hello Boat! The River
Economy in Banaras'in A Doron, R
Barz, & B Nelson (eds.), An Anthology of
Writings on the Ganga, Oxford University
Press, New Delhl, pp. 325-40.
. Eck, D 1983. Banaras: City af Light,
Penguin Books, New Delhi.
. Hardy, 42047, The Temple Architecture of
lndia. Joltn Wiley. Chichester.
. Havell, EB 1913, lndtan Architecture: lts
Psycholagy, Structure. and History from
the First Muhammadan lnvasion to the
Present Day, J l\,4urray, London.
. Hays, DL 2010. 'Sentient Architecture:
Embracing the Natural Volatility of Form'
in A Serbest, M N,lahall & GD Bruyn (eds.)
Junk Jet 3: Flux Us! Flux You!. ldea
Books, Amsterdam, The Netherlands for
lnstitut Grundlagen moderner Architektur
und Entwerfen. University of Stuttgart,
Germany, pp.28-31.
Hegewald, J 2005. 'Ghats and Riverside
Palaces', in G Michell and RPB Singh
(eds.) Banaras; The City Revealed, Marg
Publlcations, vol. 57, no.2, pp. 66-77.
Lefebvre. H & C Regulier.'The
Rhythmanalytical Projecr. in Henri
Lefebvre (ed.) Rhythmanalysls: Space.
Time and Everyday LrTe, Bloomsbury
Academic, London. pp. 71-92.
Lynch. K 1972. What l/me is thls
Place?,fhe MIT Press, Cambridge,
I\,4assach usetts.
Mehrotra. R 2008 'Negotiating the
Static and Kinetic Cities: The Emergent
Urbanism of Mumbai', n A Huyssen
(ed.) Other Cities, Other Worlds: Urban
lmaginaries in a Globalizing Age, Duke
University Press, Durham, North Carolina.
pp 205-18.
n Parry. J 198'. 'Death and Cosmogony in
Kashi', Contributions to lndian Sociology,
New Series. vol. 1 5. no. 1-2. pp.337-
65.
Radjou, N, P Jaldeep & S Ahuja, Jugaad
lnnovation: Think Frugal, Be Flexible,
Generate Breakthrough Growth. Jossey-
Bass, San Francisco.
Sennett R 2008, The Craftsman,Yale
University Press, New Haven.
Singh, RPB & P Rana 2006, Banaras
Region: A Spiritual and Cultural Guide.
Indica Books, Varanasi.
Sinha, A 201 3-20'15, 'The Enacted
Landscape of Varanasi Ghats: Beyond
the Picturesque', Visual Afis Journal.
Special issue on Art in Public Places,
vol. 12, pp.40-49.
Sinha, A 2017, 'lntroduction'. in
S Kapila and A Sinha (eds.), Cuiiural
Landscapes of South Asta. Studles ln
Heritage Conservation and Management,
Routledge, New York, pp. 1-10.
. Zara, C 2011 , Travellers: Representation
and Spatial Practice in Varanasi (lndia),
unpub. Ph.D. Dissertation in Geography,
Royal Holloway, University of London.
Notes
I ln two week long site workshops in
Varanasi (January 2014 and 2016)
conducted with B.N. College of
Architecture, Pune, lndia, the ghats were
studied extensively by undergraduate
and graduate students in Landscape
Architecture and Architecture. The
proposals are drawn from two project
reports Ghais of Varanasi on the
Ganga in lndia: The Cultural Landscape
Reclaimed.2014 and Envisioning a
Resi I ient C u ltu ra I La ndscape : Gh ats
on the Ganga, Varanasi, lndia,2016
summarizing design studio work
at University of lllinois at Urbana
Champaign, USA campus. The projects
were partially supported by Wadsworth
Endowment to the Department of
Landscape Architecture. The reports can
be accessed at http://landarch.illinois.edu/
india-projects.
2 Umbrellas are seen in 19th c illustrations,
in water colors by Thomas Daniell,
etchings by James Prinsep, and
photographs by Samuel Bourne and Deen
Dayal.
3 The boatmen community is organised
around the concept of hereditary rights
to the ghats and customary rules are
followed in dividing wages earned from
ferrying pilgrims and tourists. Assa Doron
(20'15) describes their cultural world
in terms of a moral economy bound
to mother Ganga. The boatmen are
'Gangaputra', sons of the Ganga, entitling
them to earn their livelihood in daily life
from ritual practices and other activities
related to the holy river.
 -

ontext Built, Living and Natur.Bl

ffi

IT

Special lssue on Cultural Landscapes of Asia lVotume xilt I 2017

Journal of the Development and Research Organisation for Nature, Arts and Heritage

Aryan Books lnternational l

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New Delhi l
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Dronah l
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Development and Research 0rganisation for Nature, I

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Arts and Heritage I
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 Chief Editor
Shikha ]ain

Guest Editors
Contents
Moe Chiba
Sonali Ghosh
V B Mathur V0h1me...........
About the .......................... iii
Editors
ForetLtord....... ......................vi
Cheena Kanwa1 Dr. Mechtild Rdssler
Parul G Munja1

Managing Editor Cultural Landscapes Beyond Borders

Prabha Prabhakar Bhardwaj
Turkey: Tlrcory and Prnctice in Framing Landscape as a Bridge for
Assistant Editor Cult ur e-N a tur e S u s t nin abili ty
Vanicka Arora Ege Yildirim. ....................01

Consulting Editors Mount Kailash, the Trnnsnational Landscape: A Nepalese Perspectiae

Ajay Khare Kai Weise..... .....................11
Kewal Khanna
Suchandra Bardhan Bhutan as a Cultural Landscape
lunko Mukai ....................19
Editorial Advisors
Adam Hardy, Tibet in India: The Religious Cultural Landscape
PRASADA, Cayathri Hegde........... ...........................29
Welsh School of Architecture,
Cardiff, UK Upper Mustang: Through a Cultural Landscape Framework
Neel Kamal Chapagain .........................37
A G K Menon
Convener, INTACH Delhi Chapter Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka: Mapping Nature Culture Values
New Delhi NuwanAbeywardana..................... ..............................45
Madhuri Desai Tlrc Korcott Militnry Lnndscap,'
Assistant Professor
Penn State University,
Doowon Cho................ ...........................55
Pennsylvania, USA
Documenting and Understanding Cultural Landscape
Rima Hooja Typologies
Faculty Director
New York State Independent College Arclueolo gical Lan ds cap e of H ary ana
Consortium for Study in India Tejas Garge and Apurva Sinha............. .......................63

Cover Design & Layout As so ci atia e Cul t ur aI Lan d s c ap es : A D is cu r sizt e En ga gemen t

SN Graphix, 9891299959 Shweta Wagh............ ..............................73
Copyright @ 2017 Dronah, India Military Landscapes of Land and Sea Frontiers of India
All rights reserved. No part of this journal Nupur Prothi Khanna and Shikha Jain................ ........85
may be reproduced or trmsmitted in my form
or by any means, electronic and mechanical, The Eternal Sauedscape: Varanasi
including photocopying, recording or my other Rana PB Singh ............ .............................95
information storage and retrieval system or
otherwise, without wdtten permission from the Lioing Ghats of Varanasi
publ i*hers.
Amita Sinha. ...................103
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