CIRCUIT

THEOREMS

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4.6 Superposition Theorem

4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.8 Norton’s Theorem
4.9 Source Transformation
4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
f (g)
x y
input output
The relationship f (x) between cause x and effect y
is linear if f (˙) is both additive and homogeneous.

definition of additive property：

If f(x1)=y1 , f(x2)=y2 then f(x1+x2)=y1+y2
definition of homogeneous property：
If f(x)=y and α is a real number then f(αx)= αy
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4.6 Superposition Theorem

n Example 4.6.1
Assume I0 = 1 A and use linearity to find the actual
value of I0 in the circuit in figure.

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 4.6 Superposition Theorem

If I 0 = 1A , then V1 = (3 + 5) I 0 = 8V
V1
I1 = = 2A , I 2 = I1 + I 0 = 3A
4
V2
V2 = V1 + 2 I 2 = 8 + 6 = 14V , I 3 = = 2A
7
I 4 = I 3 + I 2 = 5A ⇒ I S = 5A
C.T. Pan I 0 = 1A → I S = 5A , I 0 = 3A → I S = 15A 5

4.6 Superposition Theorem

For a linear circuit N consisting of n inputs , namely
u1 , u2 , …… , un , then the output y can be calculated
as the sum of its components：
y = y1 + y2 + …… + yn
where
yi=f(ui) , i=1,2,……,n

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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
Proof： Consider the nodal equation of the corresponding
circuit for the basic case as an example
G11 G12 L G1n  e1   I1s 
G G L G2 n  e   I 
 21 22  2  =  2 s  LLL ( A )
M O M   M  M 
     
Gn1 Gn 2 L Gnn  en   I ns 
[G ] e = I s LLLLLLLLLLLL ( B )
Let Gk = [ Gk1 Gk2 … Gkn ]T

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Then [G] = [ G1 G2 … Gn ] 7

4.6 Superposition Theorem

n Cramer’s Rule for solving Ax=b
Take n=3 as an example.

 a11 a12 a13   x1   b1 

a a22 a23   x2  = b2 
 21
 a31 a32 a33   x1  b3 
Let
det A = △ ≠ 0
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
Then b1 a12 a13
det b2 a22 a23
b3 a32 a33
x1 =
∆
a11 b1 a13
det a21 b2 a23
a31 b3 a33
x2 =
∆
a11 a12 b1
det a21 a22 b2
a31 a32 b3
x3 =
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∆ 9

4.6 Superposition Theorem

Suppose that the kth nodal voltage ek is to be found.
Then from Cramer’s rule one has
det  G 1 G 1 L I s L G n 
ek =
det [ G ]
n Δ jk
= ∑
j=1 Δ
I js

w h ere ∆ @ det [ G ]
∴ e k = e k1 + e k2 + L L + e kn
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
where
Δ 1k
ek1 = I , due to I 1 s only
Δ 1s

Δ nk
ekn = I , due to I ns only
Δ ns

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4.6 Superposition Theorem

n Example 4.6.2

Find e2 = ?

Nodal Equation
G1+G4+G6 -G4 -G6 e1 I1S
-G4 G2+G4+G5 -G5 e2 ＝ I2S
-G6 -G5 G3+G5+G6 e3 I3S
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
By using Cramer’s rule
 G1 + G4 + G6 I1S −G6 
 
det  −G4 I2S −G5 
 −G6 G3 + G5 + G6 
e2 =  I3S
∆
∆12 ∆ ∆
= I1S + 22 I 2 S + 32 I 3 S
∆ ∆ ∆
= e21 + e22 + e23

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4.6 Superposition Theorem

Where e21 is due to I1S only，I2S＝I3S＝0

G1+G4+G6 -G4 -G6 e11 I1S

-G4 G2+G4+G5 -G5 e21 ＝ 0
-G6 -G5 G3+G5+G6 e31 0
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 4.6 Superposition Theorem
G1+G4+G6 -G4 -G6 e11 I1S
-G4 G2+G4+G5 -G5 e21 ＝ 0
-G6 -G5 G3+G5+G6 e31 0

 G1 + G4 + G6 I1S −G6 
 
det  −G4 0 −G5 
 −G6 G3 + G5 + G6 
∴ e21 =  0
∆
∆12
= I1S , due to I1S only
∆
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4.6 Superposition Theorem

Similarly

Duo to I 2 S only Duo to I 3 S only

I1S = I 3 S = 0 I1S = I 2 S = 0
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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

In high school, one finds the equivalent

resistance of a two terminal resistive circuit
without sources.
Now, we will find the equivalent circuit for two
terminal resistive circuit with sources.

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTH in series with a
resistor RTH where VTH is the open circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTH is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off .
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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
I a
Linear + Connected
two-terminal V
- circuit
circuit
b

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Equivalent circuit: same voltage-current relation at the
terminals.
VTH = VOC : Open circuit voltage at a-b

VTH = VOC

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
RTH = RIN : input resistance of the dead circuit

Turn off all independent sources

RTH = RIN
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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

CASE 1
If the network has no dependent sources:
- Turn off all independent source.
- RTH : input resistance of the network looking
into a-b terminals

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
CASE 2
If the network has dependent sources
-Turn off all independent sources.
-Apply a voltage source VO at a-b

VO
R TH =
IO

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

-Alternatively, apply a current source IO at a-b

VO
R TH =
IO

If RTH < 0, the circuit is supplying power.

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Simplified circuit
VTH
IL =
R TH +R L
RL
VL = R L I L = VTH
R TH +R L

Voltage divider

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Proof : Consider the following linear two terminal circuit
consisting of n+1 nodes and choose terminal b as
datum node and terminal a as node n .
L

 V1   I1s 
 G 11 K G 1n     
  V  =  I2s 
 M O M  2
G  M   M 
 n1 L G n n     
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Vn   I ns  26
 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Then nodal voltage Vn when a-b terminals are open
can be found by using Cramer’s rule .
n
1
Vn =
∆
∑
k =1
∆ kn I ks LLL (A )

∆ is the determinant of [G] matrix

∆ ku is the corresponding cofactor of Gkn
Now connect an external resistance Ro to a-b terminals .
The new nodal voltages will be changed to e1 , e2 , … , en
respectively .
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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Nodal equation
 G11 K G1n + 0 
   e1   I1s 
 M G 2 n + 0 e   I 
 M M   2  =  2s  . . . . . . . . . ( B)
  M   M 
G L G +    1
Ro   n   ns 
 n1 nn e I

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Note that
 G11 K G1n + 0   G11 K 0 
   
 M G2 n + 0   G21 0 
det  M M  = det [G ] + det  M M 
   
G L G + 1  G L 1 
 n1 nn
Ro   n1 Ro 
 

1
= ∆ + ∆ nn
Ro

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Hence , en can be obtained as follows .
 G11 K I1s 
 
det  M O M  n
1 n
G L I 
 ns 
∑ ∆ kn I ks ∑ ∆ kn I ks
∆ k =1 Ro
en = n1
= k =1
= = Vn
1 1 1 ∆ nn Ro + RTH
∆ + ∆ nn ∆ + ∆ nn 1+
Ro Ro Ro ∆

∆
where R TH @ nn
∆

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
TH

n o

In other words , the linear circuit looking into terminals a-b can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source VTH in series with an equivalent resistance RTH , where
∆nn
VTH is the open circuit voltage Vn and RTH = .
∆
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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.1

1
1 Ω
Ω 2 1
Ω
4 6

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.1 (cont.)
Find open circuit voltage V2
2+ 4 − 2   V1   5 − 2V x 
   =  
 − 2 2 + 6   2   2V x 
V
2V x = 2V1
2+ 4+ 2 − 2   V1   5 
   =  
 −2 − 2 2 + 6  V2   0 
 8 −2 
∆ = det   = 64 − 8 = 56
 −4 8 
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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.1 (cont.)
 8 5
det  
 −4 0  20 5
∴V2 = = = V = VTH
56 56 14
∆ 8 1
RTH = 22 = = Ω
∆ 56 7
1
Ω
7 a
∴ Ans.
5
V
14

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.2 20Ω
10Ω

10Ω

By voltage divider principle :

open circuit voltage VTH=10V
Let independent source be zero
10 20
a
10 RTH=5+20=25 Ω
b
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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.3
n Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit
shown below, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then
find the current through RL = 6, 16, and 36 Ω.

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.3 (cont.)
R TH : 32V voltage source → short
2A current source → open
4 ×12
R TH = 4 P 12 +1 = + 1 = 4Ω
16

VTH

RTH
VTH

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.3 (cont.)

VTH :
Mesh analysis
− 32 + 4 i 1 + 12 ( i1 − i2) = 0 , i 2 = −2A
∴i1 = 0.5A
VTH = 12 (i 1 − i 2 ) =12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30V

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.3 (cont.)

To get iL :
VTH 30
iL = =
RTH + RL 4 + RL

RL = 6 → IL = 30 / 10 = 3A
RL =16 →IL = 30 / 20 =1.5A
RL = 36 →IL = 30 / 40 = 0.75A
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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.4
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the following
circuit with terminals a-b.

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.4 (cont.)
(independent + dependent source case)
To find RTH from Fig.(a)
independent source → 0
dependent source → unchanged

vo 1
Apply vo = 1V , RTH = =
io io

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.4 (cont.)
For loop 1 , -2vx + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0 or vx =i1 − i2

But
−4i2 = vx = i1 − i2

∴ i1 = −3i2

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.4 (cont.)
Loop 2 and 3 :
4i2 + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6(i2 − i3 ) = 0
6(i3 − i2 ) + 2i3 + 1 = 0
Solving these equations gives
1
i3 = − A
6
1
But io = − i3 = A
6
1V
C.T. Pan ∴ RTH = = 6Ω 43
io

4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.4 (cont.)

To find VTH from Fig.(b)

Mesh analysis

i1 = 5
− 2v x + 2(i 3 − i2 ) = 0 ⇒ vx = i 3 − i 2
4(i2 − i1 ) + 2(i2 − i3) + 6i2 = 0 ⇒12i2 − 4i1 − 2i3 = 0

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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.4 (cont.)

But 4 (i1 − i2 ) = vx
∴ i2 =10 / 3.
VTH = voc = 6i2 = 20V

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4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem

Example 4.7.5
Determine the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit :
Solution:
(dependent source only)
vo
VTH = 0 , RTH =
io
Nodal analysis
vo
io + ix = 2ix +
4
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 4.7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 4.7.5 (cont.)
But
0 − vo v
ix = =− o
2 2
v v v v
io = ix + o = − o + o = − o
4 2 4 4
or vo = −4io

Thus
vo
RTH = = −4Ω : Supplying Power !
io
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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

n Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem

a
Linear
two-terminal
circuit
b
(a)

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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

Proof：
By using Mesh Analysis as an example
Assume the linear two terminal circuit is
a planar circuit and there are n meshes
when a b terminals are short circuited.

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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem
Mesh equation for case 1 as an example
 R11 …… R1n   I1   V1S 
    
 M O
M   I 2   V2 S 
=
 M M  M   M 
    
 Rn1 LL Rnn   I n   Vns 
Hence the short circuit cuurent
1 n
In = ∑ ∆ kn Vks
∆ k =1
where ∆ = det [ Rik ]
∆ kn is the cofactor of Rkn
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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

Now connect an external resistance Ro to a , b
terminals , then all the mesh currents will be
changed to J1, J2, ‥ ‥ Jn，respectively.
 R11 …… R1n + 0   J 1   V1S 
    
 M O
R2 n + 0   J 2   V2 S 
=
 M M  M   M 
    
 Rn1 LL Rnn + Ro   J n   Vns 
Note that
 R11 …… R1n + 0   R11 K 0 
   
M R2 n + 0  M M 
det  O = ∆ + det  O
 M M   M M 
   
 Rn1 LL Rnn + Ro   Rn1 L Ro 
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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem
Hence, one has
 R11 … V1s 
 
det  M O M  n

 R L V  ∑ ∆ knVks
Jn =  n1 ns 
= k =1
∆ + Ro ∆ nn ∆ + Ro ∆ nn
1 n
∑ ∆ knVks
∆ k =1
=
∆
1 + Ro nn
∆

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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

In
=
∆
1 + Ro nn
∆
RN
= In
Ro + RN
∆
where RN = , I N = In
∆ nn

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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem
Example 4.8.1 By using the above formula
4Ω

3Ω 3Ω

3Ω

Find the short circuit current I3

3+3 -3 -3 I1 10V
-3 3+3+4 -3 I2 ＝ 0
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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

Example 4.8.1 (cont.)
3+3 -3 -3 I1 10V
-3 3+3+4 -3 I2 ＝ 0
-3 -3 3+3 I3 0
det [ Rik ] = 360 − 27 − 27 − 27 − 90 − 54 − 54 = 108
 6 − 3 10 
1   10 390 65
I3 = det  − 3 10 0  = ( 39 ) = = A = IN
108  − 3 − 3 0  108 108 18
 
∆ 108 36
RN = = = Ω
∆ 33 60 − 9 17
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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem
Example 4.8.2
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the following circuit

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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

Example 4.8.2 (cont.)

To find RN from Fig.(a)

RN = 5 ||(8 + 4 + 8)
20 × 5
= 5 || 20 = = 4Ω
25

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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem
Example 4.8.2 (cont.)
To find IN from Fig.(b)
short-circuit terminal a and b
Mesh Analysis: 8Ω a
i1 = 2A 4Ω

20i2 - 4i1 – 12 = 0 iSC

2A
i 1 5Ω =IN
i2

∴ i2 = 1A = IN 12V

8Ω b
(b)

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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

Example 4.8.2 (cont.)
VTH
Alternative method for IN : IN =
RTH
VTH : open − circuit voltage across terminals a and b
Mesh analysis : 8Ω a

i3 = 2 A , 25i4 − 4i3 −12 = 0 2A

4Ω

i3 i4 5Ω VTH=vSC

∴i4 = 0.8A 12V

∴voc = VTH = 5i4 = 4V 8Ω b

(b)

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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem
Example 4.8.2 (cont.)
Hence , IN = V TH = 4 / 4 = 1A
R TH

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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

Example 4.8.3
n Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the
following circuit.

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 4.8 Norton’s Theorem
Example 4.8.3 (cont.)
To find RN from Fig.(a)
vo 1
Hence , io = = = 0.2 A
5 5
vo 1
∴ RN = = = 5Ω
io 0.2

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4.8 Norton’s Theorem

Example 4.8.3 (cont.)
To find IN from Fig.(b)
10
ix = = 2.5 A
4
10V
IN = + 2ix
5Ω
10
= + 2(2.5) = 7 A
5
∴ IN = 7 A
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 4.9 Source Transformation
R a i

Vs v N

b
The current through resistor R can be obtained
as follows :
V − v VS v v
i= S = − @ IS −
R R R R

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4.9 Source Transformation

From KCL, one can obtain the following
equivalent circuit

VS
where I S @
R
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 4.9 Source Transformation

The voltage across resistor R can be obtained as

follows :
v = ( I S − i ) R = I S R − iR @ VS − iR

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4.9 Source Transformation

From KVL, one can obtain the following
equivalent circuit

where VS @ R I S

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 4.9 Source Transformation
Example 4.9.1

a 3Ω
a
10A 3Ω 30V
b
b
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4.9 Source Transformation

Example 4.9.2
n Find the Thevenin’s equivalent

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 4.9 Source Transformation
Example 4.9.2 (cont.)

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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

a

RL

b
n Problem : Given a linear resistive circuit N
shown as above, find the value of
RL that permits maximum power
delivery to RL .
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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Solution : First, replace N with its Thevenin
equivalent circuit.

RTH a i

VTH +- RL

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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

VTH
p = i2 R = ( ) 2 RL
RTH + RL
dp
Let =0 ,
dRL
VTH 2 VTH2
Then R L =R TH and Pmax =( ) RL =
2 RL 4 RL

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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
nExample 4.10.1

(a) Find RL that results in maximum power transferred to RL.

(b) Find the corresponding maximum power delivered to RL ,
namely Pmax.
(c) Find the corresponding power delivered by the 360V
source, namely Ps and Pmax/Ps in percentage.
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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

150
S o lu tio n : ( a ) V TH = (3 6 0 ) = 3 0 0 V
180
150 × 30
R TH = = 25Ω
180
2
 300 
(b ) P m ax＝   2 5 = 9 0 0W
 50 
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4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

300
S o lu tio n : (c ) V a b = × 25 = 150V
50
- (3 6 0 - 1 5 0 )
is = = -7 A
30
P s = i s ( 3 6 0 ) = -2 5 2 0 W (d is s ip a te d )
P m ax 900
= = 3 5 .7 1 %
Ps 2520
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Summary
nObjective 7 : Understand and be able to use
superposition theorem.
nObjective 8 : Understand and be able to use
Thevenin’s theorem.
nObjective 9 : Understand and be able to use
Norton’s theorem.

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 Summary
nObjective 10 : Understand and be able to use
source transform technique.
nObjective 11 : Know the condition for and be
able to find the maximum
power transfer.

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Summary
n Problem : 4.60
4.64
4.68
4.77
4.86
4.91
n Due within one week.

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