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Solar Distillers Study PDF
Solar Distillers Study PDF
Solar Distillers Study PDF
UNDERSTANDING
SOLAR STILLS
by
Joel Gordes
Horace McCracken
Technical Reviewers:
Daniel Dunham
Jacques Le Normand
Darrell G. Phippen
TP# 37:9/85
8 VA technicbl paper
UNDERSTANDING
SOLAR STILLS
by
Joel Gordes
Horace McCracken
Technical RevieweLs:
Daniel Dunham
Jacques Le Normand
Darrell G. Phippen
Published by:
Telephone 703/276-1800
Cable VITAINC
PREFACE
details.
People are urged to contact VITA or a similar organiza
tion for further information
and technical assistance if they
purely
Dunham
has done consulting in solar and alternative sources of
VITA
is a private, nonprofit organization that supports
people
working
on technical problems in developing countries. VITA of
fers information and assistance aimed at helping individuals
and
I. INTRODUCTION
Ninety-seven percent
of the earth's
water
mass lies in its
oceans.
Of the remaining 3 percent,
mere .5 percent as
fresh water. 5/6 is brackish, leaving a
have access to
adequate and inexpensive
water. supplies
of potable
This
leads to population concentration
water supplies,
marginal health conditions,
around
existing
standard of living.
causing evaporation.
Moisture rises,heats the water in the basin,
Although
it can be rather expensive
to build a solar still
that
properly.
Of all
the solar still designs developed
thus far, the basin-type
Distillation
has long been considered
drinkable and purifying water
in remote a way of making salt water
Aristotle described a
method to
P.I. Cooper,
in his efforts to document
of solar stills, reports
that Arabian the development and use
reference for a
device was
made But the first documented
Italy, although it is
not known
whether he
went beyond the
mining operations.
After this
in operation as late as
1912--40
years after its initial
construction.
This design has
formed the
basis for the majority of stills
built since that
time.
develop
plants capable of producing
1 million gallons,
or 3,775
ones. So
research shifted to smaller solar
distillation plants.
capacities ranging
from a few hundred to around
liters of water per day.
Of these,
about 30,000
materials failures.
None in
this size
range are reported to have
been
built in the
last 7
years.
Despite
the growing discouragement
over
community-size
plants,
McCracken
Solar Company in California continued its
market solar stills for residential
efforts
to
small residential
units is growing,
and
is ten times what it
was in the 1960s, now that the price of oil
interest in the
larger
off using a
solar still.
Solar distillation
could benefit developing
countries in several
ways:
o Solar distillation
can be a cost-effective
providing clean water
for drinking, means
of
cooking, washing,
o
It can help extend the usage of existing
locations
where
the quality or fresh water
in
guantity of
deteriorating. Where sea water is available,supply
is
it
can
time of drought.
o
It can foster cottage industries,
hydroponics
for food production animal husbandry, or
in areas
where such
activities
are now limited by inadequate
pure water.
Fishing could become supplies
of
seacoasts
where no drinking water
important on desert
is available
for
fishermen.
o
Solar distillation will permit settlement
populated in sparsely
locations,
thus relieving
pressures in urban areas.
population
APPLICATIONS
irrigation
produce crops in dry climates, whereas water
per year to
rate
about two meters' depth.
the solar still can evapo
still would irrigate two square Thus, one square meter of solar
meters of land.
Unquestionably,
This may
for agriculture in controlled environments,not be
true, howevtor,
food,
per unit volume of water
of salt With
the distilling of
recovery
economically. water is
not attractive
Although
it seems possible
that
from sewage, if contaminants such potable water can
be recovered
sewage
water fed to the still, as odorous gases are present in
evaporate
and condense
with
some portion of those gases will
Alcohol Production
it
water. But it would take two
or
three can be separated from the
fuel. Considering
the current of alcohol to be used as a
Whether or
not solar distillation
water is not yet known. can actually purify
polluted
Laboratory
that a solar still can eliminate tests have
shown, however,
research, a quantity of
clean bacteria.
If after additional
of sea water.
It may also be
Elimination
of Algae. While algae
will grow in some deep
basin
it.
you can measure with a thermometer--is Sensible heat--the kind
of water from 00
to 1000 Celcius the temperature of a kilogram
(C),
it takes five and one-half
The salts
and minerals do not
evaporate along with
the water.
All the fresh water
earth has been solar distilled.
on
P.AIATO
\ 3CONIDEN5 ING WATER
1RAIDIATION\ \\
p. 16.
6
A more technical description follows.:
electromagnetic
waves
passes through a clear glazing surface
such
gl'ass. Upon striking a darkened surface,
this as
is added to
the water in a shallow basinof heat
which
to evaporate.
of water.
channeled into
storage.
In most units,
less than half the
falling on the still are used for the calories
heat
of radiant
energy
sary
to produce the distilled water.
A of vaporization neces
commercial stills are
percent.)
Efficiency is
increase of
a few percent is worth working an efficiency
principally
to be sought in materials and for.
Improvements are
methods
of construc
tion.
III.
SOLAR STILL DESIGN VARIATIONS
Although there
are many designs for solar
(concentrating collector
stills; multiple
parabolic
mirrors to focus sunlight onto
vessel. an enclosed evaporation
it has many
high cost of building and maintaining drawbacks; including
the
it,
the need for strong,
Source:
Jim Leckie, Gil Masters, Harry
Whitehouse,
r&rha-,
(San Francisco, California:
8
MULTIPLE TRAY TILTED STILL
an insulated container
storage.
This sEtill
can be used in higher latitudes
becabse the whole unit
can be
tilted to allow the sun's rays to
strike perpendicular to
percent have
been measured, the practicality of this
design
o the
complicau.J nature of construction involving
many
components;
'-A :oig0tuwc&amei
*aie
Source:
Jim Leckie, Gil Masters, Harry Whitehouse,
r
(San Francisco, California:
A tilted wick
solar still draws upon the capillary
action
of
The water is
then exposed to sunlight.
Pv* saMaM
Source:
Jim Leckie, Gil Masters, Harry Whitehouse,
10
essential insulation;
o
the need to frequently clean the cloth
wick of built-up
sediments, highlighting
the need 'for an operable
glazing cover;
o the need to replace
the black wick
material on a
regular basis
due to sun bleaching
and physical
BASIN STILL
A basin still
(See Figure 5),
is the most common
type in use,
in
1872. The greatest
Source:
Jim Leckie, Gil Masters, Harry
Whitehouse,
and Lily Young, MQre Other Homes and
GQxbu (San Francisco, California:
Sierra
Club Books, 1981), p. 304.
11
All basin stills have four major components:
1. a basin;
2.
a support structure;
2. sealants;
5. an external cover
to protect the other
the weather
and to make the still components from
esthetically
pleasing; and
requirements, ownership
If the
only glazing available is
dimension, the still's maximum inner one meter
at its greatest
meter.
And the length of the still
is
needed to provide the amount of will be set according to what
quite large.
This allows:
o units to be added;
equipment;
o maintenance
can be carried out
on
some units while
0.65 to 0.9
meter wide
with
to 2.5 cm
is most common.
12
depth. of
a still of minimum water
in the
flushed out by the refilling operation.
solution, and can be
to be
replaced upon
degradation.
O They should be
sturdy enough to resist
wind damage
and
o
They should be nontoxic and not emit
an unpleasant taste
to the water vapors
or instill
from saline
o They should be
of a size and
weight that can be
c'aveniently
packaged,
and
carried
by local
transportation.
o
They should be easy to handle in the
field.
thus
short-lived
still that
needs to be
replaced or repaired every
few
something more durable and lasting years, or build
abandoned.
Building a more durable
still that will last 20
years
or more
seems to
be worth the additional
investment.
13
Choosing
materials for the components
represents a serious problem. in contact with the
water
substance
which
can be tasted or
to years.
As a general guide,
the still. If you can tell any difference test of what happens
in
Basic Components
A
basin still consists of the following
basic
basin, (2) support structures,
(3) glazing, components: (1)
a
those materials.
The Basin. The basin contains the saline
it must be waterproof and
There are
two general types of
material that maintains its own
basins.
shape
The first is made of
a
to define the
basin's shape.
appl ication.
14
Table 1.
A Comparison of Various Materials
Used
Type of Dura-
Local Avail-
Mate rial bility Skill
Port- Toxi-
Steel
EPDM High
High Low
Low High High
Low
Rubber
Asphalt High
Medium Medium
Medium Medium Medium
[a]
Mat
Asbestos
High Medium Low
Medium Medium
Medium High
Cement
Poly
ethylene
Roofing
Medium Medium High Medium Medium Low [a]
Asphalt
on
Concrete
Formed
Medium Medium
Low
Low
High Medium Low
Fiber
glass
15
still industry.
The corrosion
anti-corrosive
corrode. Basins made of copper, for example,materials--tend to
aluminum
are likely to corrode steel and anodized uncoated
in
increase in temperature.
Whereas rate with each 100
centigrade
years
in sea water at 250 C if you an aluminum boat might last 20
years.
Porcelain-coated
steel lasts only
out by corrosion.
The special a few years before it is eaten
People
have also tried to use concrete
and simple
to work with,
but because it's
inexpensive
if not
then later on. Concrete and abestoscement during the first year,
of it that
is exposed to
evaporation. outside
air will permit
concrete near
the surface and
could
just mold the whole still--except
sea!--out of some plastic such as for the glass and
glass
if
inclined-tray configuration,
the a still is constructed in the
non-wetted portions
do not conduct efficiency suffers, because the
very well.
water, either
in liquid or
vapor that comes in contact with
16
through
the coating and make the distilled
not undrinkable. Moreover,
using fiberglass water unsaleable, if
Finally,
trough that is subjected to hot water a fiberglass basin or
for many
sold using this material, the coating was of stills one company
Support Structures.
Support structures
still
as well as the basin, and support form the sides
of the
the still
support structure while
other the basin also form
concrete, or plastics.
In most cases are wood, metal,
Ideally,
the frame for the
glazing
cover should be built of small-sized
members so
they do
but, if
high heat and high humidity prevail
the still, the still will require frequent inside and
outside
Metal
may be used for the supports but
to aluminum
protected
from exposure.
Silicone rubber
will not adhere well
to galvanized steel, but
Concrete
and other masonry materials
glazing support of a still
as well as themay form
the sides and
in a double-slope still
(Figure 7).
17
Source:
U.S. Agency for International Development,
p. 90.
p. 89.
18
Glazing Cover.
After the pan,
enough to be
replaced periodically. effects or that is inexpensive
excessive expansion,
which could
destroy the airtight seals.
A
Ideally, the
glazing material
should also be strong
enough to
and
be "wettable."
Wettability allows animals. Moreover, it must
reasons:
it back out.
o A percentage
of the distilled
water that
forms as
temporary conditions at
local availability,
maximum temperature
resistance, as well as
its ability tolerance,
and impact
infrared light.
Table 2 compares to transmit solar energy and
on these factors.
Of
the glazing materials listed
in Table 2, tempered glass is the
best choice
in terms of wettablity
One disadvantage
of tempered
tempered low-iron glass, in one glass is
its high cost. While
series of tests,
gave 6 percent
19
rwpe of
.;rpIng Est mat~
2 2
Glass
3.60 2.5 50+ years 2040-316oC 91 less than 2 Low Excellent
No
Ordinary Window
400OF
Glass
.95 1.23 50 years 204 0 C 86
2 Low Excellent Yes
Tedlar
.60 .029 5-10 years 0
225 F
20
ammonia.
a glazing material, double--strength If you choose glass as
thickness
(i.e., one-eighth
of an inch, or
32 millimeters)
is satisfactory.
poor wettability.
Moreover, under under high temperatures and have
in
act with the distilled water, possibly plastics are likely
to inter
posing a health hazard.
What
about the size of the glass?
the goal is to make it as wide Using a low slope of
glass,
from north
to south as possible.
will be the same whether the loss of heat through the walls
still
pieces of glass wider than 90 centimeters is large
or small. Using
(2) the labor costs and the danger the glass goes up; and
size
(34"), a size that is commonly stocked ir about 86 centimeters
and
widely available,
The materials
used for the trough
material requirements outlined must
satisfy the general
previously.
used include metal, formed materials Those most commonly
or
treated materials.
num
is not supposed to corrode to prevent corrosion. Alumi
preferable to rub a coating of in distilled water,
but it seems
Also,
steel coated with porcelain
poor choice because the glass
will dissolve slowly and allow is a
steel to rust.
the
Basins lined
with butyl rubber
extend beyond the basin to formor EPDM can have
their liners
a corrosion-free channel.
21
emits an unpleasant
odor and taste.
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe, slit Some people
have used
an undesirable
gas, and is subject
to becoming brittle
when
Ancillary Components
easily replaceable.
Insulation.
Insulation,
used to
solar still,
increases the still's retard the flow of heat from a
performance.
In most cases,
area susceptible
to heat loss.
The
least expensive insulation option
is
to build a solar still
on land
that has dry soil and good
helps to minimize solar heat losses, drainage. The use of
sand
Insulation,
which adds approximately
costs, may be extruded styrofoam 16 percent to
construction
or polyurethane
(Note: polyure
thane in contact with soil will absorb
moisture and lose much of
Sealants. Although
the sealant is not a major
solar still, it is important for efficient component of a
difference
in expansion and contraction structure), take up any
of
lesser quality and has a
stills is the
frequent labor
input
the stills require to
keep them
in serviceable condition.
22
Sealing a solar
still is more
difficult than sealing
a solar
cause a drop of
rain water carrying
micro-organisms to enter
the
0
asphalt caulking compound;
o tar plastic;
o black putty.
A wide variety of other caulks sealants
include latex, acrylic latex, butyl is also available. These
and
these will be more costly than traditional urethane foam.
Most of
varieties,
but they
place,
seems to be the most promising.
Silicone rubber
applied
from a tube, is certainly a superior
choice, sealant,
life greatly.
Researchers are
experimenting with an
extruded
silicone seal,
secured by compression.
it will work
in a solar still,
and unpolluted.
component.
While stainless
steel is preferred,
satisfactory pipe material. polybutylene
is a
23
filled with
water
in the sun, and
imparting a bad taste to the water. the plastic
will degrade,
Brass,
galvanized steel,
or copper
used in the feed system, but not in the may be
product system.
instructions
to consumers that connections still on the market
with
A solar
still is fed on a batch basis
day. for
an hour or two every
does not exceed this maximum drainage to insure that the feed rate
tending to
the flow.
It has proven to be a satisfactory plug up and stop
problem--when
feeding from city water solution to this
pressure of typically 50
P.s.i.--to use
a length of small diameter
25 feet or more of 1/8 inch outside diameter, copper tubing,
such as
Storage Reservoir.
In selecting materials
voir, two precautions should be noted.
for
the storage reser
things,
galvanized steel,
copper,
brass, solder, such as steel,
tank component,
and quite possibly in or destruction of the
contamination of the
24
structural
In fact,
one way to prevent
2) Extreme precautions
need to be taken
to prevent entry
of
insect
can get in, and you have germ for
even one hour, an
o
It must contain water without leaking.
o
It must absorb solar energy.
o
It must be structurally supported
to hold the water.
o
It must be insulated against heat
loss from the
bottom
and edges.
An
infinite number of combinations of
materials
functions. The membrane that holds water,
for will
serve those
example,
stiff enough to support the water,
may be
functions at
the same time. two
tradeoffs.
You can save money on materials,
but you may lose
so
25
economy.
are:
0
silicone compound coating to blacken the
bottom of the
basin;
o metal
ribs spaced 40 centimeters (16
inches) apart
to
fiberglass);
o a
bottom covering of lightweight galvanized
aluminum sheet (note: if you plan to put steel,
or
the still on
o
metal siding, such as extruded aluminum,
to support the
window glass.
(If using patterned glass,
put the
o
extruded gaskets, compressed into final
position;
o
a mirror behind the still for higher latitudes.
be
less expensive.
26
situations.
And although the
ultimately drive
down the
Protecting
a
solar still against
luted rainwater is important.
the entry of
insects and pol
After your still is installed, you
must:
o disinfect
the interior of the
still and
tubing with
chlorine
compounds (adding a few
bleach
to a few liters of water spoonfuls of
laundry
and
to
taken, flying insects, attracted precautions are not
Filling
a basin still
is a batch
night or in the morning. With a process*,
done once a day, at
still
7 percent of the day's total distilled of this design, about 5 to
production.
27
mechanical flushing
is not
condenser.
is virtually cost-free,
as is geothermal
If the hot water
factors.
Climate Factors
Radiation:
Its Effect on Efficiency.
The amount of
solar radia
tion
a solar still receives
is
the single
affecting its performance.
The greater most important factor
production of
a basin still
basis of specific solar inputs.
on the
Solar
stills produce
less distilled water
which is a problem. To
some extent,
the demand
drinking water also varies with for
the seasons,
by as much as
haps 2 to 1, summer
over per
winter.
But the
at latitudes
of less than 200,
problem so it may
not be a
variation,
to perhaps 7
to
latitudes. This 1 at 40'
is unacceptable,
making use
of
a solar still
distillation
plants. However, because
they fall outside
the
219
ratio down
very nicely. an equatorial mourt brings the
This is
called the "inclined-tray"
a substantial
advantage, it is the performance. While this is
the market.
distilled
water in winter, resulting
that you will have more water than in a likelihood
o
using less water in winter and/or using
some tap water;
o saving some of
the excess distilled
water made
in
o installing
a mirror behind
additional sunlight back into thethe basin to
reflect
reflect back as
much light as still in winter.
To
reflective surface
of about one-thirdpossible, use
a
the aperture
of the glass cover, to one-half
of
still. rear
edge of the
mid-winter.
Condensing-Surface
Temperature.
Much
to obtain lower condensing temperatures,
work has been done to
try
heated feed
water
condensing surface. This approach undoubtedly derives and
the
But
this principle does not hold
for a solar still. Steam for power is pure steam, whereas true
29
cent.
The practical effect of this still increases by 7 to 8 per
is
a hot desert climate will produce typically that a still operating in
cooler climate.
(By the
same token, cooling the glazing
cover of
a solar still by
spraying water
on it or blowing air
still produce more distillate.
over
it does not help the
States, two
identical
the still in a
protected area
Production
is also associated with
still itself. the thermal efficiency of the
ambient
velocity, and solar energy availability. temperatures,
wind
typical
still vary by season, as shown Thermal losses for a
in Table 5.
December
May
{Percent) (Percent)
Reflection by Glass
11.8
11.8
Absorption by Glass
4.1
4.4
36.0
16.9
13.6
8.4
2.1
3.5
7.9
14.5
30
Slope of
the Transparent Cover.
at 900
to- the surface,
about strikes glass straight on,
90 percent
through. Tip the glass a little,
so that of the
light passes
In
large part of the year the half a greenhouse-type still,
for a
from the
equator is receiving of the glass that is facing away
was
that
has increased the efficiency one of the significant steps
slope of glass.
And it costs
less to build.
The
slope of the glass cover
the distillate runs
down itsdoes not affect the rate
at which
glass,
as it comes from
the
There
are three reasons why it
is best
possible: (1) the higher the slope,
theto
more use as low a slope as
and therefore shipping costs; and volume and weight [of tihe still]
Conversely,
as glass-to-water
distance increases,
heat loss due
to convection becomes greater,
Some important
stills have been
design concept for the glass cover,
built following the low-slope
A reflective
to glass.
31
recorded.
The loss of
distance
as far as
the test was to smaller rates of loss per cm
of glass is to be avoided.
In sum,
it is clear that
that will get the water as a solar still should be built in
hot as possible,
and keep it as a way
cover at
a minimum distance fromis achieved by keeping the glass
1.5 cm.
evaporation area
using wicks.
side-by-side test of two identical In a
difference
the stills was indistinguishable,
in production
between
water, and that will not getwill last for 20 years in hot
saline
reference point from which this but he does not give the
the productivity
would increase
the
placing dark-colored rocks in the same
result.
For this reason,
a promising technique
for improvements
in
solar still
per
formance.
32
no
in the afternoon,
they create
problem. Such mineral deposits no
accumulation of
these deposits become the normal absorber. An
basin
from changes the interior surface
its original black color to a of
a
larger
than it would need
to be if
it were cleaned
periodically.
out
Some
desert waters high in
alkalis will deposit
a whitish
of a basin.
In fact, almost any
more. of
the still by 50 percent
Those that settle to the bottom or
by mixing
one tablespoon
concrete
coloring powder of black
iron oxide
still by means of
a funnel
to the feed water pipe. connected
one
that requires
more
Australian solar still expert research.
suggests agitating the contents An
or
stirring, the water in
one hour each
night, the pan for
to
minimize
the buildup
deposits. Adding a pint or two of hydrochloric
of floating
bottom
becomes grayish-white-
every year or
two, maybe oftener
in
some cases--is a
satisfactory
way of
removing practically
all of
the scale.
Accumulation of Dust
on the Glazing
Cover:
What to Do
cleaning the
justified. Ten
percent of 10,000 liters per glazing
cover is
to time.
The frequency depends
degradation
will almost certainlyof cheaper materials subject to
lower
will increase the amount of maintenance. the initial
cost, but
and it is
strongly recom
mended.
Craftmanship
and attention
to
detail in construction are
important for
an efficient, cost-effective
still.
Finally,
it is important to ask local
the planning and construction phases workers to participate
in
COST/ECONOMICS
including:
34
O cost of water produced or obtained
by competing
technologies;
o water requirements;
o availability of sunlight;
o
cost of locally-available materials;
o
cost of local labor;
o
cost of imported materials; and
Table 6
shows the variation in
1 970s in the Philippines,
India, costs for stills
built in the
&ocation
Year Built (Dollars/Square Foot)
Philippines
1977
$3.56
India
1975
1.39
Pakistan
1973
1.37
Niger
1977
6.30
to
cost
of water from the still will assume that 85 percent of the
and maintenance.
in bottles:
then
that
returns you $365 per year. If the still had cost you $365, still
then
35
it
paid for itself in one year;
five years,
etc.--not counting
into it is pretty small, but will interest.
Cost of feeding water
and
features.
it is
and may use a wide range of materials,
the easiest to construct
But variations
of the
basin
possible, such as the double-slope
still are
potable water.
Some of these
Some stills
have been eq'uipped
have the potential to increase with reflective materials
which
function is not
of an insulated glazing
cover
Cost-benefit analysis of
this
36
V.
COMPARING THE ALTERNATIVES
For a
couple of gallons of purified
method that can compete with solar water
a day, there is no
WATER--boiling distillation
is
the cheapest way to purify sea
water.
o
high initial costs;
o the potential
to use
local labor
for construction
and
maintenance;
interruptions);
o in residential
sizes,
no subsequent
o
high in operating and maintenance
costs;
'') i I tpr
Conc rote
Figure 8.
A Basin Still at Chakmou-
Tunisia
To-'
W/n C t
-- ,'!
Figure 9. Roofwasher
of
California, 1976),
p. 108.
38
L 9-9
/4 x
]/4" wide P
Pl Iorr)Ps
P lat
elattrtcIa -- ,"t /'l %&b ?.v ,,hfiv tap*
Figure 10.
A Basin Still
on Petit
St. Vincent Island
Source:
S.G. Talbert,
J.A. Eibling, and
George L~f,
Manual on SolarDistillationofSaline
(Springfield, Virginia:
National Water,
Technical Information
39
INLET
. . <- - r TR E
TO tt"4..E (fiJC~rcr
me 70~p
*r~ ~.M.
~'LL
,,.-''T ~ . RctEJ-4 i 4 I T
H
T-E 7cP '.vrrw
7Thy PROTL-,T T- Fj COno4t
1976), p. 110.
t40
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
Solar
energy is an excellent
choice
those areas of the
Third World for water
distillation
in
that meet
the following
conditions:
(US) $1 or
more per 1,000
gallons);
o
available low-quality water
for distillation.
o competing technologies
that require expensive
water supplies;
o limited
technical
manpower
for operation and
mainte
nance of equipment;
o
areas lacking a water distribution
system; and
o
the availability of low-cost
construction workers.
The greater
the number of
these conditions
present,
be a viable alternative.
it is economical to pursue.
Other factors
to consider
are
capital, the availability
and cost
as well as
the local tax structure, of
credits
and depreciation
allowances as
which may allow tax
41
If the distilled
water is incorrectly
distributed,
causing a family unit not to
fair share of water, this could become receive
its
conflict.
For this reason, a family-sizeda source of
an entire
village.
0
Potential users who think they
water tasteless or
not in keeping will
find distilled
with what
they are
accustomed to
may become disappointed
abandon altogether the thought of drinkingand
possibly
not to
give people a reason to respond early on so
as
negatively to
this issue
early on could result in the dealing with
household's
be headed off
if the
technology is designed appropriately
start and introduced at the proper time.
from the
Moreover,
community is more likely to accept the technology a
and
considers
MARKET POTENTIAL
a
source of water is
work
use
to
demonstrate
this function adequately, but
early tests have made
provide a population
with
potable water.
42
CONCLUSION
Worldwide
experience in researching
over three decades has provided and marketing
solar stills
an ample foundation
still industry. No inherent techaical or
economi2 for
a
solar
situations
a solar still
can
provide a
water supply
economically than any other method.
Commercial activities
more
picking up after
a lull during are
possible to predict
a rapid the
late 1970s. It is now
increase
in the manufacture
43
Lodestone Engineering
USA
SOLEFIL
Tour Roussel-Nobel
CEDEX No. 3
FRANCE
USA
44
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cooper, P.".,
Solar Distillation--State
Prospects."
Solar Energy and of the Art and Future
Daniels, Farrington.
Direct
Use of the Sun's Energ-y. New York,
Goetchew, Martin.
"Shedding Light
on Solar Collector Glazing."
Materials R
n* 90 (September 1979):
55-58.
1982): 58-69
SolarE
gy and the Arb Worl
(1983): 341-45.
?pril 1970.
Dunham, Daniel C.
PR
From the Sun.
U.S. Agency for
Internation Development, Washington, D.C.:
August 1978.
Solar Stills."
qnjar EnerLv and
the Arab World (1983):
331-35.
McCracken, Horace:
Only a small
amount of McCracken's work has been
will be welcomed:
Inquiries
USA
45
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