Fundamental knowledge of weather

/ climate and its influence 2

(Thermal Comfort)

Environmental Physics (SBEL1682)

Dept. of Landscape Architecture, FBE, UTM

Dr. Kei Saito

2016
 Today’s Topics

Understanding of fundamental of:

1. Thermal Comfort Requirement
2. Human Comfort
3. Thermal Environment / Comfort Zone

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 1. Thermal Comfort
Requirement
“The main function of the built environment is to provide protection from
the stresses imposed by the climate.” (Holger Koch-Nielsen,2002)

“One of the overriding considerations in landscape design is the creation

of microclimates that are thermally comfortable of the people who will
inhabit and use the sites” (Robert D. Brown, 1995)

Thermal Comfort
Definition:
• In general, it is the sensation of well-being of an individual in a
specific environment.

• Thermal comfort will vary from one individual to another, is therefore

subjective.

• not only Physiological, but also Psychological.

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 1. Thermal Comfort Requirement
Maslow (1984):

proposed a ‘hierarchy of human needs’ and suggested that starting with

the dominant item 1, any further needs can (and will) only be satisfied if all
lower levels had been satisfied:

1. physical / biological
2. safety / survival
3. affection / belonging
4. esteem (self- and by others)
5. self-actualization

Thermal comfort is one of the basic physical/biological needs.

One of the main reasons for considering microclimate in landscape

design is to create thermally comfortable habitats for people.


(p.63, Robert D.B, Microclimatic Landscape Design, 1995)

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 1. Thermal Comfort Requirement

One approach to design for human thermal comfort is to take

three steps:
1. Understand the mechanisms by which landscape affects
microclimate
2. Gain an understanding of microclimate conditions that can
be considered thermally comfortable.
3. Connect these two ideas to create an understanding of how
landscape design affects thermal comfort.

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 1. Thermal Comfort Requirement

One simple model or estimator of thermal comfort is…

air temperature

- It is quite predictable that as air temperature rises,

people become warmer, and as it falls, people
become cooler.

- Empirically, 20°C is predictably quite comfortable,

15°C uncomfortably cool, and 25°C uncomfortably
warm.

But…air temperature is a less reliable estimate of

thermal comfort in the landscape, owing to the variability
of the other atmospheric elements outdoors.

- air temperature of 25°C with no sunshine, low

humidity, and a strong wind….could feel quite cool.

- So air temperature alone is not a reliable

measure of thermal comfort landscape design.

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 2. Human Comfort
• In order to feel comfortable, humans must maintain an
internal body temperature within a narrow range of 36.5 -
37°C.
• Metabolic processes that occur in the human body produce
heat, and the body must lose this heat in order to maintain a
stable internal temperature.

Shivering and
Metabolic heat
sweating begin Heat gain can be
generated by Breathing Heat production
when the body reduced by
the body is causes heat is increased by
cannot control changing
distributed by loss physical activity
heat loss by any posture
flood circulation 7
other means
 2. Human Comfort
Thermal exchange between the human body and its environment
• Since the human body aims at maintaining a constant internal
temperature by releasing excess heat to its environment, there is as a result
a continuous exchange of heat between the body and its surrounding.

• This exchange occurs in four physically different ways:

• conduction

• convection

• long-wave radiation
The heat exchange
process between the
• evaporation human body and its
external environment

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 2. Human Comfort

The body’s thermal balance can be expressed as:

M ± Rd ± Cv ± Cd - Ev = ∆S

Where

M = metabolic heat production

Rd = net radiation exchange
Cv = convection (including respiration)
Cd = conduction
Ev = evaporation (including respiration)
∆S = change in stored heat

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 2. Human Comfort

Conduction:

• depends on the thermal conductivity of the

materials in immediate contact with the skin.

• This process is limited to the local cooling or

heating of particular parts of the body when
they come into contact with cold or hot
materials.

• This is of practical importance in the

selection of materials and surface finishes
that will come into direct contact with the body.

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 2. Human Comfort
Convection:

• involves the exchange of heat by the body

to the surrounding air.

• This process will depend primarily on the

temperature difference between the skin and
the air and the movement of the air.

• These exchanges are not uniform over the

body and are more pronounced at the
extremities (head, hands, and feet).

• These considerations are important for design

decisions such as ceiling heights and the
positioning of openings to direct cooler air
across the body.

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 2. Human Comfort

Long-wave radiation (Especially, indoor):

• takes place between the human body and

surrounding internal surface (walls, ceilings
and floors).

• Actual temperature, humidity, and air

movement have little influence on the heat
transmitted by this process.

• These considerations are important for design

decisions such as ceiling heights and the
thermal properties of ceilings and walls.

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 2. Human Comfort
Evaporation:

• takes place when the surrounding

temperature (i.e. air and surface temperature)
is above 25°C.

• In this case a clothed human body cannot

lose enough heat by either convection or
radiation, and the loss through evaporation
becomes the primary mechanism.

• Heat is lost when evaporation takes place,

and as humans normally lose around 1 litter
of water per day due to perspiration
(sweating) and respiration (breathing).

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 2. Human Comfort

Evaporation (Cont’d):

• The extent to which heat is lost by

evaporation depends on the clothing worn,
the temperature, the humidity level and the
amount of air movement.

• With an air speed of 1.5 m/s, a 50% humidity

level and an ambient air temperature of 25°C
or 30°C, the cooling effect on the skin due to
increased evaporation will be equal to a
reduction of the ambient air temperature of
5.7°C at 25°C and 2.2°C at 30°C.

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3. The Thermal Environment
Four factors make up the thermal environment.

• Air temperature
• Air movement
• Humidity
• Radiation

Environmental Personal Contributing factors

Air temperature Metabolic rate (activity) Food and drink

Air movement Clothing Body shape

Subcutaneous fat

Humidity State of health
(fat under the skin)

Radiation Acclimatization (self-adjustment) Age and gender

The variables that affect heat dissipation from the body can be grouped into three sets
(Environmental, Personal, Contributing factors)

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 3. The Thermal Environment
Temperature:

• The air temperature range within which comfortable conditions

may be established is approximately 16-30°C.

• Below 16°C excessive clothing or high activity rates are required.

• Above 30°C excessive air movement and sweating are normally

required to maintain comfort even at low level of activity.

• One example (indoor case), the comfort zone for government

officers (in Malaysia) is between 24°C and 25°C.



thestar.com.my on 13 August, 2013

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 3. The Thermal Environment

Humidity:

• Relative humidity above 90% feels clammy and damp.

• Relative humidity of less than 20% is likely to cause discomfort

because of the excessive dryness of the air. 



(This may cause lips to crack, eyes to become irritated and the
throat to become sore.)

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 3. The Thermal Environment
Radiation:

• Heat gains due to direct radiation from the sun or

indirect radiation from the surrounding will be the
main source of discomfort in hot climates.

Air movement:

• Wind speeds below 0.1m/s may lead to feelings of

< 0.1 m/s Stuffy
stuffiness.
To 0.2 Unnoticed
• Wind speeds of up to 2.0m/s are acceptable when To 0.5 Pleasant
air movement is required, e.g, in a hot humid
To 1 Awareness
climate where other relief is not available.
To 1.5 Draughty
• Wind speed of 1.0m/s is normally considered as the > 1.5 Annoying
maximum limit for night comfort.
under overheated
conditions, up to 2m/s
• The variation of the wind speed and direction may be welcome
(turbulence) can affect the comfort level.
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 3. The Thermal Environment

Clothing:

• Clothing offers humans thermal protection against environmental

conditions.

• In hot climates it protects against solar radiation, but it may

also prevent the body from releasing excess body heat.

• Appropriate clothing in hot dry and warm humid environments

depends on its design and material, i.e. whether it is light, loose
and able to transport humidity.

• It is important for the cooling effect on the body that evaporation

takes place on the surface of the skin and not on the surface of
the cloth.

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 3. The Thermal Environment
Clothing (Cont’d):

• The thermal insulation value, used internationally to

measure the effects of clothing, is expressed in terms of
CLO units

(1 CLO = 0.155 m2°C/W)

• International standards have set one CLO equal to the

value of a standard Western business suit.

Evaporation cooling/
ventilation in
traditional clothing in
hot environment

• Generally, the amount of clothing that can be worn in hot

climates to allow the cooling effects of air movement to
be felt is equal to about 0.3 CLO units.
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 3. The Thermal Environment

Activity levels:

• Comfort conditions are related to activity levels and the resulting

metabolic rate, i.e. heat production.

• Activity levels range from a minimum when one is asleep to a

maximum when underrating heavy physical work.

• The metabolic rate of the body is measured in MET, 1 MET being

equal to 58W for a sitting ‘standard’ adult in comfort conditions.

• For a person working in an office the metabolic rate is normally set

to 125W.

• Women generally have a slightly lower metabolic rate than man.

• The metabolic rate for physical work or sport activities may

reach 1000W or more.

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 4. Thermal comfort zone
• The environmental conditions that are considered comfortable vary with
the impact and ratio of the thermal environment factors (temperature,
humidity, wind, etc.) as well as with clothing and level of activity.

• The condition in which a person resting outside is supposed to feel

comfortable, i.e. the comfort zone.

• This diagram is presented by

Victor Olgyay in 1963 in his
book “Design with Climate”.

• Studies were carried out in a

moderate American climate
and based on temperature
and relative humidity.

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4. Thermal comfort zone

Temperature, Johor Bahru, Malaysia (2013)

Humidity, Johor Bahru, Malaysia (2013)

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 5. Design principles: Thermal Comfort

Effect of Landscape on Thermal

Comfort:
- The main streams of energy identified
in the energy budget are affected
mainly by humidity, air temperature,
wind and radiation.

- Of these four elements, two cannot be

modified by landscape elements
enough to affect human thermal
comfort.

- only radiation and wind can be

significantly modified by a landscape
- air temperature and relative humidity
are not modified by the landscape 24
 5. Effect of Landscape on Thermal Comfort

Humidity

- The humidity in any part of a landscape is very likely to be nearly

identical to the humidity anywhere else in the landscape.

- This due to the very efficient mixing of air as the result of

turbulence. If we cannot affect humidity through design, then we can
concentrate our efforts elsewhere…

- When humidity is high, evaporation accounts for only a very small part
of the energy loss from a person. It is only when humidity is low and
air temperature is high that evaporation can cause significant cooling
in a person.

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 5. Effect of Landscape on Thermal Comfort

Air Temperature

- The air temperature of the air, measured at any given

height above the ground anywhere in a landscape, will be
nearly identical to the temperature at that same height
anywhere else in the immediate landscape at the same.

- This due to the very efficient mixing of air.

- The strong difference in microclimate between the parking

lot and the area under the tree on a hot sunny day….This
variation was not due to a difference in temperature.

- The difference in thermal comfort was largely due to

differences in the amount of solar radiation received by
the person.

- Air temperature strongly affects thermal comfort, but

cannot be affected very much through landscape design.

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 5. Effect of Landscape on Thermal Comfort

Wind
- The speed and direction of wind in a landscape
can be highly variable, both through space and over
time.

- It can strong affect the thermal comfort of people

in the landscape, and can also be significantly
affected by the elements of the landscape.

- It is one of the key elements in landscape design

for thermal comfort.

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 5. Effect of Landscape on Thermal Comfort

Radiation
- Radiation, both solar and terrestrial,
can be highly variable, both through
space and over time, and can also
strongly affect the comfort of
people in landscape.

- Radiation is significantly affected by

elements of the landscape and is one
of the key elements in landscape
design for thermal comfort.

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 5. Effect of Landscape on Thermal Comfort

Conclusion

- The microclimate components that can be modified through design

and that strongly affect thermal comfort are wind and radiation.

- This is certainly one of the key points in the whole area of creating
microclimates through landscape design.

- There is no sense in spending time and energy attempting to alter air

temperature of humidity in an area when this is both very difficult
and of no particular value.

- It is much wiser to spend time altering the radiation and the wind,
both of which are readily changed and can significantly affect human
thermal comfort.

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 6. Design principles: Thermal Comfort
If it is too hot and humid 

(in Tropical countries context):
• there is a need for shade and air movement
to cool the body as well as the surrounding
surfaces to which the body can lose heat by
radiation.

• Air movements can reduce the body

temperature by several degrees for most
levels of temperature in this climatic zone.

• For a person outside or inside a building, cool

surrounding surface are difficult to achieve
during the daytime, but proper shading and
other measures can assist in avoiding gains.

• For a person inside a building, the entry of

hot air from the exterior during the very hod
midday hours should be avoided, but the
introduction of air with a low temperature or
cooling by radiation, as well as simple fans to
provide air movement, will be useful.
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 Future schedule

• Week 10, 20 April 2016: Lecture + explanation for next week

• * Week 11, 27 April 2016: Field measurement in the campus
• Week 12, 4 May 2016: Half lecture + Continue measurement
and making a report
• Week 13, 11 May 2016: Lecture, Reading assignment +
Shadow analysis assignment will be given
• Week 14, 18 May 2016: Lecture + group presentation
• Week 15, 25 May 2016: Final test at comp. lab



* No class on week 11

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