Matter in Our Surroundings

Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Examples of matter are iron, wood, oil, kerosene, petrol,
rock, minerals, water, air, coal, etc. Matters are classified on the basis of physical and chemical properties. On the
basis of physical properties, matter is classified as solid, liquid and gas. On the basis of chemical properties, matter
is classified as elements, compounds and mixtures. Matter is made up of particles.

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

The various characteristics of particles of matter are:

 They are extremely small in size.

 They have spaces between them.
 They are constantly moving.
 They attract each other. The force of attraction between particles of same substance is known as cohesion.
Particles of different matter exert different amount of force of attraction.

Classification of Matter on the Basis of Their Physical Properties

On the basis of physical properties, all the matters are classified into three groups namely solid, liquid and gas. In
other words, it can be said that matter exists in three physical states namely solid, liquid and gas.

States of Matter

States of Matter

The following are the properties of three states of matter:

Solid
The various properties of solids are:

 They have fixed shape and fixed volume.

 They have closely packed particles. There is a strong force of attraction between the particles that holds
them together in fixed position.
 They cannot be compressed.
 They have high density.
 They do not flow.
 Stone (Solid)

Liquid
The various properties of liquids are:

 They have fixed volume but not fixed shape.

 They cannot be compressed much.
 They have closely packed particles, but not as closely packed as in solids.
 They have moderate to high density. Liquids are usually less dense than solids.
 The force of attraction between the particles is strong enough to hold the particles together, but not strong
enough to hold them in fixed position.
 They generally flow easily.

Water (Liquid)

Gas
The various properties of gases are:

 They neither have fixed shape nor fixed volume. Gases take the shape and volume of the container in
which they are kept.
 They have particles that are much farther apart from one another as compared to solid and liquids. The
force of attraction between particles of gas is negligible, therefore; the particles can freely move in any
direction.
 They can be compressed easily.
 They have very low densities. Gases are very light in weight.
 They flow easily. They move from higher concentration to lower concentration and this movement is called
diffusion.

Air (gas) balloon

Changing the State of Matter
The three physical states of matter can be changed by changing the temperature and pressure.

Changing the State of Matter by Changing Temperature

The temperature can be increased by heating to change solid into liquid and liquid into gas. The temperature can
be decreased by cooling to change gas into liquid and liquid into solid.

 Changing solid state of matter to liquid state (Melting): When a solid is heated sufficiently, it changes
its physical state and becomes a liquid. The process, in which a solid substance changes into liquid on
heating is called melting or fusion. For example, when ice is heated it changes into water.

The temperature at which a solid substance melts at atmospheric pressure is called melting point of the substance.
The higher the force of attraction between particles of a solid substance, the greater is the melting point of that
substance. On heating solid substance, the particles of substance vibrate vigorously. When the melting point is
reached, the particles of a solid have sufficient amount of kinetic energy to overcome the force of attraction holding
the particles at fixed position. Therefore, the solid melts and turns into liquid state.

 Changing liquid state of matter to gaseous state (Vapourisation): When a liquid is heated sufficiently,
it changes its physical state and becomes gas. The process, in which a liquid substance changes into a
gas is called evaporation. For example, when water is heated it changes into water vapour.

The temperature, at which a liquid changes its state to vapours at atmospheric pressure, is called boiling point of
the liquid. On heating liquid substance, the particles of substance vibrate vigorously. When the boiling point is
reached, the particles of a liquid have sufficient amount of kinetic energy to overcome the force of attraction holding
the particles at its position. Therefore, the liquid boils and turns into gaseous state.

 Changing gaseous state of matter to liquid state (Condensation): When a gas or vapour is cooled
sufficiently, it changes its physical state and becomes a liquid. For example, when steam or water vapour
is cooled, it is converted into liquid water.

On cooling, particles of gaseous substance lose kinetic energy, therefore; they vibrate slowly and move closer
until the particles become attracted towards each other and form a liquid.

 Changing liquid state of matter to solid state (Freezing): When a liquid is cooled sufficiently, it changes
its physical state and becomes a solid. For example, when water is cooled, it is converted into ice.

On cooling particles of liquid substance lose kinetic energy, therefore; they stop moving and move closer until the
particles become attracted towards each other and acquires a fixed position to turn into a solid.

The heat given to a substance to change its physical state is called latent heat. Normally heat given to a substance
rises the temperature of the substance, but in case when change in physical state of substance is involved, there
is no rise in the temperature of the substance. The amount of heat energy required to change the state of a
substance is called its latent heat. The latent heat does not increase the temperature of a substance because this
heat is consumed for overcoming the forces of attraction between the particles of a substance during the change
of state. Therefore, the kinetic energy of the particles of the substance is not increased. The latent heat can be of
two types. They are:
Latent Heat of Fusion
The latent heat of fusion or melting of a solid is the amount of heat in joules required to convert 1 kilogram of solid
to liquid without causing any change in temperature. For example, the latent heat of fusion of ice is 334 KJ per kg.
Which is the amount of heat that converts ice into water without causing any increase in temperature.

Latent Heat of Vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the quantity of heat in joules required to convert 1 kilogram of liquid to
vapour or gas without causing any change in temperature. For example, the latent heat of vapourisation of water
is 2258 KJ per kg which is the amount of heat that converts water into vapours without causing any increase in
temperature.

Sublimation
When a solid directly changes into gas or vapour on heating and vapours changes directly to solid substance, on
cooling, is called sublimation. For example, ammonium chloride undergoes sublimation. On heating, ammonium
chloride changes directly into ammonium chloride vapour. When solids that undergo sublimation are heated, their
particles move very quickly that they separate completely to form vapour or gas. When the vapour or gas is cooled,
the particles of gas slow down very quickly and acquire fixed position to from a solid. Solid carbon dioxide or dry
ice also undergoes sublimation. When dry ice is heated, it sublimes to form carbon dioxide gas. Another common
example of substance that undergoes sublimation is naphthalene balls. Naphthalene balls disappear with time
without leaving any residue behind. Few substances that undergo sublimation are ammonium chloride, iodine,
camphor, naphthalene and anthracene.

Changing State of Matter by Changing Pressure

The physical state of matter can also be changed by changing the pressure. Gases can be changed into liquids
by increasing pressure along with decreasing temperature. Similarly some solids such as solid carbon dioxide can
be changed into gases on decreasing the pressure and increasing the temperature.

Classification of Matter on the Basis of Chemical Properties

On the basis of chemical properties the matter is classified into two Types namely pure substances and mixtures.
The pure substances can be of two type namely elements and compounds.

Pure Substance
Pure substances are made of only one kind of particles. The particles can be atoms or molecules. For example,
water is made up of only water molecule and therefore, water is a pure substance. Another example is sodium
element which is made up of only sodium atom and therefore, is a pure substance. All elements and compounds
are pure substances because they contain only one kind of particles. Thus, all the elements such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, bromine, iodine, silver, etc. are pure substances. Similarly, all compounds such as water, carbon dioxide,
hydrochloric acid, camphor, etc. are pure substances.
An element is made up of only one kind of atom. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into two
or more-simpler substances by the usual chemical methods of applying heat, light or electric energy. The elements
can be in solid, liquid or gaseous state at room temperature.

On the basis of the properties of elements, they can be classified as:

Metals
Metals are elements that are malleable, ductile and conduct electricity. Metals have tendency to lose electrons.
Some of the metals are zinc, silver, iron, potassium, mercury, uranium, etc. All metals are solids except mercury,
which is a liquid.

The properties of metals are:

 Malleable: Metals can be beaten into thin sheets with a hammer. Gold and silver are some of the best
malleable metals.

 Ductile: Metals can be drawn into thin wires. All metals are not equally ductile. Some metals are more
ductile than the other metals. Copper and aluminium are also very ductile and can be drawn into thin wires
that are used in electrical wiring.

 Good conductor of heat and electricity: Metals allow heat and electricity to pass through them easily.
Metals are good conductors of heat. Silver metal is the best conductor of heat. Copper and aluminium
metals are also very good conductors of heat. The poorest conductor of heat among metals is lead.
Mercury metal is also a poor conductor of heat.

 Lustrous: Metals have shiny surface and can be polished. Shining surface of metals makes them good
reflectors of light. Silver metal is an excellent reflector of light. Shiny appearance of metals makes them
suitable for making jewellery and decorative pieces.

 Hard: Metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft metals and can be cut with knife. The
hardness varies from metal to metal. Metals such as iron. Copper and aluminium are very hard.

 Strong: Metals have high tensile strength. Metals can hold large weights without breaking. For example,
iron metal in the form of steel is very strong and is used in the construction of bridges, machines, vehicles,
etc. Sodium and potassium are metals that have low tensile strength.

 Solid at room temperature: All metals, except mercury, are solid at room temperature.

 High melting and boiling point: Most of the metals melt and vapourise at high temperatures. For
example, iron has a high melting point of

1535oC

and copper has a melting point of

1083oC.

However, few metals such as sodium and potassium have low melting point. Another metal gallium has an
extremely low melting point, such that it starts melting in hand.
  High density: Metals have high densities and are heavy. Metals such as sodium and potassium are
exception and have low densities and are light in weight.

 Metals are sonorous: Metals when hit make sound. This property makes them suitable for making bells,
wires for stringed musical instruments such as violin, guitar.

Non Metals
Non-metals are elements that are neither malleable nor ductile and do not conduct electricity. Non-metals have
tendency to gain electrons. All non-metals exist in solid or gaseous state except bromine which exists in liquid
state at room temperature. Some examples of non-metals are neon, argon, krypton, xenon, etc.

The properties of mm metals are:

 Non-metals are non-malleable: Non-metals are brittle. They cannot be beaten into thin sheets and tend
to break when hammered. Sulphur and phosphorous are solid non-metals that breaks when hammered.

 Non-metals are non-ductile: Non-metals cannot be drawn into wires. They break when stretched.

 Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity: Non-metals do not allow heat and electricity to
pass through them.

 Non-metals are non-lustrous: Non-metals have dull appearance. Iodine is an exception and has lustrous
appearance.

 Non-metals are generally soft: Most of the non-metals are soft and can be easily cut with knife. Carbon
in the form of diamond is the only exception which is very hard.

 Non-metals are non-strong: Non-metals have low tensile strength. They cannot be used for holding large
weights.

 Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gases at room temperature: Non-metals can exist in all three
states. For example, carbon and sulphur are solid, bromine is liquid and hydrogen and oxygen are gases.

 Non-metals have low melting points and boiling points: All non-metals have comparatively low melting
point except graphite, which has high melting point. Most of the non-metals have very low boiling points,
which is the reason they exist as gases at room temperature.
  Non-metals have low densities: Non-metals have low densities and are light in weight. Iodine is an
exception, which has high density.

 Non-metals are non-sonorous: Non-metals when hit do not make sound.

 Non-metals have different colours: Non-metals have different colours. For example, sulphur is yellow,
phosphorous is white or red, graphite is black, chlorine is yellowish-green.

Metalloids
Few elements have some properties of metals and non-metals. For example, few elements have appearance
similar to metals but are brittle like non-metals. These elements are neither conductors of electricity like metals
nor insulators like non-metals, instead they are semiconductors. These elements that show properties of both
metals and non-metals are called metalloids. They have properties that are intermediate between the properties
of metals and non-metals. They are sometimes called semi metals. Examples of metalloids are boron (B), silicon
(Si), germanium (Ge).

Compounds
Compounds are the substances made up of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion by
mass. For example, water

(H2O)
is a compound made up of two elements hydrogen and oxygen, chemically combined in fixed proportion of
1:8
by mass (Atomic masses:
H=1u
,
O=16u
, therefore
H2:O=2u:16u
or
1:8
). Other compounds are salt or sodium chloride
(NaCl)
, ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl)
.

Mixtures
A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds that are not chemically combined together. For example,
sugar solution, air and milk are examples of mixture. In sugar solution, the sugar and water are physically mixed
without any chemical reaction between sugar and water. Similarly air constitutes mixture of different gases and
milk consists of fat, water and proteins.
Mixtures can be of two types:

 Homogeneous mixtures - in homogeneous mixtures, the substances are completely mixed together and
are indistinguishable from one another. For example, salt solution, copper sulphate solution, sea water,
milk, soil, soap solution, petrol, etc. All the homogeneous mixtures are called solutions.

 Heterogeneous mixtures - a heterogeneous mixture does not have a uniform composition throughout its
mass. For example, mixtures of sugar and salt, chalk and water.

Solution
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Some common examples of solutions are salt
solution, vinegar, metal alloys, air, etc.

Properties of solution are:

(i) A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
(ii) A solution has solute particle, which is extremely small in size. It is less than

10−9m
in diameter.
(iii) The particles of a solution cannot be seen even with a microscope.
(iv) The particles of a solution pass through the filter paper. Therefore, different particles of solution cannot be
separated by filtration.
(v) The particles of solution do not get separated, even after the solution is kept for some time.
(vi) A true solution does not scatter light, due to the very small size of its particles.

Different types of solutions are:

Suspension
Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the small particles of solute are spread throughout a liquid without
dissolving in it. For example, chalk and water mixture, Paints, sand and water mixture.

Properties of suspension are:

(i) A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
(ii) Size of solute particles of suspension is in the range of

10−7
to
10−5m
diameter.
(iii) The particles of a suspension can be seen easily.
(iv) The particles of suspension can be separated by filtration.
(v) The particles of suspension separate, after the solution is kept for some time. Therefore, suspensions are
unstable.
(vi) Suspension scatters beam of light passing through it due to quite larger size of its particles.

Colloids
Colloids consist of particles whose size is intermediate between those in true solutions and those in suspensions.
When seen with naked eye colloids appear homogeneous, but are found heterogeneous when observed through
a high power microscope. Some of the examples of colloids are soap solution, starch solution, blood, milk, etc.

The properties of colloids are:

(i) A colloid appears to be homogeneous, but it is heterogeneous.

(ii) The size of particles in a colloid is bigger than those in a true solution but smaller than those in a suspension.
It is between

10−9
to
10−7m
diameter.
(iii) The particles of most of the colloids are visible under powerful microscope.
(iv) The particles of colloids cannot be separated by normal filtration.
(v) The particles of colloids do not separate out if the colloid is kept for some time.
(vi) The colloid scatters a beam of light passing through it.
Physical States Matter
Category : 9th Class

Introduction

Everything in this universe is made up of matter. All the things we see in our surroundings occupies space, and
has certain mass and volume. Early Indian philosopher used to says that, matters are classified in the form of five
basic elements, called panch tatva. These panch tatva includes air, water, earth, sky and fire. According to them
everything whether living or non living is made up of only these five things. But modern classification is based on
the physical and chemical properties of the matter. Chemistry deals with the study of matters. It involves many
aspects of matters which are based on its classification and on the chemical composition into three main categories
namely elements, compounds and metalloids.

Physical States of Matter

For long time it is believed that the matters exist in two forms. First it exists in the form of a block like woods;
Secondly, it is made up of particles like sand and dust. But modern aspect believes that the particle of matters are
very- small, which are beyond our imagination.

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

The different characteristics of particles of matter are:
  Particle of matter have space between them.

When we put sugar or salt in water we see that after some time it disappears.
Where does these particles goes? The answer to this question is, actually as there is space between the particles
of water molecules, the sugar or the salt molecules get into the space between the molecules of the water. Thus
we can say that particles of matters have space between them.

 Particles of Matter are continuously moving.

We know that the particle of matters possess kinetic energy. As the temperature increases the kinetic energy
increases and hence the particles start moving faster.
Take two beakers and put some hot water in one and cold water in the other.
Put equal mass of sugar in both the beaker and left them undisturbed. After sometime you will observe that the
sugar have dissolved faster in the beaker containing hot water. This is because the hot water molecule has higher
kinetic energy and hence moves faster to dissolves the sugar molecules in comparision to the cold water.

 Particles of matter attract each other.

Spread a glass of water on the plane surface of table, which is slightly sloped in one direction. Take a pin and drag
one end of the water towards the slope. You will observe that the water molecules has started flowing in that
direction. This shows that particles of matters attract each other.

State of Matter
Matters have three physical states that is solid, liquid, and gas. The different states of matter is due to the variation
in characteristics of the particles of matter . We will discuss about all the three states of matter, in detail.

Solid
Solids are the matter, that have definite shape, certain mass and fixed volume. Its compression is negligible. It
has highest density among all the three states. The intermolecular force of attraction is highest. Molecules in the
solid are closely packed. They cannot flow because the constituent particles are held closely in fixed position, due
to strong force of attraction.

Liquid
Liquids are the substances, which do not have any fixed shape, but has fixed mass and volume. It always takes
the shape of the container in which it is kept. In liquid, the molecules are loosely packed. The intermolecular force
of attraction is less than solid, and density is also less. It can easily flow from one place to another. Particles of
liquid have greater space between them. The rate of diffusion of liquid is higher than solid. This is due to the fact
that particles of liquid have greater space between them and can move freely as compared to the particles of solid.
They are more compressible than solid.

Gas
Gas is the substance in which molecules are free to move about and have no fixed shape or volume. They can
easily flow from one place to another. They are highly compressible. The intermolecular distance is maximum,
force is minimum. The density of gas is least as compared to solid or liquid. In gas, the particles move about
randomly at high speed. Due to this movement of the particles, they hit each other and also, the wall of the
container. Thus, gas exert pressure on the wall of the container, in which it is enclosed. The pressure exerted by
the gas on the wall of the container is equal to the force, exerted by the gas particles per unit area, on the wall of
the container.

Separating the Components of Mixtures

The different methods by which we can separate the components of mixtures are : Evaporation, Centrifugation,
Decentation, Distillation, Fractional Distillation, Using separation funnel, Chromatography, and Sublimation. The
method used is determined by the nature of mixtures. We will discuss each methods separately as below:

Evaporation
This methods is used to separate the dissolved material from the solvent. When we evaporate the solution, the
solvent get evaporated and the solute is left behind. For example, we can separate the mixture of salt and water
by this methods.

Centrifugation
In this method, when the mixture is spun rapidly, the denser particles are forced to settle at the bottom and lighter
particles stays at the top. Therefore, can be separated from each other. For example, we can separate cream from
milk by this method.

Decentation
In this method we can separate the insoluble solid from a liquid by allowing the solid to settle down and pouring
out the liquid off it. For example, we can separate the mixture of sand and water or gravel and water etc.
 Distillation
This method is used to separate a mixture of two liquid of different boiling points. In this method, we first heat the
mixture of liquids and collect the vapour of the liquid/ which has low boiling points and evaporate first and then
condensed it to get back the liquid.

Fractional Distillation
This method is used for separating the mixture of two or more liquids having different boiling points. It is done by
using fractionating column. In this process distillates are collected in fractions, boiling at different temperatures.

Using Separating Funnel

This method is used to separate the mixture of two liquids, which are not miscible. In this method the mixture is
put into the funnel and is allowed to settle. When it settles down the lighter liquid forms the upper layers and the
heavier liquid forms the lower layers. The tap of the funnel is open and the lower layer is carefully drained out and
thus, the liquids is separated.

Chromatography
This method is used to separate the mixture of solute formed by distribution of dissolved materials between two
immiscible phases, in which one is movable and other is stationary. For example, we can separate the components
of dyes by this method.

Sublimation
In this method the solid directly gets converted into gas without getting into liquid, when heated. This method can
be used to separate the mixture of two solids, in which one sublimes easily. For example, the mixture of ammonium
chloride and salts. The other compound which undergoes sublimation are Camphor, Iodine, Naphthalene,
anthracene etc.

Compounds

It is a pure substance, in which two or more elements combine chemically together in a fixed proportion by mass
to form the compound. The properties of compound are different from the properties of the elements.
For example, the elements like hydrogen and oxygen are found in gaseous state, but when they combine to form
water, it turns to liquid state. Similarly if we heat iron filing and sulphur powder, a black compound of iron sulphide
is formed. Now, if we bring a bar magnet near the compound we find that it is not attracted by the iron in the
compound so formed. The other example, if we add carbon disulphide to the sulphur, we find it is not dissolved in
it, which shows that sulphur is not showing its property. Thus, we can say that the properties of compound is
entirely different of the it’s elements forming it.

Properties of Compound
Following are the properties of compound:

 It is formed by the reaction between two or more different elements.

 It is homogenous in nature.
 We cannot separate the components of compound by physical methods.
 The compounds have different physical and chemical properties.
 They have generally fixed melting and boiling points.
 Formation of compound is associated with either evolution or absorption of heat and light.
Normally we have two types of compounds, that is, organic and inorganic compounds. Those compounds which
are obtained from non living sources such as rocks, minerals, etc are inorganic compounds. The compounds which
are obtained from living sources such as plants, animals etc are called organic compound. For example,
petroleum, carbohydrates, proteins, waxes, oils, etc. are all organic compounds.

Solutions
It is a homogenous mixture of two or more substance in which one substance is liquid. It consists of two parts,
solvent and solute. The solvents are that part of solution in which something has been dissolved and the substance
which has been dissolved into it, is called the solute. For example, in the solution of salt and water, salt is solute
as it is dissolved in water and water is solvent.
The solution is basically of two types, such as saturated and unsaturated. Saturated solutions are those in which
no more solute can be dissolved. On the other hand, the solution in which more solutes can be dissolved are
called the unsaturated solution. The amount of solute present in the saturated solution at the given temperature is
called its solubility.

The concentration of solution is defined as the amount of solute presents in the given volume of solvent.
Concentration of solution

=MassofsoluteMassofsolution
Percentage by mass

=MassofsoluteMassofsolution×100
Percentage by volume

=VolumeofsoluteVolumeofsolution×100

Properties of Solution

 It is homogenous in nature.
 The particles of solute cannot be seen in naked eyes.
 They cannot scatter the beam of light passing through it.
 We cannot separate the particles of solute by physical methods, such as filtrations.
 It is very stable in nature i.e. the particles of solute do not settle down when left undisturbed.

Suspension
It is a heterogenous mixtures in which particles of solute are dispersed throughout the medium, without dissolving
into it. For example, if we mix sand in water it forms suspension, as the sand particles remains suspended in the
water without dissolving into it.

Properties of Suspension

 It is heterogenous in nature.
 The particles of solute can be seen in naked eyes.
 The particles of suspension can be separated by filtration.
 It is opaque in nature.
 It is very unstable in nature i.e. the particles of solute settles down when left undisturbed.

Collodials
It is a heterogenous mixture in which particles having size between

10−7
to
10−4
cm are dispersed in a continuous medium. The continuous medium is called dispersion medium and the
particle in the medium forms dispersed phase. They are also called as sols. If the dispersion medium is water
then it is called hydrosols and if it is alcohol, it is called alcosols. Colloids can be classified on the basis of
the affinity of dispersed phase and dispersion medium for each other. On the basis of this it is of two types:
Lyophilic colloids and Lyophobic colloids.
The colloid which shows affinity towards the dispersion medium is called lyophilic colloids. For example, gelatin
and starch are lyophilic colloids. The colloids which do not shows affinity towards the dispersion medium is called
lyophobic colloids. For example, metals and their hydroxide and sulphide are lyophobic colloids.

Properties of Colloids

 It is heterogenous in nature.
 The particles of colloids cannot be seen by naked eyes.
 The particles of colloids cannot be separated by filtration.
 The particle of colloids shows Brownian motion.
 It is very unstable in nature i.e. the particles of solute settles down when left undisturbed.
 It shows tyndall effect i.e. it scatters the beam of light passing through it.
 It shows electrophoresis. i.e. it shows the movement of particles under the influence of electric field towards
the opposite charged electrodes.
 It shows the coagulation i.e. the colloidal particles precipitate and settles down if all the charge is removed
from it. It can be done by adding oppositely charged electrolytes.

Mixture
Category : 9th Class

Introduction

In our daily life we come across several types of matters in our surroundings. It is very difficult to say which of the
matters is pure. Even the eatables, which we purchase from the market is not found to be pure and is adulterated
with undesirable materials that are harmful for us. The pure substance is the substance which are made up of only
one type of atoms or particles. All the matters are divided into two categories as mixture and pure substance.

Mixture
When two or more different types of substance are mixed together, not in any fixed proportion, it is called mixture.
Mixture is of two types Homogenous and heterogenous mixtures. In mixtures the components cannot be separated
by physical means.

Homogenous Mixture
The mixture having uniform composition is called the homogenous mixture. If we dissolve sugar or salt in water,
it gets dissolved completely in water and particles of sugar are not visible to us our naked eyes. Hence it is a
homogenous mixture. It has no visible boundaries of separation between various constituents and usually exist in
one phase.
(1) Air is a mixture of gas in gas.
(2) Aerated water

(CO2+H2O)
is a mixture of gas in liquid.
(3) Kerosene, petrol, alcohol, water, etc are mixture of liquid in liquid.
(4) Alloys such as bronze, steel, brass etc are mixture of solid in solid.
(5) Sugar solution, salt solution are mixture of solid in liquid.
(6) Amalgamated Zinc is a mixture of liquid in solid.
(7) Adsorption of hydrogen gas in palladium is a mixture of gas in solid.

Heterogenous Mixture
The mixture having non uniform composition are called heterogenous mixture. In this case, each constituent
particles are visible in our naked eyes. We can separate them by physical means. For example if we mix rice,
sand and pulse the mixture will be heterogenous and each constituent is visible in our naked eyes and we can
separate them either by hand picking or any other means.

Properties of Mixture
Following are the properties of mixtures:

 The constituents in the mixtures are not present in any fixed proportion.
 Each constituents in the mixture shows it own properties.
 The constituents of the mixtures can be separated by physical methods.
 Mixtures do not have any fixed melting and boiling points.
 No energy is either absorbed or evolved during the formation of mixtures.

Atoms and Molecules

Matter is made up of small particles called molecules. Atoms combine to form molecule. Different atoms and
molecules have different properties due to which different matters show different properties.

Laws of Chemical Combination

The laws of chemical combination are:

 Law of conservation of mass

 Law of constant proportions

Law of Conservation of Mass

This law states that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of products is equal to the total mass of reactants. There
occurs no change in mass during a chemical reaction. For example, in the following chemical reaction:

Sodium carbonate + ethanoic acid

→
sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide + water

The addition of mass of sodium carbonate and ethanoic acid will be equal to the addition of mass of sodium
ethanoate, carbon dioxide and water.

Law of Constant Proportions

Law of constant proportions states that chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined
together in the same proportion by mass. For example, water is a chemical compound that is always composed
of hydrogen and oxygen combined in the some constant proportion of 1:8 by mass.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

Dalton's Atomic theory of matter states that all matter is made up of very small indivisible particles. Dalton gave
his atomic theory of matter in 1805. The various postulates of Dalton's atomic theory of matter are:
(i) All the matter is made up of very small particles called atoms.
(ii) Atoms cannot be divided.
(iii) Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
(iv) Atoms are of various types.
(v) All atoms of given element are identical, having same mass, size and chemical properties.
(vi) Atoms of different elements differ in mass, size and chemical properties.
(vii) Chemical combination between two or more elements consists in the joining together of atoms of these
elements to form molecules of compounds.
(viii) The number and type of atoms in a given compound is fixed.
(ix) During chemical combination, atoms of different elements combine in small whole numbers to form
compounds.
(x) Atoms of the same elements can combine in more than one ratio to form more than one compound.

Limitations of Dalton's Atomic Theory

Some of the statements of Dalton's atomic theory are not correct. The following are the limitation of Dalton's atomic
theory:
(i) One of the main limitations of Dalton's atomic theory of matter is that atoms were thought to be indivisible. Now
it is known that atoms can be divided into. smaller particles called electrons, protons and neutrons.
(ii) Another limitation is that this theory assumes that all the atoms of an element have exactly the same mass.
Now it is known that atoms of the same element can have slightly different masses. These atoms are called
isotopes.
(iii) Another limitation is that this theory assumes that atoms of different elements have different masses. Now, it
is known that even atoms of different elements can have the same mass. These atoms are called isobars.

Atoms
Atom is the smallest part of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. Atoms are extremely small in
size and cannot be seen with naked eyes. Even very powerful optical microscopes are incapable of producing a
visible image of atoms. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) is the most advanced electron microscope and
can produce blurred images of atom. The size of an atom is indicated by its radius called atomic radius and is
measured in nanometers. Hydrogen atom is the smallest in size among all other atoms.

 Atomic mass: Atomic mass of an element is defined as the mass of an atom of an element.
  Relative atomic mass: The relative atomic mass of an element is the average relative mass of an atom
of an element as compared with an atom of 12C taken as 12 atomic mass unit.

 Molecules and ions: Atoms of most of the elements are very reactive. Therefore, atoms do not exist in
the free-state. Atoms of only few elements called noble gases such as helium, neon, argon, etc. are
chemically unreactive and can exist in free-state as single atoms. Atoms exist in two forms. These two
forms are:

(i) As molecules (ii) As ions

When atoms exist in the form of molecules or ions, they become stable by acquiring stable electronic arrangement.

Molecules
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together. Atoms are joined
together to form molecule by covalent bond. Atoms of same element or different elements combine together to
form molecules.

 Molecules of elements: Molecules of elements contain two or more similar atoms combined to form
molecule or atoms of same element combined to form molecule.

For example, a molecule of oxygen element contains 2 oxygen atoms combined together and is written as

C2.
other examples of molecules of element are hydrogen gas
(H2),
nitrogen gas
(N2),
ozone
(O3),
sulphur
(S8)
. The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called its atomicity.

 Molecules of compounds: These contain two or more different types of atoms chemically combined
together. For example, water

(H2O)

is a compound. It contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Other examples of compounds
are carbon dioxide
 (CO2),

methane

(CH4),

ammonia

(NH3).

Ions
An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom or group of atoms. Examples of ions are sodium ion

(Na+),
magnesium ion
(Mg2+),
chloride ion
(Cl−).
an ion is formed by the loss or gain of electrons by an atom and therefore; ion contains unequal number of
electrons and protons. There exists two types of ions namely cations and anions.
Positively charged ion is called cation. Cation is formed by loss of one or more electrons by an atom. For example,
sodium loses one electron to form sodium ion

(Na+).
A negatively charged ion is called anion. An anion is formed by the gain of one or more electrons by an atom. For
example, chlorine gains one electron to form chloride ion

(Cl−).
The compounds, which are made up of ions, are known as ionic compounds. For example,

NaCl
is formed from
Na+
and
Cl−
ions,
CaCl2
is formed from
Ca2+
and
Cl−
ions.

Chemical Formulae of Compounds

Chemical formula of a compound indicates the kind and number of atoms of various elements present in one
molecule of compound. In the chemical formula of a compound, the elements present are represented by their
symbols and the number of atoms of each element are written as subscripts. For example, water consists of two
hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom and therefore, the chemical formula of water is
 H2O.

Mole Concept
To understand the mole concept, a clear understanding of gram atomic mass and gram molecular mass is
required.

Gram atomic mass

When dealing with elements the gram atomic mass or molar mass of element is used. Gram atomic mass is equal
to the atomic mass of a substance expressed in grams. The gram atomic mass is simply the atomic mass of the
substance expressed with unit gram or g. The gram atomic mass of a substance represents the mass of 1 mole
of atoms

(6.022×1023atoms)
of that substance. Therefore, the number of atoms present in 1 gram atomic mass of any substance is
6.022×1023atoms.
Atomic mass of hydrogen element is 1, therefore, gram atomic mass will be 1 gram.
Molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 mole of that substance. The unit of molar mass is grams per mole.
Molar mass can be of an element or of a molecular compound. The molar mass of an element is numerically equal
to the atomic mass expressed in the units g/mol. Atomic mass of hydrogen element is 1, therefore, molar mass
will be 1 g/mol.

Gram molecular mass

When dealing with the molecules of a substance the gram molecular mass or molar mass of substance is used.
The gram molecular mass of a substance is the molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams. Molecular
mass of oxygen is 32 u, therefore, gram molecular mass of a substance is 32 grams. The gram molecular mass
of a substance represents the mass of 1 mole of molecules

(6.022×1023molecules)
of that substance. Therefore, the number of molecules present in 1 gram molecular mass of any substance
is
6.022×1023molecules.
molecules.

Structure of the Atom

Atoms are divisible and have internal structure. Atoms are made of three subatomic particles namely electrons,
protons and neutrons.

The Sub-atomic Particles

Relative size Name Mass (kg) Charge (c)

Proton
 Neutron 0

Electron

Thomson's model of the atom

J.J. Thomson proposed his model of the atom in 1903. According to this model, an atom consists of sphere of
positive charge with negatively charged electrons embedded in it. The positive and negative charges in an atom
are equal in magnitude that makes the atom electrically neutral and have no overall positive and negative charge.

Thomson's model of the atom

Rutherford's model of the atom

According to Rutherford's model of atom:
(i) An atom contains a positively charged, dense and very small nucleus containing protons and neutrons. Almost
entire mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in
circular paths at very high speed. The circular paths of the electrons are called orbits.
(iii) Atom remains together due to the coulombic force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electrons.
(iv) The atom is electrically neutral because the number of protons and electrons in an atom is equal.

Bohr's model of the atom

Neils Bohr model, explains the reason for the stability of atom. According to this model:
(i) An atom is made up of electrons, protons and neutrons. Due to the presence of equal number of negative
electrons and positive protons, the atom on the whole is electrically neutral.
(ii) Protons and neutrons are located in a small nucleus at the centre of the atom. Due to the presence of protons,
nucleus is positively charged.
(iii) The electrons revolve rapidly round the nucleus in fixed circular paths called energy levels or shells. The energy
levels or shells are represented in numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 or by letters K, L, M, N, O and P. The energy levels
are counted from the centre outwards.
(iv) The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in an energy shell (orbit) is given by

2n2
where n stands for the number of the orbit.
(v) There is a limit to the number of electrons, which each energy level can hold. For example, the first energy
level or K shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, second energy level or L shell can hold maximum of 8 electrons,
the third energy level or M shell can hold a maximum of 18 electrons, the bourth energy level or N shell can hold
a maximum of 32 electrons.
(vi) Each energy level is associated with a fixed amount of energy; the shell nearest to the nucleus has minimum
energy and the shell farthest from the nucleus have the maximum energy.
(vii) There is no change in the energy of electrons as long as they keep revolving in the same energy level, and
the atom remains stable. The change in energy of an electron takes place only when it jumps from a lower energy
level to a higher energy level or when it comes down from a higher energy level to a lower energy level. When an
electron gains energy, it jumps from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, and when an electron comes
down from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it loses energy.

Atomic Number
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in one atom of an element. For example, one atom of
sodium element has 11 protons in it, therefore, the atomic number of sodium is 11. The atomic number of an
element is denoted by the letter Z.

Mass-Number
The total number of protons and neutrons present in one atom of an element is known is its mass number.
Mass number = no. of protons -t- no. of neutrons
For example, carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, therefore, the mass number of carbon is 6 + 6 =12. The
mass number of an element is denoted by the letter A. Mass number of carbon is 12, therefore, mass number can
be written as A = 12.

Valence electrons
The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.

Valency
The number of valence electrons of an element which actually takes part in chemical reactions is called the valency
of that element.

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element which have same number of protons but different number of neutrons inside their
nuclei are called isotopes. For example, Isotopes of hydrogen are Protium

(11H),
Deuterium
(21H),
Tritium
(31H)

Isobars

 The atoms of different elements with different number of protons (i.e. different atomic numbers) but equal
sum of the number of protons and neutrons (i.e. same mass number) are called isobars. For example,

4020Ca,4019K,4018Ar

Atomic Mass
It is the mass of an atom of an element or it is defined as the quantity of mass equal to the one twelfth of the mass
of an atom of carbon 12.

Relative Atomic Mass

It is defined as the number of times an element of an atom is heavier than one twelfth of an atom of carbon 12.
Relative atomic mass

=Mass of one atom of the element112×Mass of one atom of C−12

Gram Atomic Mass

The atomic mass of an element expressed in gram is called the gram atomic mass of that element.

Molecules
Molecules are the smallest particle of the substance, element or compound which can exist in Free State under
the normal condition of temperature and pressure. The total number of atoms, of all types, present in one molecule
of a substance is called its atomicity.
For example:
Atomicity of

O2
is 2 and that of

CO2
is 3. There are different types of molecules. The molecules having only one kind of atom is called monoatomic
molecules, such as

He,Ne,Ar
etc.
The molecules containing two atoms are called diatomic molecules, such as

O2,H2,Cl2
etc.
The molecules containing three atoms are called triatomic molecules, such as

CO2,O3,H2O,NO2
etc.
The molecules containing four atoms are called tetratomic molecules, such as

H2O2,NH3,P4
etc.
The molecules containing five atoms are called pentatomic molecules, such as

NHO3,CH4
etc.
The molecules of an atom contains same kind of atoms. For example

O2,H2,Cl2
are all molecules of the atoms.
The molecules of the compound contains atoms of different elements. For example

CO2,H2O,
etc.

Molecular Mass
The molecular mass of a substance is defined as the sum of atomic mass of all the atoms present in the substance.
For example:
The molecular mass of

CO2=1×12+2×16=44amu
.

Gram Molecular Mass

The molecular mass of the substance expressed in gram is called the gram molecular mass.

Mole Concept
A mole is a unit for expressing the smallest unit of matter, such as proton, electron, atoms, ions, etc. The number
of atoms present in one gram atom of an element is equal to the

6.023×1023
. Thus one mole of a substance is equal to

6.023×1023
atoms. This constant is also called the Avogadro's constant or
Avogadro’s number. Hence we can define mole as the amount of substance which contains same number of
particles as the number of carbons atoms present in 12g of C-12 isotopes of carbon.
Thus, 1 mole = gram atomic mass of atom

=6.023×1023
atoms of the substance.

Atoms

According to modern atomic theory, an atom is the smallest particle of elements. It takes parts in the chemical
reaction and maintains its identity throughout all physical and chemical changes. Since the atoms of elements are
quite reactive, they do not exist in Free State except for noble gases. All the atoms consist of subatomic particles
called electron, proton and neutron. The number of electrons and protons in an atom is always found to be the
same. The electron revolve around the nucleus in a fixed orbit and the proton and the neutron are present in the
nucleus of an atom. The atoms are very smaller is size and cannot be seen by the naked eyes. The size of an
atom is measured by its radius called the atomic radius. The atomic radius of smallest atom Hydrogen is 0.37 x
10-10 m or 0.037 nm. 1 nm = 10-9 m.
The atoms are normally denoted by symbols. It was Daltons who introduced the use of symbol to denotes the
atoms of different elements. Dalton's symbol for some of the elements are given below:

Element Symbol

Hydrogen

Carbon

Oxygen

Nitrogen

Sulphur

Phosphorus

Lead

Iron

Copper

Zinc

Silver

Mercury

Modern Symbols and Atomic Numbers for Some of the Elements

Elements Symbols Atomic Nos. Mass Nos.

Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 4
Lithium Li 3 7
Beryllium Be 4 9
Boron B 5 11
Carbon C 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 14
Oxygen 0 8 16
Fluorine F 9 19
Neon Ne 10 20
Sodium Na 11 23
Magnesium Mg 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 27
Silicon Si 14 28
Phosphorous P 15 31
Sulphur S 16 32
 Chlorine Cl 17 35
Argon Ar 18 38
Potassium (Kalium) K 19 39
Calcium Ca 20 40
Iron (ferrum) Fe 26 56
Copper(Cuprum) Cu 29 64
Silver (Argentum) Ag 47 108
Lead (Plumbum) Pb 82 207
Mercury (Hydragyrum) Hg 80 201

Dalton's Atomic Theory

John Dalton provided the basic theory about the nature of matter. He used the idea of divisibility of matter and
called the smallest particle of matter as atoms. It was based on the theory of chemical combination. He also
provided the explanation on laws of conservation of mass and laws of constant proportion. According to Daltons
atomic theory all the matters is composed of smallest particles called atom.

The postulates of this theory are:

 All the matters are made up of smallest particles called atoms.

 Atom are indivisible and can neither be created, nor be destroyed.
 Atoms of same elements are identical in shape, size and mass.
 Atoms of different elements have different mass and chemical properties.
 Atoms always combine together in fixed proportion by mass to form the compound.
 In a given compound the relative number and kinds of atoms are constant.

Merits of Dalton Atomic Theory

 It can easily explain the reason for the validity of laws of conservation of masses.
 It also explain the laws of constant proportion.
 It can also explain the difference between the atoms of elements and that of compound.

Demerits of Dalton Atomic Theory

 According to Daltons atomic theory atoms are indivisible, but according to modern atomic theory, atom
consists of sub atomic particles called electron, proton, and neutron.
 It says that atoms of same elements are similar in shape and properties. But, it is not so, as the
occurrence of isotopes proves that it is not to be so.
 It says that atoms of different elements have different mass, but occurrence of isobars proves that it is
not as such.
 It also fails to explain why atoms of different elements shows different properties.
 It also fail to explain why the atoms are together in a compound and which binding force is responsible
for this
 It also fails to explain Gay Lussac's law.

Laws of Chemical Combination

Category : 9th Class
 Introduction

All the matters found in this universe are made up of small particles called atoms. The idea of divisibility of matters
came into light around 500 BC. An Indian Philosopher, Maharishi Kanad, in his postulate said that if we go on
dividing the padarth till it is not any more divisible, then we come across the particles which is not further divisible
is called parmanu. This smallest parmanu in Greek word is called atom, which means indivisible. All this
explanation was based on philosophical consideration and not on experimental work, till the end of eighteenth
century, when perhaps the first scientific defination of atoms came into existence and difference between element
and compound was established.

Lams of Chemical Combination

The chemical reactions of two or more atoms to form new product is carried out by many laws.

The important laws of chemical combinations are:

 Laws of conservation of mass

 Laws of constant proportion
 Laws of multiple proportion
 Gay Lussac's law

Laws of Conservation of Mass

This law was given by A. Lavoisier. He states that during a chemical reaction mass can neither be created nor
be destroyed. For example:

CaCO3(rectant100g)→CaO(56g)+CO2(44g)(product)
Thus we see that total mass of reactant is equal to the total mass of product. A practical example of this is: take a
piece of ice cube and measure its weight. Put it in a flask and leave it to melt. When it melts completely again
measure its weight. You will find the weight in both the case is approximately same. Thus we can say that the law
of conservation of mass is also valid in case of physical change.

For example:
Take some amount of iron filing and sulphur powder of desired weight. Put them in a china dish and heat it. The
compound so formed is iron sulphide and measure its weight. We find that the weight in both the case is
approximately same. Thus we can say that law of conservation of mass is also valid for chemical change.

Laws of Constant Proportion

It was given by Joshep Prouts in 1799. It states that in a compound the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass.

For example:
Carbon dioxide is made up of two elements, carbon and oxygen which is always present in same proportion of 12
: 32 by mass. Thus 44 g of carbon dioxide is composed of 32 g oxygen and 12 g of carbon.
Thus we see that laws of constant proportion is true, regardless of the source of the sample, which may be obtained
from the natural source or prepared artificially in the laboratory.

Laws of multiple Proportion

It states that if two elements form more than one compound between them, then the ratio of the masses of the two
elements, which combine with the fixed mass of the first element, will be in the ratio of smallest whole number.
For example:
Considering two of the carbon oxides: CO and CO2, 100 grams of carbon may react with 133 grams of oxygen to
produce carbon monoxide, or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. The ratio of the masses of
oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266:133 H, which is equal to 2:1, a ratio of small whole numbers.
The Law of Multiple Proportion, is just what the name suggests, is the law of multiple proportions of one constant
element, within differing compounds is sharing the same type of chemical bonding.

Gay Lussac's Law

The ratio between the volume of the reactant gases and the products can be expressed in simple whole numbers.
Or this law can also be stated as the pressure of a sample of gas at constant volume, is directly proportional to its
temperature in Kelvin.
According to Gay-Lussac's Law:

 P1T1=Constant(k)
 After the change in pressure and temperature,
 P2T2=Constant(k)

Combine the two equations:

P1T1=P2T2
When any three of the four quantities in the equation are known, the fourth can be calculated..

Bhor’s Model of Atom

After the drawback found in Rutherford model of an atom, it became necessary to find the reason for the stability
of the atom. Bhor put forward his model of an atom and this was found to be acceptable to almost all the scientis
of that time. According to Bhor model, an atom consists of nucleus which contains neutron and proton and electron
that revolve around the nucleus in the fixed orbit and do not radiate energy. Energy is radiated or absorbed by an
atom only when an electron moves from one shell to another. When electrons jumps from lower to higher energy
level, it absorbs energy and when it jumps from higher to lower it radiates energy. The energy is always radiated
or absorbed in the form of packet called photons. The orbit or the shell in which electrons revolves is called the
energy level.

The energy levels are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, —. The maximum number of electrons in first shell
called K shell can be 2, in second shell L shell can be 8, in third shell M shell can be 18, and so on. This distribution
of electron is called the electronic configuration.

Atomic Numbers
It is defined as the number of proton present in the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by letter Z.
 Mass Number
It is the sum of proton and neutron present in the nucleus of an atom. It is normally denoted by A.
A=Z+n
Where/ n is the number of neutron
A is the mass number
Z is the atomic number.

Valence Electron
The number of electron present in the outermost shell of an atom is called the valence electron.

Valency
The number of electron loosed or gained by an atom to attain the stable electronic configuration is called the
valency.

Isotopes
Isotopes of an atom is defined as the atoms of same elements having same atomic number but having different
atomic mass. The isotopes is due to the difference in the number of neutron in an atom.

Rutherford's Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

In his experiment Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil with the fast moving alpha particles. He took a gold foil
about 1000 atoms thick and a doubly charged helium ions.

Observation
In his experiment Rutherford made the following observation:

 Most of the

particles passed straight through the gold foil.

  Few of the

particles were deflected through a small angles as it passes through the gold foil.

 Very few a particles bounces back in the same direction from which they came.

Conclusion
On the basis of his experiment and observation he made the following conclusion:

 There is large empty space in the atom.

 The nucleus of the atom is positively charged.
 The nucleus of the atom is densely packed.

Rutherford Model of Atom

On the basis of the above experiment he proposed the following model of an atom. According to him atom consists
of positively charged nucleus where the entire mass is supposed to be concentrated. The electron revolve around
the nucleus in a well defined orbit and size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.

Drawback of Rutherford Model of Atom

Followings are the drawback of Rutherford model of an atom:
The orbital revolution of the electron is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a circular orbit would undergo
acceleration. During acceleration, charged particles would radiate energy. Thus, revolving electrons would lose
energy and finally fall into nucleus. If they were so, the atom would be highly unstable and hence matter would not
exist in the form that we know. But this does not happen and we know that atoms are quite stable.

Thomson's Model of Atom

Thomson proposed the model of atom before the discovery of neutrons. According to his model, an atom consists
of a positively charged sphere and electrons are embedded in it. The positive and negative charge are equal in
magnitude that’s why atom is electrically neutral. His model was also known as watermelon model of an atom.
Although Thomson's model was electrically neutral, but other scientist could not explain this model and hence was
not accepted.
 Drawback of Thomsons Model
Some of the drawbacks of Thompson's model of atom were:

 Since the weight of an electron is about a thousandth part of a hydrogen atom, it would mean that a single
atom, especially of the heavier elements/ would contain many thousand electrons. But J.J. Thomson
himself found that the number of electrons in an atom cannot be greatly different from the atomic weight.
 According to this model, hydrogen can give rise to only one spectra! line, contrary to the observed fact of
several lines.
 This model could not explain the large angle scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils..
 Discovery of Electron
 Category : 9th Class

 Introduction

 In this chapter we will discuss about the structure of atoms and will explain the important properties of the
atom and molecules. It was only in the 19th century we came to know that atom consists of sub atomic
particles, called the charge of the atom. It consists of three subatomic particles, electron, proton, and
neutron. The electrons are the negative charge particles, which was discovered by JJ. Thomsons in
1897.


 Discovery of Electron
 It was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897. In his experiment he took a discharge tube at very low
pressure and passed electric current of high voltage through it.


 Through the gap, a small beam of cathode rays got out of the area of the cathode and anode influence.
Next, the beam passed through a long vacuum tube and fell on a fluoroscopic screen leaving there a
fluorescent sign. In the vacuum tube, Thomson also put two metal plates connected to a battery. That
way he could create voltage between the plates, where the beam had its path. The field was directed
perpendicularly to the cathode rays beam. It emerged that under the influence of voltage the beam was
deflected (the spot on the screen appeared in a different place. It was the final evidence that cathode rays
 consisted of charged particles otherwise the beam couldn't be deflected by the electric field. The direction
of the deflection also shows the charge of the particles. It emerged to of the negative charge.


 It was R.A. Millikan who first measure the charge on electron in 1909, by his famous oil drop experiment.
The magnitude of charge on the electron is

 10−19coulomb
 . The relative charge of the electron is-1. The mass of the electron is found to be


 9.1×10−31kg
 . The relative mass of an electron is approximately equal to
 11840
 of the mass of the hydrogen atom.


 Discovery of Proton
 The proton was discovered by E. Goldstein in 1886. In his experiment he took a discharge tube and applied
high voltage into it.


 When he applied high voltage under low pressure, he observed a faint red glow on the wall behind the
cathode. These rays were also called the canal rays. When these rays were allowed to pass through the
charge plates placed above and below the discharge tube found that these rays were deflected towards
the negative plate. He conclude that these rays must possess positive charge and hence were called
protons. The charge on proton was found to be

 1.6×10−19coulomb
 coulomb and the relative charge was + 1. The mass of proton was found to be
 1.673×10−24g
 . The relative mass of proton was found to be 1 amu.


 Discovery of Neutron
 It was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, when he bombarded lighter elements with alpha particles
and observed the emission of a highly penetrating radiation. According to him these radiation consists of
neutral particles having 1amu relative mass.


 The nuclear reaction carried out during the discovery of neutrons are expressed as below:


 4Be9+2He4→6C12+0n1


The Fundamental Unit of Life

Tissues

A group of cell performing similar function is called tissue. Both plants and animals contains tissues which are
different in nature. In this part we will discuss about both plant and animal tissue.

Plant Tissue
Plant tissue is divided into two types Meristematic tissue and Permanent tissue. First we will discuss about
meristematic tissue.

Meristematic Tissue
The meristematic tissues are the continuously dividing tissues, which are found in the growing region of the plant.
It helps in growth and development of the plant. According to their position in the plant, it is of three types, such
as, apical meristem, intercalary meristem, and lateral meristem. The apical meristem is found in the root tips or
the shoot tips of the plant. It helps in longitudinal growth of the plant.

The lateral meristem is found in the bark and in vascular bundles of the dicot roots and stems of the plant, whereas
the intercalary meristem is found at the base of the leaves or i.nternodes. The main function of the meristematic
tissue is to form new cells and helps in the growth of the plant. The apical meristem helps in longitudinal growth,
lateral meristem helps in diametrically growth and intercalary meristem increases the length of the organ of the
plant.

Permanent Tissue
These tissues develop from meristematic tissue. Actually these are the meristematic tissue which have lost the
power of division. It is further subdivided into two groups as simple permanent tissue and complex permanent
tissue.
The simple permanent tissues are composed of similar cells. It is of three types:
Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma.

Parenchyma Tissue: These cells are living and still possess the power of division. They are founded in different
shapes such asround, oval, elongated etc. It has thin cell wall and small nucleus. It is founded in stem, roots,
leaves and fruits of the plant. It helps in filling the space between the other tissues and provides turgidity and
rigidity to the plants. It also stores and assimilates food for the plants.
Collenchyma: It is similar to that of parenchyma, except for deposition of extra cellulose at the corner of the cells.
The intracellular space are generally absent and contain few chloroplast. They are located below epidermis and
didribs of dicot leaves. The main function of the collenchymas tissue is to provide mechanical strength and
elasticity to the plants. It also provides flexibility to the stems, which helps in bending of stems.

 Sclerenchyma: These are basically dead cells and its walls are made up of thick deposition of lignin. It is
made up of two types of cells such as fibers and sclereids. Fibers consist of long narrow, thick and
lignified cells and sclereids are irregular shaped dead cells founded in cortex, pith etc of the plants. They
are also found in stems, roots, hard coverings of seeds and nuts and stems. For example, husk of
coconuts is made up of sclerenchyma. The main function of sclerenchyma is to provide mechanical
strength and helps to withstand various strains to the plants.

Complex Permanent Tissue

Complex permanent tissues are the tissues made up of more than one type of cell, having common origin. The
complex permanent tissues are of two types, such as, xylem and phloem tissue.
Xylem: It is a conducting tissue which consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem
sclerenchyma. All the xylem elements, except for xylem parenchyma, are dead cells and bound by thick lignified
wall. Vessels are long tube like structures, formed by a row of cell placed end to end. Tracheids are elongated
cell, which conduct water from one cells to another via pits. Xylem parenchyma stores foods and helps in lateral
conduction of water. The main function of xylem is to carry water and mineral salts from roots to the shoots of the
plants. It also gives mechanical support to the plants.

Phloem: It is made up of Sieve tubes. Companion cells. Phloem Parenchyma and Phloem Fibers. Except for
phloem fibers all are living cells. Sieve tubes are long cylindrical tube like structures composed of elongated thin
walled cells. The walls of sieve tubes are perforated. The other cell is companion cells that is associated with the
sieve tube containing dense and active cytoplasm. The main function of phloem is to transport potosynthetically
prepared food from leaves to the storage organs and to other parts of the plant body.

Cell
Introduction

We know that there are different kinds of living organisms found on the earth surface. It varies from unicellular to
multicellular organisms. These organisms are bacteria, protista, fungi, virus, plant and animals. The bodies of
all the organisms are made up of smallest unit called cell. Thus, cell are the basic unit of all life forms found on the
earth surface. The cell was first observed by Robert Hook in 1665. He saw that the cork resembled the structure
of honey comb consisting of many compartments. He observed this cell for the first time in the self made
microscope. At that time the structure was not clear as the microscope was not of very high power. Later on with
improved microscope in 1674, Leeuwenhoek discovered the free living cell in ponds. It was Robert Brown in
1831 who discovered the nucleus of the cell. The term protoplasm was proposed by Purkinje in 1839. Later in the
same year the cell theory was proposed by two biologists Schleiden and Schwann. This was expanded by
Virchow in 1855 saying that all the cell arises from preexisting cell..

All the cell possess the following three basic characteristics. First all the cell contain genes in the form of DNA
and RNA which have coded information for the regulation of cellular function. Secondly, they contain plasma
membrane made up of protein and lipids. This allows the exchange of material between the cells. Thirdly, they
have a metabolic machinery called cytoplasm which contain various cell organelles. An organism may be of single
celled or multicellular. The unicellular organism includes bacteria, amoeba, Euglena, paramecium and yeast. All
the cell is capable of carrying out certain basic function such as nutrition, respiration, growth and reproduction.
Thus, all the living organisms are divided into two forms, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic Cells
The cell in which nuclear region is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane and nucleus and cytoplasm cannot be
differentiated is called prokaryotic cell.
These organisms have primitive and incomplete cells. It consists of a single chromosome which is in direct contact
with cytoplasm. However, ribosomes are present in such cell. For example, cyanobacteria, archaebacteria.

Eukaryotic cells
In this cell nuclear region is bounded by nuclear membrane. The nucleus and cytoplasm can easily be
differentiated. They also contain membrane bound organelles and more than one chromosomes are presents in
the nucleus. Cell division occurs by miotic or meiotic cell division. It may be unicellular or multicellular organisms.

Structure of Cell
All the cell basically consists of three parts such as plasma membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. All the
metabolic activities within the cell is possible due to these features in the cell.

Plasma Membrane
It is a thin layer of membrane which covers the outer most layer of the cell. It is present in microorganism, plant
and animals. It is selectively permeable and can be seen only under the high power microscope. It is formed
by phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol and polysaccharides. It has got fluid mosaic model.
According to this model plasma membrane is made up of a bilayer of phospholipids and two types of protein,
that is intrinsic and extrinsic proteins. The protein presents in the membrane provides enzymes for catalyzing
chemical reactions, transport protein for movement of water soluble ions, pumps for active transport and receptor
proteins for endocytosis. Presence of lipids provides flexibility to the membrane.
The function of plasma membrane is that it regulates the entry and exit of selected material in the cell, hence it is
also called the selectively permeable.
The movement of material takes place by diffusion and osmosis. Some substances like carbon dioxide,
oxygen, water, etc. move by the process of diffusion. In this process the molecules move from the region of
higher concentration to the region of lower concentration.
The spontaneous movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis. If
we put plant cell or animal cell into a solution of salt or sugar

The following three things can happen:

If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell, the cell will gain the water by
the process of osmosis. Such solution are called hypotonic solution.

If the medium surrounding the cell has same concentration as the cell, then there will be no movement of water
across the membrane. Such solution is called isotonic solution.
If the medium has lower concentration of water than the cell, the cell will lose the water and water will move out of
the cell by the process of osmosis. Such solution is called hypertonic solution.

Cell wall
It is the outer most layer of plant cell which is rigid in nature and protects the cell inside. It provides rigidity and
shape to the cell. It is made up of fibrous polysaccharide called cellulose. It consists of thin cellulose fibers
called microfibrils guled together. It provides mechanical strength to the plant which is increased by addition of
lignin in tissue, such as xylem. It has a narrow pores through which fine particles are able to pass.
When there is shrinkage of the protoplasm away from the cell wall due to loosing of water by the cell, it is called
plasmolysis. If we immersed a plant cell in a concentrated sugar solution, the concentration of water molecules
inside the cell will be higher as a result of which water will move out of the cell by the osmosis and hence the cell
will shrink away from the cell wall.

Nucleus
It is the central part of the cell which is bounded by two membrane called the nuclear membrane. Nuclear
membrane separates nucleus from cytoplasm. The nucleus contains nucleolus and chromatin material. The
nucleolus is not bounded by any membrane and is rich in protein and RNA molecules where ribosomes are formed.
Ribosomes helps in protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. On the other hand the chromatin material is a thin thread
like structure called chromosomes and is composed of the genetic material DNA and proteins.
DMA stores all the information necessary for the cell to function, grow and reproduce. The segments of DNA are
called genes. During cell division it is condensed into two or more thick ribbon like structures. The chromosomes
consists of two arms that extend out from a specialized region of DNA called centromere. Depending on the
position of centromere chromosomes are of four types as metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric and
telocentric chromosomes.
The chromosomes in which the centromere is in the middle is called metacentric. In this case two arms of
chromosomes have equal length and is in V shape.
The chromosomes in which the centromere is slightly above the middle point is called the submetacentric. Its one
arm is slightly shorter and other arm is slightly longer. It is in the shape of during cell division.
The chromosomes in which the centromere is near the one end is called the
Acrocentric. Due to this position of centromere its one arm is very short and other is very long. It is in the shape
of rod during cell division. The chromosomes in which the centromere is at the tip is called the telocentric
chromosomes. Its arm are on the one side of the centromere and is also in rod shape during cell division.

Chromatid
The chromosomes in the living organisms duplicates itself before initiating the cell division. The two copies of the
chromosomes remains attached itself at the centromere and are called the sister chromatids. During cell division
the two sister chromatids separates itself and become independent chromatids. The number of chromosomes in
human being is 46 of which 44 are autosomes and 2 are sex chromosomes in each body cell. The paired
chromosomes is known as diploid and the cell containing diploid chromosomes are called diploid cell. The set of
unpaired chromosomes is called haploid. The 46 chromosomesin each body cell represents diploid numbers and
23 chromosomes in sex cell represents haploid number.

Function of Nucleus
There are several functions of a nucleus. Some of the important function of nucleus are that it controls all the
metabolic activities of the cell and regulate the cell cycle. It is also responsible for transmission of hereditary
character from parents to their offspring.

Cytoplasm
The region between the nucleus and plasma membrane filled with the fluid is called cytoplasm. It consists of
several cell organelles. The fluid material present in the cytoplasm is called cytosol. Cytosol contains protein
fibres called cytoskeleton. The main function of cytoplasm is that it stores several vital materials such as amino
acids, glucose, vitamins, minerals, etc. It is the site of several metabolic activities and is always in a state of
movement,

Diversity in Living Organisms

Diversity in Living Organisms

Introduction
There are large variety of living organism in this world and each organism is unique in its own way. This uniqueness
of each organism is called diversity.
Due to large diversity it is necessary to classify the organisms. The biological science which deals with the
identification, naming and classification of organism is called Taxonomy. In science we normally follow binomial
nomenclature i.e. each organism is given two name, the first name is called genus and the second name is
called species. The genus represents the community to which the organism belongs and the second name
represents specific organism to which it belongs. Linnaeus is considered to be the father of taxonomy as he
developed the binomial system of nomenclature. The scientific name of some of the common organisms are given
below:

SL. No. Common Name Scientific Name

1. Lion Panther Leo

2. Tiger Pinthra Tigress
3. Dog Canis Lupus
4. Cat Felis Catus
5. Rat Tattus Norvegicus
6. Mango Mangifera Indica
7. Neem Azadirachta Indica
8. Potato Solanum Tuberosum
9. Lotus Nelumbo Nucifera
10. Honey Bee Apis Mellifera
11. Ant Formicidae
12. Peacock Pavo Cristatus

Diversity in Living Organism

This world is full of living and non-living things. Large variety of living organisms is found on this planet. There is
a great diversity among them. From the microorganisms to well-developed animals, one can notice the diversity
at all levels.

Basis of Classification
Classification is a method of arranging organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and differences.
The study of classification is known as taxonomy. The process of classification began hundreds of years ago. First
animals were classified according to whether they lived on land, in water or in the air, but this classification was
not adequate. So the need of more accurate form of classification was realised and thus some characteristics
were used as a basis for making the broadest divisions for making groups and subgroups.

Classification and Evolution

All living things are categorised on the basis of their body design the and function. The characteristics that came
into existence earlier are likely to be more basic than characteristics that have come into existence later. This
clearly indicates that the classification of life forms is directly and very closely related to the evolution. Charles
Darvin the renowned biologist first described the idea of evolution in 1859 in his book
"The Origin of Species".

Hierarchy of Classification

1. H. Whittaker in 1969 proposed five kingdom classification. They are as following:

 Five Kingdom Classification

Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Noncellular Present in Present Present Absent
(Polysaccharide some (without (cellulose)
+amino acid) cellulose)
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multiceullar/ Tissue/Organ Tissue/Organ/organ
organisation loose tissue system
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic/
nutrition (Chemosyn- (Photosyn- (Saprophytic/ (Photosyn- Saprophytic etc.
thetic and thetic)and Parasitic) thetic)
photosynthetic) Hetero-
and Hetero- trophic
trophic (sapro-
phyte/para-site)

Monera: The organisms that come in this category do not have a defined nucleus or organells. They do not show
multicellular body design. The mode of nutrition in these organisms can be either autotrophic or heterotrophic. The
organisms of this group are bacteria, blue-green algae, etc.

Protista: It consists of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Some of these organisms use appendages such as hair
like cilia or whip like flagellum. Their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. The organisms of this
group are unicellular algae. protozoan amoeba, etc.

Fungi: They are the heterotrophic and eukaryotic organisms. They may be unicellular or multicellular. They have
a cell wall containing a mixture of chitin and cellulose. They use decaying organic material as food and are
therefore, called saprophytes. The organisms of this group are yeast, mushroom, rhizopus, etc.

Plantae: They are the multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls. Their mode of nutrition is autotrophic and they use
chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Plantae can be further classifies in the following types:

Examples:

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteriophyta

 Chara Ricca Equisetum

Gymnosperms

Ginkgo Conifer

Angiosperms

Monocotyledon Wheat Dicotylendon: mango

Animalia: They are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms without cell walls. The mode of nutrition is heterotrophic.
Their cells do not have cell walls and most of the animals are mobile. They are classified into the following groups:

Kingdom Animalia

Phylums and Their Characteristics

PHYLUM CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

 Porifera  They are non-motile organisms. Sycon, Euplectella,
 The body has many pores. Euspongia, Spontilla, etc.
 Body is covered with hard outer skeleton.
 They can reproduce sexually as well as
asexually.
Coelenterata  The body has tissue level of organization. Hydra, Jelly fish, Sea
(Cnideria)  They are diploblastic animals. anemone, Aurelia, etc,
 The mouth is surrounded by ring of tentacles.
 They can reproduce sexually as well as
asexually.
Platyhelminthes  They are first triploblastic animals. Planaria, Tapeworm,
 They possess a mouth but not anus. Liver fluke, Blood fluke,
 The body is bilaterally symmetrical. etc.
 Reproduction takes place mostly sexually but
few reproduces asexually.
Nematoda  The body has tissue level of organization. Ascaris,Enteribius,
 They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical Hookworms, Pinworms,
and unsegmented animals. etc.
 The internal organ lie in a pseudocoelom.
 Most of them are free living.
Annelida  They are triploblastic and contain true Earthworm, Leeches,
colelom. Clamworms, Sea mouse,
 They are elongated, segmented, worm-like etc.
animals.
 The body is bilaterally symmentrical and have
organ level of organization.
 They reproduces sexually.
Arthropoda  The body is bilaterally symmetrical and Prawn, Crab, Housefly.
segmented.
 They are triploblastic and possess true Cockroach, etc.
coelom,
 The body can be differentiated into three
regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
 They reproduces sexually.
Mollusca  They are triploblastic and possess true Sea urchin, Starfish,
coelom. Antedon, Sea cucumber,
 The body is bilaterally symmetrical. etc.
 The body is unsegmented or with little
segmentation and soft. Little segmentation
and soft
 The body is often protected by a hard
calcareous shell.
Chordata  They are triploblastic animals. Fish, Crocodile, Crow,
 They have bilaterally symmetrical body. Frog, Man, etc.
 They have true vertebral column and internal
skeleton.
 They have complex differentiation of body
tissues and organs.

 The phylum chordate have been further divided into three subphylum such as: eurochordata,
cephalochordate and vertebrata.
 The subphylum vertebrata has mainly five classes and these are as follows:

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

Cyclostomata  They are the most primitive vertebrates. Lampreys, Hagfish, etc.
  They are animals with cartilaginous endoskeleton.
 The circulatory system includes a two chambered
heart.
 Their gills are enclosed in pouch.
Chondrichthyes  Their skeleton is made of cartilage. Shark, Sting rays,
 They are mostly marine. Electric rays, Dogfish,
 Their gills are not covered by an operculum. etc.
 They are unisexual and fertilization is internal.
Osteichthyes  They have skeleton of bones. Slamon, Sea horse,
 Their gills are covered by an operculum. Trout, Carp, etc.
 In most of the animals external fertilization takes
place.
 Their fins are membranous.
Amphibia  They can live in water and on land. Toad, Frog,
 They are cold-blooded animals. Salamander, etc.
 Respiration takes place through gills or lungs.
 Heart is three-chambered.
Reptilia  They are cold-blooded animals. Tortoise, Snake,
 They have lungs for breathing and respiration. Chameleon Crocodile,
 Most of them have three chambered heart. (Except etc.
crocodile which has four chambered heart)
Aves  They have feathers and body is covered with Pigeon, Crow, Ostrich,
scales. Penguin, etc.
 They are warm-blooded animals.
 Heart is four chambered.
 They have lungs for respiration.
Mammalia  They possess mammary glands. Humans, Rat, Dog,
 The body is covered with hairs. Elephant, etc.
 They are warm-blooded.
 They give birth to young ones. (Except platypus
and echidna)
 Heart is four ? chambered.

Animalia

These organisms are multicellular and heterotrophic. Most of them can move from one place to another and lacks
ceil wall in their cell. They are further classified on the basis of body design and cell structures. Some of the phylum
of the animal kingdom are discussed below:

Porifera
These organisms have smallest holes on their bodies and are non motile in nature. These small holes on their
bodies forms the canal system in the body and helps in circulating water, oxygen, and food. They have hard outer
covering on their body and are mainly founded in marine water. They are multicellular and diploblastic which have
radial symmetry. They do not have any well developed organs like mouth, body cavity, and anus.
 Coelenterata
They are multicellular and diploblastic animals having more organized tissue structure. Their body shows radial
symmetry and are mostly founded in marine water, except for few, such as. Hydra. They have only cells of nervous
system and can reproduce by both sexual and asexual methods. They possess central
gastrovascular cavity which consist of mouth surrounded by short and slender tentacles. Some of them live in
colonies while other live independently. For example the jelly fish and Hydra shows independent existence.

Platyhelminthes
Their bodies shows bilateral symmetry and dorsoventrally flattened animals. Their bodies are triploblastic and
have digestive cavity with a single opening called mouth. They have suckers for taking food and hooks for
movements.
They do not have any circulatory system. They are either free living or parasitic in nature. For example, planaria
are free living and liver flukes are parasitic in nature. They are also hermaphrodite i.e. both the sex male and
female are present in the same individuals. They do not have true internal body cavity.

Nematoda
Their bodies shows bilateral symmetry and are triploblastic. Their bodies have tissues and have true body cavity,
but no real organs. The body is covered with tough resistant cuticle that provides their bodies some sorts of shape
and structure. Male and female are found in different individuals. Most of them are parasitic, but very few are free
living. For example round worm, filarial worms are parasitic in nature.

Anneelida
These organisms show bilateral symmetry and are triploblastic. They also have true body cavity. The body is
covered with thin cuticles and have lateral appendages for locomotion. They have alimentary canal in the form of
tube like structure which extends from mouth to anus. They have nephridia for removal of waste and nervous
system consists of dorsal brain and a ventral nerve chord having ganglia and lateral nerve in each segment of the
body. They are either aquatic or terrestrial. For example earth worms and leeches.

Arthropoda
The body of the organism is bilaterally symmetrical and are triploblastic. The body is divided into two parts, head
and thorax. The head part consists of brains, and sense organs. They have open circulatory system and hence
blood does not flow in a well defined blood vessels. The male and female sex are usually different and shows
internal fertilization. They are free living or parasitic in nature. They are the largest phylum of the animal kingdom.
For example housefly, spider, butterfly, cockroach, etc.

Mollusca
These organisms have bilateral symmetry with little segmentation on their body. They have open circulatory
system and have kidney like organ for excretion and have foot for movement. They respires by gills and have
sensory organ of touch, smell, vision, and taste. The male and female are in different organisms and are mostly
aquatic in nature. For example , etc.
 Echinodermata
These organisms have radial symmetry and are triploblastic and unsegmented body. They have spines on their
skins and are free-living marine animals. They have complete digestive system and excretory system is absent.
They reproduce by both sexual and asexual mode. Some of them even reproduce by regeneration. Male and
female are on different organisms. They have hard outer covering made up of calcium carbonate. For
example starfish and antedon.

Protochordata
These organisms are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelom. They have bag like soft bodies. They have
notochord in their bodies having dorsal tubular nerve chord. They are hermaphrodite and are exclusively marine
animals. Adult have cellulose covering over their bodies.

Vertebrate
The vertebrate have true vertebral column and internal skeleton which provides them a definite body design. They
are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and have segmented body. They have notochord and a dorsal nerve chord.
They have pair of gill pouches. The vertebrated are further classified into five
groups as pisces, amphibia, reptilia, aves, and mammals.
(A) Pisces: These are fishes and are exclusively aquatic animals with their skins covered with scales. They
obtained oxygen dissolved in water using gills. They have streamlined body and muscular tails which is used for
movement. They are cold blooded animals and hearts is two chambered. They reproduce by lying eggs. The
skeletons is entirely made up of cartilage tissue. The digestive system is with J -shaped stomach and intestine
with spiral valves. They have well developed sense of smell, vibration reception and electro reception. Their
size varies from few mm to several meters.

(B) Amphibia: The amphibians are the groups of animals having chordates which lives on land as well as in water.
They have three chambered heart and respire through gills or lungs. They reproduce by laying eggs
i.e. oviparous and fertilization is external in case of frogs and toads, but internal in salamanders and apoda. They
have mucus gland in the skin and are cold blooded animals. They have two pairs of pentadactyl.

(C) Reptilia: The reptials are the cold blooded animals having scales on their skins and breaths through lungs.
Most of them have three chambered heart, but few of them like crocodiles have four chambered heart. They have
two pairs of limbs with pentadactyl and respires through lungs. Teeth are present in almost all of them. They
reproduce through internal fertilization and most of them lay eggs i.e. oviparous, but few reptiles are viviparous
like lizard and snakes.

(D) Aves: The aves are the warm blooded animals with four chambered heart. Their body is covered with feathers
and two forelimbs is modified into wings which helps them in flight. They respires through lungs. Bone have air
cavity and hence are light which helps them to fly. Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and tail. They
are oviparous and reproduce by laying eggs. The fertilization is internal.
(E) Mammalia: The mammals are warm blooded animals having four chambered heart and breath through lungs.
They are viviparous and are breast feeding to their young ones. They have sweat gland on their body and also
have hair on their skins. They have external ear which helps them
to hear sounds from the surroundings. They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs which are variously adapted for
walking and running. They respires through lungs. They have internal fertilization and penis is always present. The
parents take care of their young one.

Different Kingdoms of Organisms

Monera
These are basically the unicellular organism which do not have well defined nucleus and nor have any cell
organelles. Some of these organisms have cell wall while other do not. They are either autotrophic or heterotrophic
in nature. For example, the organism like blue green algae, halophiles, cocci, bacilli and spirilla.

Protista
This kingdom includes many kinds of unicellular eukaryotic organisms which uses appendages such as cilia and
flagella for movement from one place to another. They are either autotrophic or heterotrophic. Most of them are
aquatic in nature having irregular body design. Cytoplasm is divided into two parts, outer and inner parts. They
reproduce either by sexual or asexual. For example, the organism like algae, diatoms and protozoa comes in this
categories.
 Fungi
Fungi are the non-green plants that are heterotrophic in nature. Some fungi are parasitic in nature and derive its
food from the other organisms. For example, albugo, ustilago etc. Some others are saprophytic in nature. For
example, Rhizopus, Agaricus etc. They are either unicellular or multicellular. Their cell wall is made up of chitin
and cellulose and stores food in the form of glycogen. Some algae such as blue green algae, shows symbiotic
relationship among them self and are also called lichens. The lichens are the green patches which grows on the
rocks, and watery area around the drains and barks of the trees. The fungus absorbs water and minerals from the
soil and supplies it to the algae which in turns prepare food and supplies it to the fungus.

Plant
These are the multicellular organisms which are autotrophic in nature. The plants are further subclassified into
three subgroups such as Thallophyta, Bryophyte, and Pteridophyte. The first basis of classification is that
whether the plant body has well differentiated body parts or not. The second basis of classification is wether the
parts of the plant's body have special tissues for transportation of water and mineral or not. The third basis of
classification is, if the plant produces seeds and fruits or not. We will discuss each of them in

Thallophyta
This group includes the most primitive plants which do not have well differentiated body design. The body cannot
be differentiated into stem, roots and leaves and is in the form of undivided body, called thallus. These groups
commonly includes algae which are aquatic in nature and are founded in both fresh water and marine water. They
contains the pigments called chlorophyll which helps them in photosynthesis and hence they are autotrophic in
nature. They have cell wall around their cell and do not have any conducting tissue. They generally reproduce by
spore formation.

Bryophyte
These are multicellular plants founded in the damp places and are called amphibians. Its body can be differentiated
into stem and leaf. It does not possess any specialized tissue, such as xylem and phloem, for conduction of water
and mineral from one part to the another. For example Riccia, Marchantia, Funaria and Barbula.

Pteridophyta
This group includes the plants whose bodies can be differentiated into roots, stem and leaves. It contains the
specialized tissue for conduction of water and mineral from one part of the plants to the other parts. They do
produce seeds and flowers. They have well developed reproductive tissue which produce seeds and are
called phanerogams. These groups are further classified on the basis of naked seeds or closed seeds. These
two groups are gymnosperm and angiosperms.

The gymnosperms includes the plant having naked seeds and are normally perennial, evergreen and woody. For
example pinus, cycas, deodar, etc
The angiosperms includes the covered seeds which are developed inside an organ and is modified to becomes
fruits. They are flowering plants. The seeds have structure called cotyledons. The angiosperms is divided into
two groups on the basis of cotyledons presents in the seeds as monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The plants
having single cotyledons in the seeds is called monocotyledons, such as maize, wheat, rice, sugarcane,
barley, etc are the example of monocotyledons.

The other one is the plant having two cotyledons in the seeds and are called dicotyledons. For example pea,
rose, sunflower, apple, grams etc.

Classification of Organisms

Since there is one or the other similarity and dissimilarity among the organisms and. also there are large number
of organisms in this world and it is very difficult to identify and understand each of them separately. Hence we
need to classify the organisms. The main advantage of classification of organism is that it makes the study of large
variety of organism easier. It also tells us the interrelationship among the various organisms. In ancient times the
classification was based on some basic criteria such as size, colour, and nature of the organism. Later on the
system of classification was based on overall similarities and dissimilarities between the organisms.
In present time the organisms has been classified into two groups as plant Kingdom and animal kingdom. The
main difference between plant kingdom and animal kingdom is that plant can manufacture their own food using
sunlight and carbon dioxide, where as the animals derive its food from the plants. Later on it was found that there
were some organism which fit into neither plants nor animals category. Hence the classification system was further
modified.
At present time there are five kingdom of classification:

 Monera
 Protista
 Fungi
 Plant
 Animal

Hierarchy of Classification
The five kingdom of classification given by Whittaker was based on the cell structure of the organism, mode of
nutrition and their body design. The classification is done by naming the subgroups at various level as:

→
Kingdom Phylum

→
Class

→
Order

→
Family

→
Genus

→
Species
In broadest mode of classification the organisms has been classified into two categories as plant kingdom and
animal kingdom. The next step is the phylum which includes all the organism having few common characters.
The next is the mammals. Mammal is followed by order which includes the organism having few common
character and are less similar, such as carnivorous and omnivorous. The next step is the family which includes
the group having more similarity to each other, such as, the family of cat and lion is similar. The next is genus,
which includes the organisms having similar reproductive organs, such as, plants producing flower and fruits. The
last step is the species which include the group of organism having same structure and forms, but not necessarily
the function and are able to breed among themselves and produce the fertile offspring of their own kind.

Why do we fall Ill

Health is the real wealth. But health and disease are among the most complicated issues in our life. We have to
deal with this issue in our life more often. The most important thing to know is that why we fall ill? It has been
rightly said prevention is better than cure. The various organ systems in our body work smoothly to keep us healthy.

Health and Its Failure

Health is an idea of being well. A good health allows us to work well physically, mentally and socially. A good
health enables us to cope up with the social, mental and physical pressure without any difficulty. To keep ourselves
fit and healthy we must take a balanced diet, regular exercise and cleanliness in and around us. If we do not follow
the above mentioned points then we may fall ill. A disease can also be caused because of the malfunctioning of
some nutrients or failure of our organs.

Individual and Community Health

As we have mentioned earlier that health means a state of physical, mental and social well-being, but it cannot be
achieved at an individual level. The health of all the organisms depends on the environment and their surroundings.
We live in a society because our social environment is an important part of our individual health. In the community,
physical environment is directly related to social environment. There are various agencies in our communities that
are responsible for providing cleanliness. If they will not work properly then we cannot expect healthy life. For
example, in a city if garbage is not dumped properly or drains are not cleaned then our community can become a
breeding place for disease causing bacteria and germs. In a community, the availability of lean drinking water,
adequate nutritious food, social equality and harmony needs to be provided to keep all the people healthy.

Disease and Its Causes

There are various organ systems in our body that work collectively to keep us healthy. A disease can occur when
the normal state of a man is disturbed or a particular organ or organ system starts malfunctioning. The cause of
disease arise from person to person and from place to place.
The following table provides a list of disease in human and its causes:

Type of disease Causes of disease Example

Physical Temporary or permanent damage to Bone fracture
body parts.
Infectious Invasion of the body by other Typhoid, malaria, hepatitis, rabies,
organisms such as viruses, bacteria,
fungi, protozoan, nematodes AIDS, T.B., polio, influenza,

Cholera

Deficiency Inadequate diet Kwashiorkor, marasmus, scurvy,

rickets, anaemia, goiter,
xerophthalmia, ber-beri
Inherited Defective genes passed on from Haemophilia, sickle-cell anaemia,
parents to offspring cystic fibrosis
Mental Brain damage or psychological Depression, paranoia
Social Social interactions with family friends Drug dependence, alcoholism,
and strangers smoking, unhealthy lifestyles, social
isolation

Deficient nutrient Disease

Protein Kwashiorkor
Protein and carbohydrates Marasmus
Vitamin A Xerophthalmia
Vitamin A Night blindness
Beriberi
Cheilosis
Pellagra
Pernicious anaemia
Iron Microcytic anaemia
Vitamin C Scurvy
Vitamin D Rickets (in children)

Deficient nutrient Disease

Vitamin K Bleeding disease
Fluorine Dental caries
Iodine Goitre

Types of Diseases
Acute Diseases: These are the diseases that last for a short period and do not cause major harm to our body.
They can be cured easily with simple medicines and sometimes even without medicine. For example, cough and
cold. They are very common. We all suffer from cough and cold and get better within a week or so. The impact of
these diseases is minor. We neither loose our body weight nor we-need to go for complete rest.

Chronic Diseases: These are the diseases that last for long duration. They cannot be cured easily and causes
enough harm to our body. A person suffering from chronic disease loses weight, feels tired and needs complete
rest. It makes us bed ridden. For example, TB, lung disease, etc. We suffer from these diseases for a long time
that is over the years. These diseases have prolonged effect in our life.
Infectious and Non-Infectious Causes: There are many factors that are responsible than causing infectious and
non-infectious diseases. As you know that prevention is better than cure, so you need to prevent the diseases by
knowing the causes of these diseases. As we have seen, it is important to keep public health and community
health factors in mind when we think about causes of diseases. It is practical to think of the direct causes of
disease. Microbes and microorganisms are the cause of infectious diseases. They are also called infectious
agents. Microbes are found in the entire community and spread the diseases in the whole area.

Infection Agent
The following are the infection agents:

Some Common Diseases Caused by Pathogens

Type of Pathogen Diseases Caused in Living Organisms

Virus Common cold, poliomyelitis, SARS, AIDS, dengue fever, smallpox,
chickenpox, measles
Bacteria Typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis, tetanus, syphilis, diphtheria, pneumonia
Fungi Skin infections, ringworm, athlete?s foot
Protozoa Malaria, amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery), kala-azar, trypanosomiasis
Worms Taeniasis (tapeworm infection), elephantiasis (pin worm infection),
ascariasis (round worm infection)

Means of Spreading Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases spread from a sick person to a healthy person in the following ways:
Through air: Air is a medium through which infectious agents spread the disease. When a person suffering from
infectious diseases sneezes or coughs, the disease causing microbes enter into the air and then enter into the
body of a healthy person standing nearby. Thus, a healthy person comes under the influence of that disease. The
diseases that spread through air are: Common cold, pneumonia, tuberculosis, etc.

When close to infected person air transmitted diseases are easier to catch
Through water: Water is another medium that helps in spreading diseases from a sick person to healthy person.
When the stool of a person suffering from an infectious gut disease mixes with drinking water; it causes disease
such as cholera. The water of dirty drains mixes with drinking water also causes diseases.

Sexually transmitted disease: Few diseases that are transmitted sexually, such as syphilis and AIDS, are fatal
and at certain stage incurable. These diseases are not caused by casual physical contact. It can spread only when
an unhealthy person develops sexual relation with a healthy person.

Structure of HIV

Through animal: Animals are the major sources of spreading infectious disease. Animals that live around us
carries disease causing germs from sick person to a healthy person and thus causes diseases. For example,
mosquitoes.

Common methods of transmission of diseases

Treatment of Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases can be treated in two different ways. The first way is to reduce the Tweets of the disease and
the other is to uproot the disease from the body. For reducing the effect, treatment is provided that reduces the
effects and symptoms. For example, we can take medicines that bring down fever, reduce pain and loose motions.
We can take bed rest so that we can conserve our energy. These all above mentioned procedures reduces the
effect and helps in healing of the disease. The major drawback of this kind of treatment is that it suppresses the
disease for the time being not on permanent basis. To cure the disease permanently, we have to kill the disease
causing microbes. These microbes can be killed by medicines that are available for the same purpose.
Microbes are classified into viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. These all microbes have peculiar essential
biochemical life process that is not similar to others. We need to use the special medicine that kills the bacteria
without affecting our body. Many antibiotics have been developed on the basis of this process only.

Prevention of Infectious Diseases

Prevention is the best way to stop the growth of disease in and around us. There are many ways to prevent
diseases. Here we will discuss about the two ways that help in the prevention of infectious diseases. One way is
general and the other is specific. The general way is that you should keep your surroundings neat and clean.
Community cleanliness programme should be strictly implemented. We should not allow the breeding of germs
and microbes in our surrounding by keeping them neat and clean. We should drink clean water. We must maintain
public health and hygiene properly. The specific way is directly related to our immune system. We need to develop
a strong immune system in our body so that it can fight with the diseases and do not allow these diseases to cause
harm to our body. The person having a strong immune system does not get affected by the infectious diseases
easily. To develop a strong immune system, we must take a proper and balanced diet that contains all the nutrients
in right amount required by our body
Regular exercise is also helpful in this regard.

Principle of Prevention

One of the basic principle of prevention is the community hygine. We can prevent the communicable disease by
increasing the public awareness regarding the causes of disease. While treating the infectious disease we normally
face the problems like unrecoverable situation of the patient one he suffers from the disease, the treatment taking
long time to cure and lastly we have to take care that it does not spread from one person to another. Thus, we can
say that prevention is, much better than cure. To prevent the spread of disease we should have proper living
condition that is hygienic. There should be proper facility of safe drinking water and clean surroundings. If some
one is suffering from the disease we should keep him away from the others, till he gets well properly. The best
way to prevent the disease is to immunize the children against various disease, by giving them vaccines. The
process of inducing vaccine to the children against certain disease is called vaccination.

Principle of Treatment

There are two principles of treatment i.e. either by reducing the effect of disease or by killing the cause of the
disease. In the first type, we can provide the treatment, that will reduces the symptoms by giving the medicines.
However, symptoms related treatments are not sufficient to cure the disease. To cure the disease we have to kill
the microbes by identifying them and giving the proper drugs. Since each microbes can be killed by a specific
drug, it is essential to identify them separated and induce the drugs. Each groups of organisms will have some
essential biochemical life process, which are different from others. We have to find the drugs that will block the
microbes synthesis pathway, without affecting our own.
Types of Diseases

There are basically four types of diseases such as chronic diseases, acute diseases, acquired diseases, and
congenital diseases.
In this part we will discuss about all the four types of diseases.

 Chronic Diseases: The diseases, which last for long time and are almost incurrable are called chronic
disease. For example, TB, AIDs, cancer, leprosy, etc are the example of chronic diseases. The chronic
diseases affect the health drastically. The person become weak and lose weight. It also reduces our ability
to learn and understand the matters and reduce the memory power.
 Acute Diseases: The diseases which get cured in short time is called acute diseases. The diseases like
common cold, influenza, viral, are acute diseases. The acute diseases do not cause any major effect on
the health of the affected person.
 Acquired Diseases: The diseases which developed after birth is called acquired diseases. It is further
classified in two types Communicable and

Non Communicable diseases. The diseases which spread from one person to another is called communicable
diseases. These diseases are caused by microorganism such as fungi, bacteria, protozoans and viruses. It may
spread through air, water, food and insects. The non communicable diseases are those which do not spread from
one person to another. The non communicable diseases is offourtypes as organic diseases, deficiency diseases,
allergies and cancer.

Infectious Diseases
The microorganisms which carry the pathogens that causes diseases is called infectious agent. Some of the
infectious agents are virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, etc. Some of the common diseases caused by virus are
common cold, influenza, dengue, AIDS, etc. The diseases caused by bacteria are cholera, TB, anthrax, tyhpoid,
etc. These pathogens cause the diseases either by damaging the tissue or by toxin secretion. The virus is
considered as the border line between living and non living organism. When they are inside the human cell they
acts like a living and when they are outside they behave like non living. The diseases caused by bacteria can be
cured by taking antibiotic, where as the diseases caused by virus can be cured by taking antiviral called interferon.
The anti bodies act inside the cell, where as interferons act outside the cells. It acts very quickly against the viruses,
but the action is temporary.

The various diseases caused by different microorganisms are given below in the table:

Sr. No. Microorganisms Various Diseases

1 Bacteria
2 Virus
3 Fungi
4 Protozoan?s
5 Worms
Chloera, Typhoid, TB, Anthrax, Tetnus, Food poisoning, Meningitis, diphtheria, etc
AIDS, Common Cold, Influenza, Hepatitis-B, Chicken Pox, Measles, Mumps, etc
Skin diseases, Ring worm, etc
Malaria, Dysentry, Sleeping sickness, Kala - azar
Elephantiasis, Intestinal infections

Means of Spread of Diseases

There are various means by which infectious disease spread from one person to another. They can spread through
air, water, contaminated food, etc. Some of the disease like common cold, pneumonia and TB spreads through
air. If an infected person sneezes or cough in open air, the person standing nearby get infected. The other diseases
like cholera, dysentery spread through contaminated water. The bacteria enters from the body of infected person
to the healthy person and cause the disease. The disease like AIDS, Syphilis etc are sexually transmitted disease.
They get transmitted when the infected person has sexual intercourse with the healthy person. The other casual
physical contacts like hand shakes, hugging, wrestling can also cause such disease. Many disease like malaria,
are caused by the biting of mosquito.

Organ Specific and Tissue Specific Diseases

There are various means by which disease causing microorganism enters into our body. Different microbes goes
to different parts of our body. If they enter from air via nose, they are likely to go to lungs, which is seen in case of
bacteria that cause TB. If they enter through mouth , they lie in the inner lining of guts and can cause typhoid or if
they go to liver they can cause jaundice. Malaria causing microbes enters into our body by biting of mosquitoes.
On the other hand, tissue specific disease depends on the fact that the immune system of the body become active
and recruits many cell to the affected tissue to destroy the disease causing microbes, which is called inflammation.
As a part of this process, there are local effects such as swelling, pains and most general effects is fever. In case
of HIV infection the viruses goes to the immune system and damage its function. The severity of the disease
depends on the number of microbes in the body. If the number of microbes is less, then the disease is minor and
if the number of microbes is in large number, then the disease can be major and can be life taking. It is the immune
system of the body that determines the number of microbes in the body. The body with strong immune system will
have lesser number of microbes and hence is less prone to the disease.
Significance of Health
Category : 9th Class

Introduction
Health is one of the important aspects of human life. Health and diseases are interconnected with each other. Our
body is made up of cells and tissues. Cells are made up of variety of chemical substance, such as, proteins,
carbohydrate, fats and so on. There are various specialized activities in our bodies and all the activities are
interconnected with each other. Whenever there is malfunctioning of any organ of the body, it affects the entire
system of the body and our body start functioning abnormally. This situation is called the diseases. Thus, diseases
can be defined as the abnormal functioning of the body.

Significance of Health
Health is considered as the complete physical, mental, and social fitness of an individual. If we remain healthy
we can lead happy life. There are many factors which affects our health. The diseases may be air born, water born
or food born. Some of the diseases are infectious and are caused by microorganisms such as bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, virus, etc. Thus, to prevent diseases we need to keep our environment and our surroundings
clean and hygienic. The personal and community hygiene is equally important to keep ourself healthy. Since we
live in a society, individual health is important to keep our society healthy. We must take care of the garbages,
which should not be left open on the street and in the open areas. We should have closed drainage system so
that germs are not allowed to breed in the contaminated water of the drain. The drainage system should have no
blockage in it to keep the dirty water flowing and there should not be stagnation of water. Thus, the condition
essential for good health are: better sanitation, clean drinking water, adequate nutritious food and social
harmony.
To keep ourself healthy we must take balance diet. The balanced diet promotes healthy growth of our mind and
body. It keeps us mentally sharp and alert to fight any sort of problems.

Causes of Diseases
The abnormal functioning of the body is called the diseases. There, may be several reasons for causing diseases.
The various factors causing the diseases have been divided into two factors as intrinsic factors and extrinsic
factors.
Here in this part we will discuss both of them separately and in details:

Intrinsic Factors
The diseases causing factors that lies inside the human bodies is called intrinsic factors. The diseases
like kidney failure, heart diseases, genetic disorder, hormonal imbalance, allergy etc are caused due to
intrinsic factors. Such diseases are also called metabolic diseases. The diseases like kidney failure can occur due
to acute or chronic problems.
Acute problems may arise due to the injuries to the abdomen parts of the body. The prerenal causes are due to
the reduction in blood supply to the kidney, or dehydration in the body due to some reason or the other. The renal
cause of kidney failure is because of the direct damage of the kidney. It may be due to the failure of immune
system of the body or infection in the urinary tract. It is also called sepsis.
 Extrinsic Factors
The factors which enters into our bodies from outside and cause the diseases are called extrinsic factors. The
extrinsic factors which causes diseases are microorganisms, environmental factors, alcohol, drugs, and
unbalanced diet. Some of the diseases which are caused by extrinsic factors are Beri - Beri, Pellagra, Scurvy,
AIDS, Cholera, Leprosy, Dengue, Hepatitis, etc. The diseases causing microorganisms are bacteria, fungi, virus,
protozoa, etc.
Some of the diseases caused due to the deficiency of nutrients are:

Sr. No. Nutrient Sources Diseases

1. Vitamin A Green vegetable, butter, carrot, egg yolk, oranges. Night blindness, Dermatosis

2. Vitamin B1 Wheat, meat, liver yeast, Beri - Beri

3. Vitamin B2 Cereals, egg, green vegetable, meat. Cheilosis

4. Vitamin B3 Meat, egg, milk, rice, flour. Nervous Disorder

5. Vitamin B5 Meat, milk, cereals, pulses. Pellagra, Diarrhoea

6. Vitamin B6 Egg, liver oil, kilk, vegetables, etc Anaemia, Dermatisis, Paralysis

7. Vitamin B12 Meat, egg, liver oil, fish. Pernicious Anaemia

8. Vitamin C Citrus Fruits, lemon, mango, amia, plumes, guava. Scurvy

 9. Vitamin D Cod liver oil, butter, fish, milk, eggs, Rickets in children, Osteomalac

10. Vitamin E Green vegetaables, meat, butter, wheat, grams, Anaemia, sterlity

11. Vitamin K Green vegetable, tomatos, soya bean, cheese, eggs Haemorrhage

12. Iron Meat, eggs, cereals, green vegetables Anaemia, week immunity

13. Iodine Iodized salt, milk, cheese, sea food. Goitre, Cretinism

14. Calcium Milk, cheese, pods, cereals Weak teeth and bones and ret

15. Potassium Milk, meat, fruits, vegetables Low blood pressure, weak mus

16. Protein Milk, eggs, fish, meat, Kwashiorkor and Marasmus

Below is the figure showing the rickets diseases

Image of the person suffering from pellagra

Image of marasmus and kwashiorkor diseases

Natural Resources
Category : 9th Class
Natural Resources
Our earth is a unique planet. It supports all forms of life. To support all these forms of life, the nature has endowed
this planet with vast resources such as land, air, water, atmosphere, minerals, etc. All these resources are divided
into two components, biotic and abiotic. Biotic components constitute all the living things whereas abiotic
components constitute all the non-living things.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components consist of air, water, soil, land, weather, climate, etc. These all components are very vital to
support all forms of life on this planet.
Air
Air is a mixture of many gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, water vapour, etc. Air is one of the most important
factors that supports life on this planet. Our atmosphere constitutes the air. The sunlight is filtered by this
atmosphere so that no harmful rays can reach to the earth. The atmosphere has five layers. They are the following:
(i) Troposphere
(ii) Stratosphere
(iii) Mesosphere
(iv) Thermosphere
(v) Exosphere

The atmosphere

The Movement of Air: Wind

Cool breezes that blow on the earth are called winds. They bring a great relief after a hot day. All the phenomena
such as the causes of the movement of air, speed of wind, rainfall, etc. are the result of changes that take place
in our atmosphere due to the heating of air and the formation of water vapour. Water vapour is formed due to
evaporation of water. The atmosphere gets heated from the radiation that is reflected back or reradiated by the
land or water bodies. Convection currents are set up in the air when it gets heated.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is like a giant monster which has been destroying the life from the earth slowly and gradually. The
process of deforestation has deteriorated the quality of air that directly affects our health.
The fossil fuels like coal and petroleum contain small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. When these fuels are burnt,
nitrogen and sulphur too are burnt and this produces different oxides of nitrogen and sulphur. Inhalation of these
gases is very dangerous for our health. They also cause acid rain as the air in the atmosphere is mixed with these
gases. The combustion of fossil fuels also increases the amount of suspended particles in air. These suspended
particles could be unburnt carbon particles or substances called hydrocarbons. Presence of high levels of all these
pollutants reduced the visibility. Especially in cold weather when water also condenses out of air. This is known
as smog and is a visible indication of air pollution. Air pollution can cause respiratory problems, skin disease,
cancer, high blood pressure, irritation, etc. It also affects the life cycle of plants and several other animals. The
increase amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is causing green-house effect and damaging the ozone
layer, which protect the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

Ozone
Dramatic loss of ozone (a hole in the ozone layer) in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica was first noticed in
1970s by a research group. This was mainly due to the release of man-made chemicals containing CFCS, Br,
other related halogen compounds when these chemicals diffuse into the atmosphere, they react with the UV
radiations from sun and release chlorine atoms that destroy ozone. This results in the reduction of the ozone layer.

Water
Water is an important natural resource that carries out various life activities. It occupies a very large area of the
earth and it is also found underground. The other form water is found in the atmosphere as water vapour. The
main source of drinking wateris found in the form of snow and frozen ice caps. Inspite the presence of large amount
of water, very little percent of all the available water is potable. The potable water if found in rivers, lakes and
ponds. Water is found in all the forms such as solid, liquid and gas. Water is an agent of soil formation and a
medium for several ecosystems. Even 70% of human body consists of water. Thus, water is one of the most
important things that support life on the earth. It is also the dwelling place for many aquatic animals and plants. All
cellular processes take place in water medium, thus the importance of water increases automatically.

Water Pollution
Water is a precious resource. We must conserve it not only for ourselves but also for future generation. Man's
disinclination towards its conservation causes water pollution on large scale that pollutes almost all the sources of
pure water like river, lake, glacier, etc. There are many factors that are responsible for water pollution. Water
dissolves the fertilisers and pesticides that we use in our farms. So some percentages of these substances are
washed into the water bodies. Sewage from our towns and cities and the waste from factories are also dumped
into rivers or lakes. Some industries also use water as coolant in various operations and later return this hot water
to water-bodies. The water inside the deep reservoir would be colder than the water at the surface which gets
heated by the sun. All this can affect the life-forms that are found in these water bodies in various ways. It can
encourage the growth of some life-forms and harm some other life-forms. This affects the balance between various
organisms.

The following are the harmful effects of water pollution:

(i) It causes fatal diseases such as typhoid, cholera, jaundice and hepatitis.
(ii) It disturbs the ecological balance on the earth and thus harms the various life forms available on the earth.
(iii) It is an ideal breeding ground for disease causing bacteria and germs.
(iv) It affects the aquatic forms of life and thus endangers many animals and plants living in water.

Water Cycle
As we all know that water is a renewable source of energy. It gets renewed naturally through water cycle. Water
from water bodies gets evaporated due to sunlight and reaches the atmosphere as water vapour. In the
atmosphere, water vapour forms cloud and condenses. The condensation of water changes it into tiny drops of
water and it comes down as rain. The same cycle is repeated continuously.

Water Cycle

Soil
Soil is an upper portion of the earth that supports the growth of plants and animals. Soil contains many valuable
nutrients that support life forms. Soil is a mixture. It contains small particles of rock of different sizes, humus and
various forms of microscopic life. The average size of soil particles decides its types and the amount of humus
and microscopic organisms decides its quality. Soil supports all kinds of vegetation. Without soil nothing can grow
on this earth. Formation of soil takes millions of years.

The following are the types of soil:

Clayey Soil
Clayey soil is very fine and smooth in texture. This kind of soil is prone to water logging in spring
season. If there is adequate drainage, clayey soil contains high nutrient levels for the growth of plants.

Clayey soil

Sandy Soil
Sandy soil has rough texture. It is composed of silica particles, quartz particles and very small amount of clay soil
mixed with it. This soil is prone to over-draining and summer dehydration.

Sandy Soil

Silty Soil
Silty soil has smooth texture. This soil is the most fertile soil. It is composed of minerals and fine organic particles.
This soil contains good amount of nutrients and allows good drainage of water.

Silty Soil
Loamy Soil
Loamy soil is composed of nearly 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% clay. This soil is perfect for cultivation of crops.
This soil is very fertile and full of organic matter. This soil allows good drainage, retains moisture and is rich in
nutrients.

Loamy Soil

Peaty Soil
Peaty soil has fewer nutrients than other soils. This soil is prone to over-retention of water. This soil can be used
for cultivation with the use of fertilizer and artificial drainage.

Peaty Soil

Chalky Soil
Chalky soil is light brown in colour. This soil contains large quantities of stones of different sizes. This soil is not
suitable for cultivation. This soil .blocks the availability of trace elements such as iron and manganese and makes
these elements unavailable to plants. Unavailability of nutrients causes poor growth and yellowing of leaves.

Chalky Soil

Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is a matter of great concern. It causes enough harm to the environment and affects the growth of
vegetation of a place. The topsoil is carried away by various eroding agents and makes the soil of a place infertile.
The following are the effects of soil erosion:
(i) The soil loses its fertility.
(ii) It causes land slide in hilly areas.
(iii) It causes floods.
(iv) It causes drought.

The following are the methods of soil conservation:

(i) Planting more trees or afforestation
(ii) Intensive cropping
(iii) Terrace farming
(iv) Constructing dams or embankments
(v) Developing proper canal system around the field

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is mainly caused by disposing the chemical wastes from factories to the fields, dumping the non-
biodegradable wastes into the soil, cutting the trees on large scale, excessive use of fertilisers and chemicals, etc.
Soil pollution reduces the fertility of the soil and turns a fertile land into barren land and thus causes ecological
imbalance.

Nitrogen Cycle
The air contains 78% of nitrogen, which is essential for the growth of many life forms. It is present in all the living
organisms in the form of protein, amino acid and nucleic acids. It is converted into nitrates by nitrogen fixing
bacteria that is used by plants.
During lightning nitrogen of atmosphere reacts with oxygen and form dilute nitric acid. The following figure shows
a nitrogen cycle in nature:

Carbon Cycle
Carbon is an important gas that is found on the earth. It is found in various forms on the earth. It is found as
diamond and graphite in the elemental form, as carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere, as carbonate and hydrogen
carbonate salts in minerals, etc. The nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids and vitamins
contain carbon. Various animals contain carbon in the form of endoskeletons and exoskeletons. Carbon is also
used in the process of photosynthesis by green plants to make their own food and thus supports all forms of life
on the earth. In the process of photosynthesis, carbon is converted into glucose molecules that are either
converted into other substances or used to provide energy for the synthesis of other biologically i m p o r t a n t
molecules. This carbon dioxide goes back into the atmosphere during the process of respiration. Combustion of
fuels also adds the carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The process of industrialization has added a large amount
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The increase amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leads to global
warming. The following figure shows carbon cycle in the atmosphere.
Biogeochemical cycles

There is continuous transfer of energy between the various components of the biosphere. Both living and non
living components of the biosphere constantly interact with each other for this purpose. The living organisms derive
its nutrients from the earth for their growth and development, known as biogeochemical. These biogeochemical
are constantly recycled and used again and again. The different biogeochemical cycles are: water cycle. Nitrogen
cycle. Carbon cycle, and oxygen cycle. We will discuss about all these cycles in details below:

Water Cycle
Water is considered to be one of the most important liquid for the survival of life process on the earth surface. The
water constantly circulates between land, air, sea and living organisms and this is known as water cycle.
The heat of the Sun evaporates water from the water bodies. These water vapours go up in the atmosphere, cool
down and gets collected as a cloud. These clouds, on condensations, turn into the small droplets of water. On
getting heavier they fall back on the earth in the form of rain, snow or hails.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is present in maximum quantity in the air. It is nearly 78% in the air. It is also present in all life forms in
the form of proteins, amino acids and nucleic acids. In atmosphere it is in molecular form. The plant uses the
atmospheric nitrogen in the form of nitrate and is converted in this form by nitrogen fixation.

The leguminous plant like pea plant contains nitrogen fixing bacteria such as azotobactor and rhizobium in its
root nodules. These bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates. When animals consume the plants, it
breaks down the nitrogenous compound. When the animals or the plants die, some bacteria carry
out ammonification and produce ammonium ions

NH+4
. This process of formation of ammonia is called ammonification. Some of the microorganisms convert this ammonia
into nitrates, again reduced back to nitrogen and released back into the atmosphere. This process is known
as denitrification.

Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen is one of the important constituent of our atmosphere and is also the main components of water. It is
nearly 21% in our atmosphere. The living organism uses the atmospheric oxygen for the process of respiration
and releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This carbon dioxide is used by the plant for the process of
photosynthesis to pressure their own food and there after releases oxygen back into the atmosphere.

Carbon Cycle
Carbon is one of the important constituent of all organic compound and are founded in almost all living organisms,
in the form of carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids. In atmosphere it is present in 0.03%. Plants use atmospheric
carbon for the process of photosynthesis, in the form of its oxides and releases oxygen into the atmosphere. This
oxygen is used by the animals for the process of respiration, which in turn release carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere.
The other way round in which carbon cycle is formed is that, all the living organisms is constituted of major parts
of carbon. When these animals and plants die, their bodies are decomposed by the microorganisms into simpler
form and releases carbon to the atmosphere, either in the form of carbon or the oxides of carbon, like carbon
dioxide or carbon monoxides.

Air Pollutions

Contamination of air by poisonous gases released by various means and many other chemicals is called air
pollution. The main reason for air pollution is the rapid industrialization and urbanization. This rapid growth
and development is reducing the area under the forest leading to the release of gases like sulphur dioxide,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrogen sulphide, lead oxide in the atmosphere. Many
poisonous gases released by industries and factories, in the atmosphere. In today’s time the main reason for the
air pollution is also the large number of vehicles on the roads. These air pollutants can cause respiratory
problems, renal problems, high blood pressure, nervous problems and many other health hazards.

The large scale release of gases like sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere cause acid rain which makes the soil
very acidic and hence affects the plants and animals. It also leads to the reduction in production of food grains
due to loss, that is, of fertility of the soil. The air pollution cause two major ecological problems, green house effect
and ozone layer depletion. The green house effect is due to the increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide,
which leads to the heating up of the atmosphere and hence cause global warming. The other is the ozone layer,
which is a thick blanket of

O3
molecules called the isotopes of oxygen that protects us from the harmful ultraviolet radiation. These harmful
ultraviolet radiation can cause skin cancer, immune deficiency, cataracts and damages the plants and forest.
The main region for the hole in the ozone layer is the release of CFC gases. The CFC gas consists of chlorine,
fluorine, and carbon. Thus, if we have to protect our atmosphere we have to stop the use of harmful gases like
CFC that

Water
Water is considered to be a wonderful liquid and all the life forms on the earth is possible due to the water only.
About 75% of the earth surface is covered with water, but the concentration of fresh water i.e. potable water is
very less and is nearly 2.5%. This entire water bodies is called hydrosphere. The fresh water are found in river,
ponds, lakes, glacier of mountains, and underground. Water is essential for the survival of life forms on the
earth.

Water is considered to be essential because all the reaction that takes place within our body and within the cells
occurs in the liquid medium only. The movement of substance from one part of the body to the another part cannot
takes place in the form of solid molecule, it flows in the form of liquid, dissolved in water.
The ground water is the water which is found inside the earth surface. The level of ground water increases with
the absorption of water by the surface, during rainy season. When rainfall takes place a portion of the rain water
is absorbed by the surface. The rain water can also be harvested by other means, such as, by digging wells,
percolation pits, building dams etc. The rain water harvesting is very useful to us for irrigation and many other
purpose.
The contamination of water by some poisonous chemicals that makes it unfit for drinking and endangered other
aquatic life form is called water pollution. The water pollution is of three types, inland water pollution,
underground water pollution, and marine water pollution. The various sources of water pollution are given
below:
The various sources of water pollutions are Petroleum oil, fertilizers, detergents, industrial wastes and
sewages. There are many harmful effect of water pollution. The main disease which causes by the water pollution
are: typhoid, cholera, dysentery, jaundice and hepatitis. It also disturbs the ecological balance and affects the
life forms in water bodies and many other food chains. Large scale water pollution leads to the killing of aquatic
life in sea and oceans. It reduces the oxygen content of water, which makes it difficult for the life forms to survive.
It also leads to the killing of some of the useful microorganism that helps in purification of water by degrading the
biological wastes.
Role of Atmosphere in Climate Control
Category : 9th Class

Introduction

The resources which are provided to us by the nature are called natural resources. Earth is the only planet where
life exists. This is because of the fact that the conditions on the earth surface is favorable for the existence of life.
The natural resources of the earth are land, water and air. Water covers 75% of the earth's surface and air forms
the blanket over the surface of the earth called atmosphere. All the components atmosphere, lithosphere and
hydrosphere together constitute biosphere. There are two components of ecosystem, biotic and abiotic
components. The biotic components include living organisms like plants and animals where as abiotic components
include air, water and land. The status of complexity and interdependence among the various components of the
environment is due to the perfect and systematic cycling of various chemical that is water, oxygen, carbon and
nitrogen.
Our physical environment is formed by various nonliving things around us. They play very important role in the
growth and development of the living components. For example, the plants prepare their food by the process of
photosynthesis using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide and animals derive its food from plants in the process.
There is change in temperature, pressure, humidity, rainfall etc of a particular place and these components
constitutes the weather condition of a place. The average weather condition of an area constitute the climate. The
most important factors of climate is temperature and seasonal variations of a region.

Role of Atmosphere in Climate Control

Air is one of the important natural resources and no life will be possible without air. The atmosphere forms a
blanket over the surface of earth and maintains the variation of temperature and pressure on the earth during
days and nights.
It helps to keep the temperature of earth at optimum for the survival of life. It do not allow the drastic variation of
temperature during days and nights. If there would have been no atmosphere, then there would have been a
drastic change in temperature during days and nights, as in the case of moon where temperature varies from -
190°C to 110°C.

Movement of Air (Winds)

The movement of wind is due to the difference of pressure in the lower layer and upper layer of the atmosphere,
on land and water bodies. Some time strong breeze and some time gentle breeze blow in the atmosphere. All
these phenomenon is the result of change that takes place in the atmosphere due to pressure difference on land
and water bodies.

When solar radiation falls on the earth, some are absorbed. But most of them are reflected back into the
atmosphere by the land and water bodies. These reflected radiation heat up the lower layer of the atmosphere, as
a result convection current sets up in the air. But since the land get heated faster than the water bodies, the air
over the land also gets heated and create a region of low pressure on land. Thus, wind moves to the region of
lower pressure over land from the region of high pressure on the water bodies and create winds. During day time
the wind blow from sea to land and during night the process is reversed, as the wind blow from land to sea. This
temperature difference across the earth generates the development of major wind belt over the earth surface,
which forms the climatic zone of the world. Apart from this, the various other factors that influence the movement
of wind is the rotation of the earth and the presence of mountain ranges in the path of the wind.

Rain
When the water bodies heates up during the days, the upper layer of the water bodies change into the vapour and
goes up in the atmosphere with the air. As these air reaches the upper layer of the atmosphere it expand and
cools. On cooling these water vapours get condensed in the form of tiny droplets of water, in the upper layer of
the atmosphere. When these collection of water vapour became heavier and bigger, it fall down on the earth
surface in the form of rain, snow, or hail.
The rainfall pattern is decided by the prevailing wind pattern, in the country like India, the rain is mostly brought by
the southwest or north east monsoons.
The south west monsoon blows from sea to land during the month of April and May. Local rain in coastal regions
are caused due to sea breezes and rains in the great topographic relief are caused by mountains and valley
breezes,

Improvement in Food Resources

Improvement in Food Resources
Food is our basic need. From food we derive energy to do all activities. In the last few decades, the population of
our country has increased manifold. To provide the food security to this growing population is really a onerous
task. It is necessary that there should be an improvement in food resources so that we can provide the food
security to our people. Our government has made efforts to meet the food demand by increasing food production.
The efforts have brought successes up to a certain extent. The green revolution has increased the production of
food grains manifold. The white revolution, has led to better and more efficient use as well as availability of milk.
The above mentioned revolutions have led to the extensive use of our resources that cause imbalances. We need
to follow the method of sustainable development to ensure the conservation of our natural resources. Food security
can be provided to the common man through sustainable development.

Enhancement in Crop Yields

To improve the crop yields, our government has taken many steps. The steps taken by the government has brought
fruitful result as well. The following are the steps taken to improve the crop yielding:

Crop production and management: Our country is an agricultural country where the large population depends
on the agriculture. Agricultural products are the sources of raw materials for industries. Thus, the proper crop
production management is necessary, so that maximum benefit can be taken at the minimum cost. Govt has
ensured the crop production management at various level.

Genetic manipulation of crops for higher yield: It is the incorporation of desirable character in the plants by
various methods such as DNA recombinant technology, hybridization, mutation, etc. In this process, a gene of one
organism is inserted into the DNA of other organism and thus a new organism is born with better features.

Crop protection management: Crops are in danger because of the pests, insects, moisture, mites, rodents,
bacteria, etc. There are various methods that are used to protect the crops from the possible danger. Insecticides,
pesticides and weedicides are used to kill insects, pests and weeds. The following are the techniques that are
used to protect the crop from possible dangers:

 Practice of crop rotation

 Right time of sowing seeds
 Using high quality and resistant variety of seeds

Nutrient Management
Nutrient is an important part of plant's food. Plants require nutrients for their growth that are supplied by air, water
and soil. The nutrients required by the plants is categorized into two parts that are macro nutrients and micro
nutrients. The deficiency of any nutrient in the plant body leads to diseases and affects the growth of the plant.
There are natural ways to supply these nutrients to the plants but artificial ways are also used on a large scale to
supply all the nutrients required by the plants in the form of manure and fertilisers.

Difference between manure and fertilisers:

Manure Fertiliser
1. Manure is a natural substance that is obtained 1. Fertiliser is a human-made substance that is
from animal wastes such as dung of cattle and mixture of inorganic salt or organic compound.
plant residues.
2. Manure contains nitrogen, phosphorus and 2. Fertilisers contains nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium in small amount. potassium in large amount.
3. Manure adds humus to the soil. 3. A fertilizer is soluble in water any humus to the
soil.
4. Nutrients present in the manure are absorbed 4. Fertiliser is soluble in water and is readily
slowly by the crop plants since manure is not absorbed by the crop plants.
soluble in water.
5. Natrients present is the manure are absorbed 5. Fertiliser provides nitrogen, phosphorus and
slowly by the crop plants since manure is not potassium to the soil according to the need.
soluble in water.
6. Manure is inconvenient to store, transport, 6. Fertiliser is easy to store, transport and apply
handle and apply to the crop. to the crop.
7. Manure is cheap and is prepared in rural 7. Fertilizer is costly and is prepared in factories.
homes or fields.

Irrigation
Irrigation is an important part of crop production. Different plants require water in different amount. If water is not
provided timely then it may cost the production of crops. In our country, monsoon rain is the main source of
irrigation. Water is supplied to crops by rainfall. In case of failure of monsoon, crops are badly affected. Now the
government has taken many corrective measures to provide the water to the crops without being dependent on
monsoon.
The following are the sources of water for crops:

Wells: Water is stored in wells and supplied to the fields during the various intervals as required by plants.

Tube well

Canal system: Canal system has been developed to make the water available to the crops especially in those
areas where there is a scanty of rainfall.

Rivers: River water is drawn to the fields close to the river so that sufficient water can be provided to the plants.
Tanks: Tanks are water reservoirs from where water is supplied to the fields.

Crop Pattern
Crop pattern is the process of getting the maximum benefit from the field. Farmers use various crop patterns for
increasing the productivity and maintaining the fertility of the soil. This process is very beneficial and economical.

Mixed Cropping
Mixed cropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in the same field simultaneously. In this process, one
crop of longer duration and another crop of shorter duration are sown. Thus, there is an increase in production of
food grains without disturbing the fertility of the soil. It helps in minimizing the loss of crops due to bad weather
condition.

Intercropping
Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in the same field simultaneously in a definite row pattern.
In the entire field, a few rows of one crop and a few rows of another crop are sown alternatively. The crops are
selected on the basis of their requirements. In this way, nutrients are utilized at maximum level. This also helps in
checking the diseases in plants. This process is beneficial and economical.

Crop Rotation
Crop rotation is a practice of growing of different crops on a piece of land in a preplanned sequence. Duration of
crops is important for this practice. The combination of crops is done on the basis of duration. Moisture and
irrigation are the two major factors that decide the choice of the crop to be cultivated after one harvest. Proper
crop rotation helps in growing two or three crops in a year with good harvests.

Storage of Grains
After harvesting the crops and separating the grains from chaff, there is a big challenge of storing these grains.
Earlier a major portion of the grains would get destroyed because of the lack of proper storage facilities. There are
many factors that are responsible for causing harm to the grain. They are the following:

 Insects  Rodents
 Fungi  Bacteria
 Mites  Moisture

These all factors cause a great harm to the grains and thus it leads to poor marketability. Proper attention has
been paid to store these grains properly. Preventive and control measures are used before grains are stored for
future use. They include strict cleaning of the crops before storage, proper drying of the crops first in sunlight and
then in shade and fumigation using chemicals that can kill pests.

Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the process of rearing animals on a large scale at home or in farms. It is a scientific
management of animal livestock that includes various aspects such as feeding, breeding and disease control.
Animals are the main sources of milk, meat, eggs and some other food items. So, they are reared on a commercial
basis to supply the demand of growing population.

Cattle Farming
Cattle's farming is one of the most important activities in our country after agriculture. The main purpose of cattle
farming is to get milk and labour from the animals. The animals of this category are divided into two parts one as
a milk animal and other as a draught animals. To increase the production of milk lactation period foreign breeds
of animals have been selected. The cross breed has been used for the production of milk. A special attention is
paid to look after the animals and to provide them a clean and healthy life. Cattle suffer from a number of diseases.
The diseases, besides causing death, reduce milk production. The parasites are found in the animals and cause
diseases to them. These parasites are found in the external and internal body parts of the cattle. The external
parasites live on the skin and mainly cause skin diseases. The internal parasites, such as worms, affect stomach
and intestine while flukes damage the liver. Infectious diseases are also caused by bacteria and viruses.
Vaccinations are given to farm animals against many major viral and bacterial diseases.

Poultry Farming
Poultry farming is practiced to provide the balanced diet to the human especially in the form of eggs and meat.
Poultry farming is done on the commercial scale. Special attention is paid towards the cross breeding programme
between Indian and foreign breeds so that large scale production of the meat and eggs can be done. The following
are the desirable traits for the cross breeding programme:
(i) Increase in the number and quality of chicks.
(ii) For commercial chick production dwarf broiler parent is used.
(iii) To reduce the maintenance cost and requirement.

Breeds of fowl

Fish Production
Fish is an important part of our diet that supplies protein to us. Fish is produced on a large scale by the process
of fish farming. Fish can grow in fresh water as well as seas and oceans. The following are the types of fisheries:

Marine fisheries: Marine fisheries are a major source of fish as India has a long coast line in the Arabian Sea and
Bay of Bengal. Many people in the coastal region are involved in the fish production business. Some of the marine
fishes are ribbonfish, flying fish, Hilsa, Betake, Salman, etc.

Ribbonfish Flying fish

Hilsa

Inland fisheries: In India, the fish production is done on a large scale in rivers, lakes and ponds.
India has a large area of inland waters where the fishes are produced. Some of the fishes of inland
fisheries are katia, rohus, mrigals, etc.
 katla Raus

Marigals

Bee Keeping
The practice of bee keeping is called apiculture. The product of bee keeping is honey. Honey is widely used and
therefore, beekeeping for making honey has become an agricultural etnerprise. The beehives are good source of
wax as well that has medicinal value. Some of the Indian varities of bees are Apis cerana indica, etc. For
commercial bee production mellifera, an Italian bee variety, is used. This variety of bee helps in large production
of honey.

Bee keeping

Animal Husbandry

It is the branch of science which deals with the rearing and management of animals, for commercial purposes.
Some of the common animals used for rearing are cow, goat, buffalo, fish, poultry, and bee keeping.

 Cattle Farming: Cattle farming is done for two purpose, that is, for milk and transportation. Cows are
classified as drought breed, dairy breed, and dual purpose breed. Milk producing cows are called dairy
breed. There are two high yielding breeds of cows such as indigenous breed and diary breed. Indigenous
breed of cows include red shindhi, sahiwal, gir.

Some of the high yielding breeds of buffaloes are Murrah, Mehsana and Surti. The lactation period for these
animals are different. For example, for red shindhi it is 321 to 345 days, for sahiwal it is 184 to 354 days, and for
Gir it is 230 to 394 days. There are two methods of breeding animals, such as, natural method and artificial
methods. In artificial methods semens of desired male bull is injected into the genital tract of female animal, during
the deat period and fertilization takes places. It is known as artificial insemination.
Now the cattle feed is also equally important. The animal feed includes two types of substance: Roughage and
Concentrates. The roughage largely consists of fibres, silage, hay and legumes, while the concentrates includes
the mixtures of substance which are rich in vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates.
The common diseases which are found in catties and buffalo are parasitic disease such as ticks and mites, and
infectious disease includes foot and mouth disease, anthrax, hemorrhagic septicemia, black quarter etc.

 Poultry Farming: Rearing and management of hen for meat and eggs is called poultry farming. There
are three types of poultry indigenous, exotic and cross breeds. The Indigenous breeds includes aseel,
kadaknath, bursa. The indigenous breeds are hardy and possess natural immunity against some of the
common diseases. They are smaller in size and grows very slowly and lay less number of eggs. The other
 one is exotic breeds which include white leghorn, rhode island red. They are larger in size and lay large
number of eggs. They take less time to grow and produce more meat. The third is the cross breeds which
includes HH260, IBL80, B77, and IIS82.

Some of the common traits of new variates of poultry are: it should be able to produce large number and large
quantity of meats in less time and should be able to adjust in various climatic conditions. It should have law
maintenance cost and product should be high nutrients. Some of the common diseases founded in the poultry are
caused by virus, such as, bird flu, cholera, aspergillosis etc.

 Fish Production: The rearing and management of fish on large scale for commercial purposes is called
pisciculture. There are two types of fisheries: marine water fisheries and fresh water fisheries. The marine
fisheries includes fisheries of ocean and sea. The fresh water fisheries includes river, lakes, ponds, and
fields. Our marine fisheries include 7500 km of costal line. The fish which are caught from the sea and
oceans are sea fish, flying fish, hilsa, ribbon fish and salmon.

The Inland fisheries include rivers, ponds, lake, etc. The common fish founded in this region are catia, labeo,
mugil, etc.

Bee Keeping
Rearing and management of bee on large scale for honey, wax etc is called apiculture or bee keeping. There
are two variates of bee used for this purposes such as indigenous and exotic breeds. The indigenous breeds
include apis cerana indica, apis dorsata and apis florae. The exotic breeds includes apis mellifera, and apis
adamsoni.

Crop Production Management

Introduction

We know that all the living orga nisms need food for their survival. We use both plants and animals for our food,
but most of our food is obtained from agriculture and animal husbandry. The population of our country is above
one billion and still increasing at very fast rate. Hence the demand of food is also increasing day by day, but the
land area under cultivation is not increasing and is almost fixed. We do not have enough space for expansion, but
at the same time we have to meet the requirement of the food. Therefore, we have to increase the food production
using advanced technique for agriculture. While our effort have increased the food production but at the same time
it is using the natural resources extensively and is getting depleted very fast. As a result, we are causing more
and more da mage to our environment and disturbing the natural balance. Therefore, the need of the hour is to
follow sustainable use of resources.
Simply increasing the food production cannot solve the problem of malnutrition and hunger. The food security
depends on both availability of food and access to it. The scientific management practices should be undertaken
to obtain high yields from agriculture and animal husbandry. The different methods we should follow to increase
the food production are mixed farming, intercropping and integrated farming practices.

Improvement in Crop Production

The successful management of natural resources for agriculture to satisfy the human needs, at the same time
maintaining the quality of environment and conserving natural resources, is called sustainable agriculture.
Agriculture can also be defined as the science dealing with the mass production of plants and animals, useful for
human needs. Different crops require different climatic condition, temperature and photoperiod for the growth and
development. In India there are two major crop season Rabi and kharif crop season.

 Rabi Season Crops: The crops which grows during the month of October to March are called rabi
crops. For example wheat, rice, grams, pea, mustard, etc.
 Kharif season crops: The crops which grow during summer season i.e. during the month of June to
October are called kharif crops. For example paddy, soyabean, arhar, maize, barley etc.

The crop yields can be increased by following methods as:

 Variety Improvement
 Production improvement
 Crop Protection Management

Crop Variety Improvement

We can improve the crop production by incorporating certain quality like high yields and disease resistant. Such
traits can arise through mutation. We can improve the variety of seeds with an incorporation of the desirable
character by hybridization, mutation, polyploid, and DNA recombinant technology. A gene of hybrid is inserted into
the DNA of lowbrid plants and the plant express DNA of hybrid plant. It is called transgenic plants.
Hybridization: The cross over between genetically dissimilar plants to produce a new kind of plant is
called hybridization.

Selection and hybridization is useful in the country like India where repeated mating and selection procedure is
used more often than not. In India crops are grown in diverse types of soil and climatic conditions. The yields of
the crops depend on the weather condition, soil quality and on the availability of water resources.
The cultivation and yield of crops are directly related to agronomic condition.
The condition are based on soil quality, availability of water resources, and weather condition. The prime objective
of crop improvement is to develop superior quality of plants.

Crop variety improvement is done for the following reasons:

 The main aim of crop variety improvement is to increase the production per unit hectare.
 Quality Improvement: Quality consideration of crop products varies from crop to crop. For example,
baking quality of wheat, protein quality in pulse, oil quality in oil seed and preserve quality of fruits and
vegetables.
 Biotic and abiotic resistance: Crops production can go down due to biotic and abiotic stresses under
different condition. Varieties resistance to these stresses can improve crop production.
  Change in maturity duration: Shortening the duration of crop maturity increases the production and
multiple crops can be produced at the same time.
 Wider adaptability: Developing the crop varieties of wider adaptability will help in stabilizing the crop
production under different environmental conditions and hence will able be produce more crops of different
kinds in different region.
 Desirable agronomic traits: Development of crops of desired agronomic traits, such as, cereal plant of
dwarf size will help to produce more cereals in the small area and will also intake less nutrients.

Motion
Category : 9th Class

Introduction

In everyday life we always come across some objects which are at rest and some objects in motion. The branch
of Physics, which deals with the behavior of moving objects, is known as mechanics. Mechanics is further divided
into two sections namely Kinematics and Dynamics. Kinematics deals with the study of motion without taking into
account the cause of motion, while Dynamics is concerned with the cause of motion, namely force. This chapter
covers only the different aspects of motion without considering the cause of motion.

Motion
A body is said to be in motion if its position changes continuously, with respect to a stationary object, taken as
reference point, with the passage of time.

When we are sitting in a moving bus, we observe the continuous changes of position with respect to stationary
object like houses, trees, lamp posts, etc. We say that the bus is moving or that the bus is in motion.

Motion and rest are Relative Terms

Suppose you are travelling in a train, which is in motion.
Observe 1: Is there any change in your position with respect to your co passengers? Answer: No
Observe 2: Is there any change of scene you view through the window?
Answer: Yes
Thus, we can say that an object is in, motion, if it changes its position continuously with respect to its surroundings
in a given time. Since the position of desk and benches does not changes with time, hence we can say that they
are not in motion, i.e. they are stationary. You must have observed sky at night: the position of stars changes with
the passage of time, whereas the position of house and our surrounding remains the same. But in reality the earth
is also moving, that means all the objects on the surface of the earth are also in motion. Thus, an object which
appears to be at rest, may actually be in motion. Therefore, motion and rest are relative terms. Hence, to describe
the motion of an object we have to specify how its position changes with respect to a fixed point called
the reference point or origin.
Without frame of reference we cannot specify whether an object is in motion or at rest. A frame of reference is
another object or scene with respect to which we compare an object's position.

Types of Motion

 Translatory motion
 Circular motion
 Rotatory motion and
 Vibratory motion

Translatory Motion
The continuous change of position of an object from one point to another in space is called the translatory motion.
This motion may be linear or curvilinear.

Linear Motion
The motion of an object along a straight line is called linear or rectilinear motion.

Equations of Motion

The motion of the body moving along a straight line with uniform acceleration can be described by three equations
of motion. These equations can be derived as follows.

First Equation of Motion

Let us consider an object moving with a initial velocity 'u'. If it is subjected to a uniform accleration 'a' such that it
attains a velocity of V after time 't', then
Acceleration

=Finalvelocity−initialvelocityTimetaken
So,

a=v−ut
⇒at=v−u,
or
 v=u+at
where, v = final velocity of the body
u = Initial velocity of the body
a = acceleration
and, t= time taken

Second Equation of Motion

The second equation of motion is:

s=ut+12at2
. It gives the distance traveled by a body in time t.
Let us derive this second equation of motion:
Let us consider an object moving with a initial velocity 'u' and a uniform acceleration "a". Let it attains a velocity
V after some time 't'. Let the distance traveled by the object in this time be 's'. The distance traveled by a moving
body in time 't' can be found out by considering its average velocity. Since the initial velocity of the body is 'u' and
its final velocity is V, the average velocity is given by:
Average velocity

=Initial velocity + final velocity2

i.e., Average velocity

=u+v2
Also, Distance traveled = Average velocity

×
Time
so,

S=(u+v2)×t
…(1)

From the first equation of motion we have, v = u + at. Putting this value of ‘v’ in equation (1), we get:
Or

S=(u+v2)×t
Or

S=(2u+at2)×t
Or

S=2ut+at22
Where s = distance traveled by the body in time t
u = Initial velocity of the body and, a = Acceleration

Third Equation of Motion

The third equation of motion is: v- u^ 2as. It gives the velocity acquired by a body in traveling a distance 's'.
The third equation of motion can be obtained by eliminating -f from the first two equations of motion and using the
second equation of motion
From the second equation of motion we have:

s=ut+12at2
…(1)
And from the first equation of motion we have :

v=u+at
Or,

at=v−u
Or,

t=v−ua
Putting this value of t in equation (1), we get:

S=u(v−ua)+12a(v−ua)2
Or

S=u(v−ua)+12(v−u)2a
Or

S=uv−u2+v2+u2−2uv2a
Or

2as=v2−u2
Or

v2=u2+2as
Where, v = final velocity,
u = initial velocity,
a = acceleration
and s = distance traveled

Graphical Method of Finding Equations of Motion

We can derive the equation of motions using the velocity time graph. Consider the motion of the object moving
along a straight line with a uniform acceleration. The above graph shows the motion of an object along a straight
line with a uniform accleration 'a'. The point A and B on the graph corresponds to time 0 and t respectively.
Let u be the velocity of the object at time t = 0 represented by line OA on the graph. Also let the velocity of the
particle be vat time t represented by line OD on the graph.
 First Equation of Motion
The slope of the velocity-time graph gives the acceleration of an object moving along a straight line.
For line AB, the slope is given by
Slope

=BCAC
⇒a=BCAC=BE−CFOE
⇒a=v−ut−0=v−ut
⇒v=u+at
=v=u+at

Second equation of Motion

The area under the velocity-time graph is equal to the displacement. In the time interval 0 - t, displacement = area
OABE
S = area OABE = area of the rectangle OACE + area of the triangle ABC

S=OA×OE+12×AC×BC
⇒

S=OA×OE+12×AC×(BC−CE)
⇒

S=u×t+12×t×(v−u)
(using first equation of motion)

S=u×t+12×a×t2
or

⇒S=ut+12at2

Third equation of motion

The area under the

v−t
graph is =area of trapezium AOEB Area of trapezium

=12
(sum of parallel sides)

×
(altitude)
Or, Area =

=12×(OA+BE)×AC
Or,

S=12×(u+v)×t
Or,

S=12×(u+v)×(v−ua)
Or,

v2=u2+2as

Average, velocity for uniformly Accelerated Motion

The average velocity of an object can be derived using the first and second equation of the motion. Let us consider
an object moving along a straight line with a uniform accleration 'a'. The average velocity can be defined as,
Average velocity

=Total DisplacementTotal Time

Or,

St=v2−u22at
Vav=v+u2,
(using first equation of motion)

Acceleration

When a bus starts from a stand its velocity increases for some time. When it was at the stand the velocity was
zero and after some time it's velocity gradually starts increasing and reaches maximum after some time. Again
when it approaches the second stand its velocity gradually decreases and become zero. This means that the
velocity of the bus changes during the motion. The rate at which the velocity of the object changes with the time
is called the acceleration. Or we can say that velocity per unit time is called the acceleration. It is denoted by 'a'.
It is given by,
Acceleration

=Change in VelocityTime
The SI unit of acceleration is metre/sec2 or m/s2
Let us consider the motion of the object along the straight line in the same direction. If 'U' be the initial velocity and
'V be the final velocity, then change in velocity in the time 't' is given by,

a=V−Ut
or
V=U+at
 Observations

 As the bus starts from rest its speed increases from zero and it is said to be accelerating.
 After sometime the speed becomes constant, means speed of the bus stops increasing and it is said have
uniform speed.
 As the bus approaches the next stand it slows down, then it is said have negative acceleration or
retardation and finally at next stand it stops accelerating and comes to a halt.

So, it is clear from the above example that acceleration need not always remain the same. It means that the speed
of a moving body may increase, it can also decrease or may remain the same or become zero. In general, when
the velocity of a body is changing, the body is said to be accelerating. Suppose a car starts from rest (initial velocity
is zero) and its velocity increases at a steady rate so that after 5 seconds its velocity is 10 meters per second.
Now, in 5 seconds the velocity has increased by 10 - 0 = 10 meter per second and in 1 second the velocity
increases by

105=2
meter per second.

Uniform Acceleration
Consider a particle moving along a straight line in such a way that its velocity changes in equal amount, in equal
time interval. If this happens, then the body is said to be moving with the uniform acceleration.

 The motion of a free falling body is an example of uniformly accelerated motion.

 The motion of a bicycle going down the slope of a road when the rider is not pedaling, and wind resistance
is negligible, is also an example of uniformly accelerated motion.
 The motion of a ball rolling down an inclined plane is an example of uniformly accelerated motion.

Velocity Time Graph for Uniform Acceleration

Velocity time graph for uniform acceleration is as shown below. For example, when a ball is dropped from a certain
height its velocity continuously increases and uniformly. The graph below represents the motion.

Thus area under the velocity time graph given the displacement of the object.
Area

=12×base×height
The slope of the velocity time graph gives the acceleration of the object moving along the straight line.

Non- Uniform Acceleration

The object is said to have the non uniform acceleration, if the acceleration of the object moving along a straight
line is not constant.
If the speed of an object decreases, its acceleration is negative. It is known as retardation. Since acceleration is a
vector quantity, it has a direction associated with it.
The direction of the acceleration vector depends on two things:

 Whether the object is speeding up or slowing down

 Whether the object is moving in the +ve or -ve direction
For a free falling body, acceleration is in vertically downward direction.
If an object is slowing down, then its acceleration is in the opposite direction of its motion.
Example A
Time (s) Velocity (m/s)
0 0
1 4
2 8
3 16
4 32

Example C
Time (s) Velocity (m/s)
0 32
1 16
2 8
3 4
4 0

Example B
Time (s) Velocity (m/s)
0 -8
1 -6
2 -4
3 -2
4 -0

Example D
Time (s) Velocity (m/s)
0 0
1 -2
2 -4
3 -6
4 -8
These are both examples of negative acceleration
If the velocity of a body increases along a straight line, the acceleration is positive, and if the velocity of a body
decreases, the acceleration is negative.

Retardation

=change in velocitytime taken

and has the same unit as that of acceleration (m/s2)

Types of Acceleration
Positive acceleration: When a ball rolls down on an inclined plane the velocity of the ball increases and it is said
to be moving with positive acceleration.
Negative acceleration : When a ball rolls up on an inclined plane the velocity of the ball decreases and it said to
be moving with negative acceleration or retardation or declaration.

A ball thrown vertically upwards is also an example of negative acceleration.

 Zero acceleration: A bus standing in the bus depot and a bus moving on a straight road with a constant
speed of 50 km/h
 Uniform acceleration: A ball falling from a height towards the surface of the earth.

Non-uniform acceleration: A car moving on a crowded road. It has to change its speed every now and then due to
the traffic on the road.

Distance - Time Graph for Uniform Motion

A public transport bus is traveling from terminus P to terminus Q. The following observation was recorded by a
passenger in the bus..

Observations
Distance in km 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time 10.00 10.10 10.20 am 10.30 am 10.40 am 10.50 11.00
am am am am

From the above table it is clear that the bus is covering equal distances in equal intervals of time i.e., the bus is
moving with uniform speed. If the bus continues to move with uniform speed, we can calculate the distance covered
by the bus at any time.
Let us consider an object moving with uniform speed v from its initial position

S1
to final positions
S2
 in time
t1
and
t2
.
then, uniform speed

=Total DistanceTotal Time

V=S2−S1t2−t1
S2−S1=V(t2−t1)
…………………….(1)
The equation (1) gives the relation between distance, time and average speed. Let us now plot a distance-time
graph for the above illustration. A distance time graph is a line graph showing the variation of distance with time.
In a distance-time graph, time is taken along x-axis and distance along y-axis.

 Take time along x-axis and distance along y-axis.

 Analyze the given data and make a proper choice of scale for time and distance.
 Plot the points.
 Consider any two points (A, B) on the straight line graph.
 Draw perpendiculars from A and B to x and y axes.
 Join A to C to get a right angled triangle ACB.

The slope of the graph

=BCAC=st=speed

Calculation
Consider another two A and B on the graph and construct a right – angled triangle ABC.
Speed

=40−3010=1010=1km/min
Consider another two points P and Q on the graph and construct a right angled triangle PRQ.
Slope = Speed

=QRPR=35−3060−50=1510=1.5km/min
This shows that speed is not uniform.
Now, let us consider the nature of S-t graph for non-uniform motion.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

From figure (a), the S-t graph represents the speed of a moving object increases with time.
From figure (b), the S-t graph represents the speed of a moving object decreases with time.
From the nature of S-t graph we can conclude whether the object is moving with uniform speed or non uniform
speed.
The figure given below represents the different route a student can choose from his home to the school.

Martin goes to school on his bike with an average speed of 45 km/h. By using the relation.

Speed= DistanceTime
one, can find out the time required to reach the school. But if you are not sure of the route which one would
have been taken/ then it is not possible.
Thus, by just giving the speed of a moving object it is not possible to locate the exact position of the object at a
given time. So, there arises a need to define a quantity. which has both magnitude as well as direction. The
physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called vector quantity Thus Velocity is defined as
the distance covered by a moving object in a particular direction in unit time or speed in a particular
direction.

Velocity=DisplacementTime
In a body travels a distance ‘s’ in a given direction in time t, then its velocity ‘v’ is given by :

V=st
Where, V = velocity of the body, it is a vector quantity.
S = displacement
and t = time taken (to travel that distance;
SI unit of velocity is m/s (meter/second).

[∵
SI unit of distance is meter and that of time is second]
Thus we can say that the difference between speed and velocity is that speed has only magnitude but no direction,
whereas velocity has magnitude as well as direction.

Average Velocity
It is defined as the ratio of the total displacement of the body to the total time taken by the body, to travel the
distance.
Average Velocity =

Total PlacementTotal Time

Or, Average Velocity

Initial velocity + final velocity2

Or,

Vav=u+v2
Where, u = initial velocity and v = final velocity

Uniform Velocity
A body is said to have uniform velocity if it travels equal distance in equal interval of time, no matter how small is
the time interval.
The velocity of a body can be changed in two ways:

 By changing the speed of the body, and

 By changing the direction.

Non-Uniform Velocity
A body is said to be moving with non uniform velocity if it covers unequal distance in equal time interval.

India is a large country with three fourth of the population depending on agriculture. Natural resources like forest,
agriculture, and fisheries are the main stay for Indian economy. Due to the subtropical climate and lack of forest
in most part of country, crop can be grown throughout the year. In India there are three types of farmer that is small
farmers, marginal farmers, and progressive farmers. The extent to which farmer can grow crops depends on his
financial condition and the resources he can have.

 Nutrient Management: Just as human being needs nutrient for his growth and development, the plants
also requires nutrient for its proper growth and development. Plants get its nutrients from soil, water and
air. There are sixteen nutrients required by the plants for its proper growth and development. These
nutrients are divided into two groups as macronutrients and micronutrients. Out of these, carbon and
oxygen are supplied by air, hydrogen is supplied by water and remaining thirteen nutrients are supplied by
soil.
 Micronutrients: The nutrients which are required by the plants in small quantity are called the
micronutrients. There are seven micronutrients such as chlorine, zinc, copper, iron, manganese, boron,
and molybdenum.
 Macronutrients: The nutrients which are required by the plants in large quantity are called macronutrients.
There are six macronutrients as nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, sulphur and
magnesium.
 Manure
Manures are obtained from the natural materials, such as, decomposition of plant waste and animal waste. These
manures include compost, green manures, vermicompost, and farmyard manure. These manures helps to improve
the physical properties of soil, reduce the soil erosion, increase the moisture holding capacity of soil and are
cheaper. It also do not cause environmental pollution. There are some disadvantages of using natural manure the
nutrient content of manure is very low and hence required in large quantity. They are inconvenient to store and
transport from one place to another. Further it is not nutrient specific and hence not useful when a particular
nutrient is required by the plant or the soil is deficient in particular nutrient. Different types of manures are:

Compost: It is prepared by decomposition of plant waste, animal wastes and urins of animals. They are collected
in a pit and allowed to decompose overa long period of time, by the microorganisms, in the presence of oxygen.
It takes about three to four month to prepare the compost.

Green Manure: The green manure is prepared by growing the crop for six to eight week and then mulching it into
the field by ploughing and mixing it with the soil. These crops are left buried into the field for about one to two
month, during which it completely get decomposed into the soil and the nutrient content of the soil is increased.

Farm Yard Manure: It is obtained by decomposing the mixture of animal waste and urins along with litter, and left
over organic matters, such as roughage or fodders. These waste materials are collected daily from the cattle shed.
It is then and stored into the pit and are allowed to decompose by the microorganisms such as bacteria and fungus.
The main components of FYM is nitrogen, phophorous, and potassium.
 Fertilizers
Fertilizers are also the source of plant nutrients, which are manufactured commercially from the chemicals. These
fertilizers supply nitrogen, phophrous and potassium. Depending on the contents, they are divided into four groups,
such as nitrogenous fertilizer, phosphatic fertilizers, potassic fertilizers and complex fertilizers.

Nitrogenous fertilizers supply macronutrient such as nitrogen. The common nitrogenous fertilizer are Urea

(CO(NH2)2),
Ammonium nitrate

(NH4NO3)
, Sodium nitrate

(NaNO3),
etc.
Phosphatic fertilizers are the main sources of phosphorous. The common phosphatic fertilizers
are Superphosphate-1, Triple superphosphate and dicalcium phosphate, etc.
Potassic fertilizers are the main sources of potassium. The common potassic fertilizers are potassium chloride,
potassium sulphate and potassium nitrate. Complex fertilizers are those which contains atleast two or more
nutrients.
The common complex fertilizers are urea ammonium phosphate and ammonium phosphate.

Irrigation
Water is one of the important requirement for crop production. To have good harvest we should have proper
arrangement of water (known as irrigation) for the agriculture. It is not necessary that there will be proper rainfall
at the time of farming, in such case we should have proper arrangement of water supply for the agriculture. There
are different system of irrigation that are in practice.
These are:
Canal System: Canals are dug connecting the main river system to the reservoir or the field and water is supplied
through these canal to the field at the time of requirement.

Tank System: Tanks are the small reservoirs, which are built to store the runoff of smaller catchment areas. These
are built at higher elevation so that the water can be supplied to the low laying areas without much difficulties.

Well System: There are mainly two types of well that is dug wells and tube wells. In dug well the water is collected
from bearing strata and in tube well water is collected from deep strata. Water can be lifted from these wells using
motor pumps

River Lift System: In this system water is directly collected from river as the canal system or the other reservoir
system is insufficient to meet the requirement of water for irrigation. This methods is useful in bottom flat lands of
the valleys and are used for growing crops such as rice, wheat, etc.

Cropping Patterns
The different cropping patterns can be followed to increase the productivity of the crops. The different cropping
patterns are Mixed cropping. Inter cropping, and Crop rotation.

 Mixed Cropping: In this technique two or more crops are grown simultaneously on the same piece of
land. The mixed cropping minimize the risk of crop failure due to abnormal weather conditions. Some of
the major crop combinations are wheat and cheek pea, maize and urad bean, groundnut and
sunflower, cotton and moong bean, etc. While selecting the crop for mixed cropping we have to take
care of the following things, such as, product and waste material of one crop stimulates the growth of the
other crop, they should not have same nutrient requirement so that they compete for the nutrients, light
and water. One should be of long duration and other should be of short duration of maturity. One should
be tall and other should be dwarf, one should be deep rooted and other should be shallow rooted, and one
should have less nutrient and water requirement than the other.

The main advantage of this pattern is, that the risk of total crop failure due to monsoon failure is minimum. One
can harvest more than one variety of crop in the same time and in the same piece of land. Further, fertility of the
soil is maintained and chances of pest infection is minimum.

 Intercropping: In this method two or more crop is grown in the same piece of land in a definite pattern of
rows and columns. The pattern may be 1:2, 1:1, or 1:3. This cropping pattern make use of better natural
resources such as sunlight, water and nutrients, it also leads to production of large variety of crops in a
single time and also maintains the balance of soil nutrients.
 Crop Rotation: In this method different crops are grown in a same piece of land, in a preplanned manners.
The main advantage of crop rotation is that it controls the need of fertilizers, maintains the fertility of the
soil and also balance the nutrients in the soil. Several crops can be grown in succession with only one soil
preparation

Crop Protection Management

Crops are infected by large number of weeds, insect pests and diseases. If these are not controlled at right time,
it can lead to large scale destruction of crops. The chemical used to kill the pests are known as pesticides. These
pesticides includes insecticides, weedicides, and fungicides.
Weeds are the unwanted plants which grow along with the crops and hinder the growth of the crops. The common
weeds are xanthium, parthenium. These weeds take away the nutrients from the soil and compete for the light
and water with the crop plants. Some of the common methods to control the weeds are uprooting, hand picking,
burning, and flooding. This can also be done with the help of using chemicals such as 2, 4-
dicholorophenoxyacetic acid, atrazine, etc.

Some of the common disease of the crops are:

Sl. No. Crops Diseases Pathogens
1. Rice Blast Fungus
2. Wheat Rust Fungus
3. Chick Pea Wilt Fungus
4. Pigeon Pea Stem Rot Fungus

Storage of Grains
One of the big problem our country is facing today is the lack of proper storage facility of the grains, which our
farmers produce after so much hard work. Large amount of food grains are wasted due to the lack of proper
storage facilities. The factors which are responsible for such losses are biotic and abiotic factors.
The biotic factors includes rats, mites, rodents, insects, fungi, and bacteria. On the other hand abiotic factors are
inappropriate moisture, temperature, storage place, proper ventilation, poor germinability etc.
The preventive measures, which can be taken for storage of grains are; the grains should be properly dried and
cleaned before cleaning, the gowdon should be properly cleaned and dried before storing the grains. There should
be proper arrangement for aeration, temperature control, and protection from rodents
and insects. Fumigation i.e. chemical pesticides should be sprayed to kill the germs and insects to protect the
grains.

Difference between Distance and Displacement

S. No. Distance S. No. Displacement

1. Distance is the length of the 1. Displacement is the shortest

actual path traveled by an object distance between the initial and
in a given interval of time. final positions of a moving object in
a particular direction.

2. Distance traveled by an object 2. The displacement of an object

depends upon the path followed between initial and final positions of
by the particle in going from the particle does not depend upon
initial position to the final the path followed by it.
position.

3. Distance traveled by an object 3. Displacement of an object in a

in a given interval of time is given interval of time may be
always positive. positive, negative or zero.

4. Distance is a scalar quantity. 4. Displacement is a vector quantity.

Now let us consider an object changing its position, with respect to a fixed point called the origin 0.

xi
and

xf
are the initial position and final position of the object. Then the displacement of the object

=xf−xi
.
Case 1: Suppose the object is moving from + 1 to + 6 then displacement

−xi
=+6−(+1)=+5
Case 2: If the object is moving from -2 to 3 then displacement

=xf−xi
=3−(−2)=+5

Case 3: if the object is moving from +6 to -1 then displacement

=xf−xi
=+1−(+6)=−5

Case 4: if the follows the path as shown in the figure then the final position and the initial position is the same i.e.,
the displacement is zero

From the above examples, we can conclude that the displacement of a body is positive if its position lies on the
right side of the initial position and negative if its final position is on the left side of its initial position. Whenever a
moving object comes back to the original position then the displacement is zero.