09HRM47_2chavez 5/7/08 11:22 AM Page 331

BEYOND DIVERSITY TRAINING: A

SOCIAL INFUSION FOR CULTURAL
INCLUSION

C A R O LY N I . C H A V E Z A N D J U D I T H Y. W E I S I N G E R

Contemporary organizations, in an effort to reap the benefits of a diverse

workforce, continue to spend millions of dollars on diversity training despite
the tendency of such training to either fail or result in less than desired out-
comes. We introduce an alternative, strategic approach to organizational
diversity designed to create a more inclusive “culture of diversity.” This long-
term, relational approach emphasizes an attitudinal and cultural transforma-
tion, requiring managers to “break barriers” by moving away from “manag-
ing diversity” toward “managing for diversity” to capitalize on the unique
perspectives of a diverse workforce. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Introduction have cultural diversity programs (Kimley,

1997), and scholars foretell a continuance of
n 1997, Helen Hemphill and Ray Haines this trend as the workforce population

I published a book elucidating the failure

of discrimination, harassment, and
diversity training programs. These au-
thors studied 65 major companies over
three years and found that many programs
not only failed to accomplish the intended
goals, but also resulted in social conflict—
divisiveness, hostility, backlash, and an
increase in litigation. Likewise, Stephen
Paskoff (1996) found overwhelming evi-
dence that disenchantment with diversity
programs was rampant. He deemed such
programs to be a waste of time, resulting in
superficial results at best. Despite many such
findings, 74% of all Fortune 500 companies
becomes increasingly diverse in terms of
race, gender, and age (Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics, 2004; Jayne & Dipboye, 2004), and as or-
ganizations become more global (Holladay &
Quinones, 2005). Why then, do American
companies continue to invest billions of dol-
lars annually on diversity training?
The answer is simple. On a strategic
level, U.S. managers perceive diversity man-
agement as a means to better use talent and
to increase creativity within organizations
(T. Cox & Blake, 1991; Gilbert & Ivancevich,
2000; Nkomo & Cox, 1996), as a method to
attract and retain diverse employees in the
face of shifting demographic labor markets

Correspondence to: Carolyn I. Chavez, Assistant Professor, College of Business, P.O. Box 30001/MSC 3DJ, New Mex-
ico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, Phone: 505-646-1266, Fax: 505-646-1372, E-mail: cchavez@nmsu.edu.

H u m a n R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t , Summer 2008, Vol. 47, No. 2, Pp. 331–350

© 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).
DOI: 10.1002/hrm.20215
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332 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
(Jayne & Dipboye, 2004), and as an avenue
for developing effective interactions with
people from different cultures. In short, the
effective management of diversity has
become an important business imperative
that is perceived to affect organizational
functioning and competitiveness (Harvey,
1999; Kuczynski, 1999), and to result in
increased employee morale, retention, and
days worked (Hemphill & Haines, 1998).
Hence, organizations continue to push
ahead with a variety of diversity training
programs.
The issues surrounding diversity training
programs are obvious, real, and in
need of a resolution. However,
One problem with the solution is neither obvious
nor simple. One problem with
current approaches current approaches stems from
the attitudes and processes used
stems from the to implement diversity programs.
Therefore, we advocate for a re-
attitudes and
alignment of the way managers
processes used to currently think about and con-
duct diversity training. This
implement diversity change requires an attitudinal
shift away from a “managing di-
programs.
versity” intendance toward a
strategy of “managing for diver-
sity.” Research indicates that or-
ganizational culture directly impacts busi-
ness performance. Therefore, we recommend
placing a strategic emphasis on building a
culture that draws out and acts on the
unique perspectives a diverse workforce can
bring to organizations.
The purpose of this article is to introduce
an alternative approach to traditional diver-
sity programs and to stimulate new ideas
among human resource practitioners and
scholars. Drawing from current research, we
use the terms “inclusion” and “diversity” as
separate but overlapping constructs (Rober-
son, 2006). We report on the success of using
this method in various classroom “organiza-
tions” and then illustrate how business or-
ganizations might use this process to capital-
ize on unique perspectives as a strategy for
business success. In addition to the advan-
tages of a diverse workplace already listed,
D. A. Thomas and Ely (1996) say it is just
plain “good for business . . . as it lifts morale,
brings greater access to new segments of the
marketplace, and enhances productivity” (p.
79). Specifically, our new approach has three
objectives:
1. Establish a relational culture within
which people feel proud of their own
uniqueness, while becoming socially
integrated into a larger group by cele-
brating the “me” within the “we.”
2. Maintain an inclusive culture within
which employees are intrinsically moti-
vated to take ownership of the learning
experience and to learn from each other
so that organizational members can dis-
cover and appreciate multiple perspec-
tives.
3. Incorporate an organizational strategy
that capitalizes on the multiple perspec-
tives individuals contribute to creativity,
productivity, organizational attractive-
ness, and employee well-being.
We foresee accomplishing of these objec-
tives as providing a realistic opportunity for
the emergence of an organizational culture
that promotes both diversity and inclusion,
and that supports a strategy capitalizing on
the contributions of a variety of insights
born of personal experiences. It is within
such a culture that trainers may have their
best chance to present various mandated
training programs without evoking negative
emotional reactions such as guilt, shame,
defensiveness, stereotyping, and/or resent-
ment.
We first present an overview of the liter-
ature on contemporary diversity training
perspectives, followed by a section summa-
rizing the shortcomings of many current
approaches. We then present an argument
for why we need to “break barriers” by taking
the next step toward an inclusive diversity
culture, followed by our philosophy in
developing the proposed approach. To un-
derstand the basis by which this approach
can succeed, we present a short overview of
the literature on learning and intrinsic moti-
vation. We then share our classroom experi-
ences and discuss the transference of this
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
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Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion
process from a classroom organization to an
ongoing diversity approach in a workforce
organization. We include suggestions for
evaluating the approach in organizations,
followed by final thoughts.
Contemporary Perspectives on
Diversity Training
Trainers use diversity training as a means to
meet many objectives, such as attracting and
retaining customers and productive workers;
maintaining high employee morale; and/or
fostering understanding and harmony be-
tween workers (Wentling & Palma-Rivas,
1999). Some programs are designed to ensure
a desired workforce composition that
includes underrepresented groups. Others at-
tempt to capitalize on perceived diversity
benefits by increasing external relationships
with underrepresented groups. Some diver-
sity procedures are designed to avoid litiga-
tion, while others focus on employee train-
ing for developing awareness of and
sensitivity to discriminatory and prejudicial
behaviors. In one study, researchers identi-
fied the top three goals of diversity training
to be changing trainee workplace behavior,
promoting organizational change, and in-
creasing trainee awareness of discrimination
issues (Bendick, Egan, & Lofhjelm, 1998).
We can measure diversity training effec-
tiveness several ways to include administer-
ing employee opinion surveys, calculating
turnover and absenteeism costs related to
underrepresented workers, and by monitor-
ing minority representation (Martinez,
1995). For example, Nextel Communications
calculated (through participant surveys) a
9.7% increase in retention as a result of its di-
versity awareness training program, and an
overall 163% return on investment (ROI)
from the program (“Getting Results from Di-
versity Training,” 2003). Regardless of the
objectives, periodic training programs are by
far the most commonly used diversity activ-
ity (Wentling & Palma-Rivas, 1999). Unfortu-
nately, periodic training programs often fail
or fall short of meeting the intended out-
comes. The above diversity training objec-
tives are naturally occurring outcomes of our
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
333
“managing for diversity” approach, which
centers on building an inclusive organiza-
tional culture within which diversity pro-
grams might be undertaken more effectively.
We use T. Cox’s (1994) definition of di-
versity as being “the representation, in one
social system, of people with distinctly dif-
ferent group affiliations of cultural signifi-
cance” (p. 6); where group affiliations in-
clude both demographic variables, such as
race, gender, religion, and cul-
ture, and nondemographic vari-
ables, such as personality type Regardless of the
and political party. However, or-
ganizations often emphasize rep- objectives, periodic
resentational diversity at the ex-
pense of pluralistic diversity, training programs
which emphasizes incorporating are by far the most
diverse views into the work of the
organization (Weisinger & Sali- commonly used
pante, 2005). Roberson (2006) as-
serts that current diversity re- diversity activity.
search assumes the integration of
Unfortunately,
diverse individuals in an organi-
zation. To insure such integration periodic training
we incorporate a related con-
cept—inclusion—which refers to programs often fail
the degree diverse individuals
or fall short of
“are allowed to participate and
are enabled to contribute fully” meeting the
(Miller, 1998, p. 151).
Roberson (2006) points out intended outcomes.
that it is unclear whether diver-
sity and inclusion represent fun-
damentally different concepts, or whether
they simply reflect changing language in re-
sponse to diversity backlash. Her empirical
study showed that “inclusion” and “diver-
sity” are separate but overlapping concepts.
Accordingly, we see both constructs as being
necessary and mutually beneficial to our vi-
sion of “managing for diversity.” While re-
cruitment of a diverse workforce is impor-
tant, it is by “managing for diversity”
(creating an inclusive culture) that we stand
the best chance of lowering turnover among
diverse employees, attracting new employ-
ees, and realizing the benefits from such a
labor force. In a study illustrating the rele-
vance of individual perceptions to work out-
comes, T. Cox (1993) found that employees’
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334 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
perceptions of being valued by their organi-
zation significantly affected their conscien-
tiousness, job involvement, and innovative-
ness. Therefore, it follows that employees
who feel valued as individuals are more
likely to contribute to an organization’s pro-
ductivity and profitability.
D. A. Thomas and Ely (1996) suggest
three paradigms that reflect diver-
sity approaches in organizations.
While recruitment The discrimination-and-fairness
paradigm is the predominant
of a diverse one, wherein leaders view diver-
sity through a lens of equal em-
workforce is ployment, fairness, recruitment,
important, it is by and compliance. This paradigm
reflects an “assimilationist” view,
“managing for with a focus on “color- and gen-
der-blind conformism” (p. 85).
diversity” (creating The access-and-legitimacy para-
digm emphasizes the acceptance
an inclusive culture)
and celebration of differences. Ac-
that we stand the cordingly, a demographically di-
verse workforce is better suited to
best chance of help the organization access dif-
ferentiated market segments.
lowering turnover
Thus, as opposed to assimilation,
among diverse the access-and-legitimacy view is
predicated on differentiation. In
employees,
contrast, D. A. Thomas and Ely
see learning-and-effectiveness to
attracting new
be an emerging paradigm in or-
employees, and ganizations. Rather than reflect-
ing either assimilation or differ-
realizing the entiation, the authors suggest
that the learning-and-effective-
benefits from such a ness paradigm centers on integra-
labor force. tion. This emerging paradigm
. . . enables [companies] to in-
corporate employees’ perspec-
tives into the main work of the organi-
zation and to enhance work by
rethinking primary tasks and redefin-
ing markets, products, strategies, mis-
sion, business practices, and even cul-
tures. . . . (p. 85)
Diversity training and broader ap-
proaches to organizational diversity have
not largely embraced the learning-and-effec-
tiveness paradigm. This paradigm may lead
to work innovations and enhanced business
results, as diverse perspectives can expand
management’s views about what issues are
relevant and can help employees to frame
such issues in new and creative ways (D. A.
Thomas & Ely, 1996).
The more relational “managing for diver-
sity” approach that we propose here is con-
sistent with D. A. Thomas and Ely’s (1996)
learning-and-effectiveness paradigm. We
stress the creation of a culture within which
people can be proud of their unique perspec-
tives and are willing and even eager to share
them. Without such an atmosphere, man-
agers cannot incorporate these perspectives
into the “work of the organization” and they
miss strategic opportunities to capitalize on
these insights. Unfortunately, not enough di-
versity integration efforts are taking place.
Instead, many managers mistakenly try to
reap the benefits of a diverse workforce by
conducting training in ways that often cul-
minate in undesirable outcomes. In the next
section, we present a summary of the weak-
nesses of many diversity training programs.
Shortcomings of Nonintegrative
Approaches to Diversity Training
While few data exist on diversity training ef-
fectiveness, there is significant anecdotal ev-
idence that many organizational diversity
programs have either failed or brought about
less than desired results. Some problems
cited in the literature include backlash, lack
of needs assessment, inadequate evaluation,
and a lack of contextual relevance.
Backlash may occur in diversity training
efforts because of an overemphasis on differ-
ences that uses “blame and shame” ap-
proaches to criticize majority-group partici-
pants and/or strengthens existing
stereotypes about minority-group members
(Beaver, 1995; Christensen & Nemetz, 1996).
Such approaches regularly result in defen-
siveness and the labeling of identity groups
that may perpetuate stereotyping instead of
promoting harmony (P. L. Cox, 2001). Diver-
sity backlash also may result from ill-con-
ceived training programs (Mobley & Payne,
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
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Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion 335

1992). (See Table I for a summary of factors
and perceptions identified by the above re-
searchers that contribute to backlash out-
comes.)
According to Hite and McDonald (2006),
the lack of a front-end needs assessment may
also lead to undesired backlash outcomes via
unclear training objectives. A good front-end
needs assessment presumes that trainers are
aware of organizational goals and adjust
training efforts to meet those goals. Doing so
is part of a smart organizational strategy for
leveraging the benefits of a diverse work-
force. The likelihood of obtaining a poor out-
come increases when diversity training ef-
forts occur as a reactive tactic to
environmental demands rather than as a
proactive, strategic approach to meeting
identified organizational needs. For example,
human resource practitioners have expressed
a concern that diversity training may be too
narrow (e.g., emphasizing legally mandated
issues), focusing on the interest of a few di-
verse groups at the expense of others (Brown,
1998; Hemphill & Haines, 1998; Kennedy,
1995).
Likewise, Hite and McDonald (2006)
warn us of failing to adequately assess diver-
sity training programs. Interpretation errors,
they assert, may occur when the evaluation
primarily occurs at the participation reaction
level rather than at the behavioral or cultural
change level. This criticism suggests that
while training may provide knowledge, it
does not necessarily result in learning unless
a behavioral change occurs (for a review of
learning theories, see Knowles, Holton, &
Swanson, 2005). Therefore, we need to eval-
uate actual changes in behavior and/or the
culture before we assume a successful inter-
vention. Hence, we suggest methods for as-
sessing the proposed “managing for diver-
sity” approach in the section on “Evaluating
Training Effectiveness” and we direct readers
to measurement instruments.
These problematic issues suggest that or-
ganizations must place more emphasis on
long-term diversity efforts that ultimately

Factors and Perceptions Leading to Backlash According to Beaver (1995)1; Christensen and
TABLE I
Nemetz (1996)2; and Mobley and Payne (1992)3

• Deep-seated biases and prejudices within employees1,3

• Frustration among whites and males at being cast as the oppressors1
• A perception of political correctness as a threat to First Amendment rights2,3
• The perception that race and gender issues are a political football3
• Frustration with being politically correct to the point that well-intentioned people, when making a
mistake, are not recognized for their good intentions1,2,3
• A belief that the point of diversity training is to change white men3
• Sensationalistic journalism that may underscore stereotypes and spawn scapegoats3
• A perception that focusing on multiculturalism will dissolve the unity of the United States2
• A history of poorly implemented and misused affirmative action and EEO programs that has
stigmatized how employees view diversity training3
• A “we vs. they” syndrome—the human tendency to like those who are similar to oneself and to
dislike those who are different than oneself1
• Competition when diverse groups perceive the need to compete against one another for jobs and
promotions. This is especially salient in economically challenging times1,3
• The failure to incorporate diversity training into the organization’s overall approach to a diverse
workforce3
• Training initiatives that fail to respect individual styles3

Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm

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336 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
lead to cultural change, by reconfiguring cur-
rent institutional practices. In an effort to
identify the next step, we draw on other re-
search streams in human behavior with the
goal of identifying effective strategies of
“managing for diversity.”
The Call for a Cultural Change
Through a Relational Approach
Jayne and Dipboye (2004) purport that the
success of diversity programs is dependent
on organizational situational factors such as
culture, strategy, and operating
environments. These authors
The willingness and warn that the jobs people per-
form and their individual charac-
ability to accept, teristics influence the success of
training initiatives. Therefore, HR
understand, and managers must pay attention to
leverage cultural the distinct organizational con-
text for which they are develop-
differences is, in ing the training program. There
simply is no “one-size-fits-all” so-
itself, a process of lution to diversity issues, as the
goal of each organization is
cultural change. Yet
unique depending on the em-
many traditional ployees, environment, and cul-
ture.
diversity programs Other advocates of a cultural
change perspective suggest that
continue to reflect
businesses modify their culture to
misguided meet diversity objectives rather
than relying on employees to
expectations about change behaviors in response to
one-time training programs (God-
what diversity
dard, 1989; Paskoff, 1996; Ragins,
training can really 1997, R. R. Thomas, 1996). Suc-
cessful programs, R. R. Thomas
achieve. argues, require commitment from
all members of the organization
regardless of position. Top man-
agement must model the behav-
ioral change if a cultural transformation is to
take place.
Additionally, recent diversity research
emphasizes the importance of supportive
peer relations in the workplace (see
Bacharach, Bamberger, & Vashdi, 2005, for a
summary of research on this theme). For ex-
ample, a Gallup survey of 400 companies
found that workers’ ability to form support-
ive relationships at work is among the most
powerful of 12 predictors of a highly produc-
tive workplace (Shellenbarger, 2000; cf.
Bacharach et al., 2005). Thus, one approach
to encouraging diversity appreciation among
employees is to cultivate a culture that is
supportive of relationships among employ-
ees. Interestingly, diversity researchers have
made the following observations in support
of such a relational approach:
• The success of a diversity initiative is
more probable when employees identify
with the organization as well as with
their teams (Jayne & Dipboye, 2004).
• Kochan et al. (2003, p. 9) reported,
“Training- and development-focused HR
practices, including coaching, open com-
munications and interactive listening, as
well as opportunities for development,
reduced the negative effects of racial di-
versity on constructive group processes.”
• Organizations can increase diversity ef-
fectiveness by incorporating aspects of
group learning and diversity perspectives
in organizations (e.g., by focusing on
how groups learn from and across differ-
ences; Foldy, 2004).
• The business benefits of diversity may
depend on the particular organizational
context or situation (Jayne & Dipboye,
2004; Kochan et al., 2003).
• The view of “cultural identity” as a so-
cially constructed concept emphasizes
the role that social context plays in shap-
ing those demographic characteristics
that are visible and job-related (Ely &
Thomas, 2001).
The foregoing observations point to the
importance of group processes in the success
of a transition to an effective culture of di-
versity. Further, the willingness and ability to
accept, understand, and leverage cultural dif-
ferences is, in itself, a process of cultural
change. Yet many traditional diversity pro-
grams continue to reflect misguided expecta-
tions about what diversity training can really
achieve. For example, many echo an expec-
tation that one-shot or even multiple train-
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
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Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion
ing sessions are enough to affect widespread
behavioral and structural change within an
organization. Others advocate raising the
status and voice of underrepresented groups
in order to affect a cultural change (Brickson,
2000). We purport that a more realistic per-
spective on “managing for diversity” is an
ongoing process that emphasizes relational
development that values the individual
within the collective identity of the organi-
zation. As part of the Diversity Research Net-
work, Kochan and colleagues (2003, p. 18)
conclude:
Therefore, managers might do better to
focus on building an organizational
culture, human resource practices, and
the managerial and group process skills
needed to translate diversity into posi-
tive organizational, group, and individ-
ual results.
Brickson (2000) points out that a rela-
tional orientation facilitates a social aware-
ness that better allows us to address demo-
graphic identities without overly focusing on
them. She argues that we should concentrate
our diversity efforts on relationships be-
tween employees rather than on group dif-
ferences. To her philosophy, we add the need
to honor individuality so that employees are
willing to share their unique perspectives
with the organization. We assert that our
proposed approach does so by creating an
awareness of human commonalities—re-
gardless of demographic differences—by
making salient the diversity within demo-
graphic groups as well as across them, and by
emphasizing that the greatest asset employ-
ees bring to an organization is their unique
insights and perspectives.
Our Philosophy
Our primary concern is the well-being of in-
dividuals, whether they are students in a
classroom or employees in the workplace.
We suspect that as humans, when we do not
feel comfortable with our own uniqueness,
we will not be eager to share “that which we
are” with the organization. Alternatively, if
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
337
we do not appreciate the differences of oth-
ers, it is unlikely that we will appreciate their
contributions.
Therefore, our interpretation of the word
“inclusive” refers to a work atmosphere in
which each person is valued for his or her dis-
tinctive skills, experiences, and
perspectives. We perceive attitudi-
nal differences between the terms
…the greatest asset
“diversity training” and “manag-
ing for diversity” and are biased employees bring to
decidedly toward the latter. We
see “managing for diversity” as an organization is
being a proactive, ongoing strat-
their unique insights
egy that creates a culture within
which people appreciate and can and perspectives.
capitalize on individual differ-
ences—regardless of changing
legal, demographic, and eco-
nomic conditions.
We suspect that problems emerge when
managers use diversity training to react to
legal dictates, or when they pursue diversity
issues solely in response to the environment.
In both cases, managers treat diversity issues
as a problem, external to their purported
mission, which they must deal with in order
to maintain the legitimacy of the organiza-
tion (McDaniel & Walls, 1997). Instead, we
encourage an approach that treats diversity
as a strategic opportunity for the greater
good of both individuals and groups within
an organization, as well as for the bottom
line.
Problems may also occur when diversity
training efforts concentrate on visual identi-
ties (age, gender, race, ethnicity, disability),
without addressing hidden identities (e.g.,
values, beliefs, cultures, attitudes, desires,
and needs), and cognitive and behavioral
styles that people bring to the workforce.
Such approaches may hinder the emergence
of an inclusive environment by overempha-
sizing differences rather than commonali-
ties, and/or collective identities at the ex-
pense of individual identities.
We designed this approach with the in-
tent of fostering appreciation for cultural dif-
ferences within our organization—the class-
room. We used individual life stories coupled
with food in a semester-long, socially inclu-
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338 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
sive process. Because the sharing of food is
typically viewed as a simplistic way to create
awareness of other cultures, our emphasis
was on the life stories, with food serving
only to tempt participation. The
individual stories prompted the
Stories prompted the explorations of differences. This
approach resulted in an atmos-
explorations of phere of openness and dialogue
within which participants shared
differences. This aspects of themselves (the “me”)
approach resulted in that might otherwise have been
overlooked in the collective iden-
an atmosphere of tity (the “we”) of the organiza-
tion. Using food stories is only
openness and one way to engage employees re-
lationally, without an explicit
dialogue within
focus on diversity per se. It is the
which participants sharing of stories that enhances
an understanding and apprecia-
shared aspects of tion for each other’s uniqueness.
We present other modes of trans-
themselves (the
ferring this approach to an ongo-
“me”) that might ing diversity effort in organiza-
tions in the section entitled “An
otherwise have been Organizational Approach.”
In summary, by focusing on in-
overlooked in the
terpersonal, relational processes,
collective identity we may have the best chance of
enhancing organizational diversity
(the “we”) of the efforts. To understand the basis by
which this approach can succeed,
organization. we draw upon the education litera-
ture on learning and motivational
literature on intrinsic motivation.
The Case for an Active Learning
Approach
Learning is a change in the individual,
due to the interaction of that individ-
ual, and his environment, which fills a
need and makes him more capable of
dealing adequately with his environ-
ment. (Burton, 1963, p. 7)
Every human being has both sets of
[competing] forces within him. . . . One
set clings to safety and defensiveness
out of fear, tending to regress backward.
. . . The other set of forces impels him
forward toward wholeness to Self and
uniqueness of Self. . . . We grow forward
when the delights of growth and anxi-
eties of safety are greater than the anx-
ieties of growth and the delights of
safety. (Maslow, 1972, pp. 44–45)
These quotes define learning from two
perspectives. The former comes from an edu-
cational scholar, and the latter originates
from insights on human behavior—specifi-
cally, motivation. Both philosophies in-
formed the development of our approach.
Both require an active learning methodol-
ogy.
Active learning is a process by which
learners actively engage in applying, analyz-
ing, and synthesizing knowledge (W. S.
Thomas, Prater, Luckner, Rhine, & Rude,
1998). Research suggests that the use of ac-
tive learning methods facilitates absorption
and retention of information better than
conventional techniques (McCarthy & An-
derson, 2000). Pedagogically, they are suc-
cessful because they provide learners the op-
portunity to experience concepts in addition
to reading and hearing about them. Motiva-
tionally, learners are better able to internalize
and infuse the theoretical concepts through
personalization.
Internalization refers to people’s “taking
in” a value or regulation (Ryan & Deci,
2000), while infusion refers to the further
transformation of that regulation into their
own, so that subsequently, it will emanate
from their sense of self. Internalization and
infusion require the involvement of values,
attitudes, and/or emotions in the learning
process. In active learning environments, the
brain continuously constructs meanings
from the situations in which knowledge is
learned and used (Gazzaniga, 1995). This oc-
curs because learners are more likely to focus
attention on something they are doing, as
the process of doing requires the involvement
of all our senses and the coordination of
movement with thought (Chavez & Poirier,
2007).
Another rationale is that employees
come with different life experiences and
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Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion
therefore will gain different learning from
the same work experience. Everyone brings
bias to his or her work, including diversity
trainers, human resource managers, and the
authors of this manuscript. While biases are
not necessarily bad, they must be acknowl-
edged. At best, we can attempt to make our
biases salient to ourselves and to others by
expressing who we are. Doing so provides us
with an understanding of underlying as-
sumptions and philosophies born of unique
experiences so that collectively we can better
understand each other. Hence, proponents
of active learning paradigms (Anderson &
Speck, 1998; Boggs, 2001; Knowles et al.,
2005; Kolb, 1984) invite trainers to take re-
sponsibility for providing trainees with ac-
tivities that can enhance learning. Trainers
are encouraged to move away from a top-
down paradigm and move toward an active
learning environment.
A main component of active-learning
methodologies and intrinsic motivation is
“contextualization.” Contextualization is a
process of placing learning topics in context.
These contexts involve themes or characters
of particular interest to learners so that learn-
ers are more likely to internalize the material
and become intrinsically motivated to learn.
Many researchers commend the motiva-
tional and instructional benefits of contextu-
alization (e.g., Lepper & Cordova, 1992;
Parker & Lepper, 1992). They emphasize that
traditional training efforts conducted out-
side the work of the organization are less
likely to be as effective as those that are tied
directly to the organization’s context.
“Self-determination” (choice) is another
key component of active learning and in-
trinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1987).
Choice enhances intrinsic motivation
through acknowledgment of feelings and
through opportunities for self-direction
(Deci & Ryan, 1985). Research across a vari-
ety of activities indicates that learners show
more enjoyment and perform better on a
myriad of learning activities when they have
a choice of subject matter, even when
choices seem trivial (Langer, 1975; Zuker-
man, Porac, Lathin, Smith, & Deci, 1978).
Through choice, learners are more likely to
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
339
develop a sense of “ownership” in the learn-
ing process.
We combined what science tells us about
intrinsic motivation, the learning process,
social needs, culture, and human behavior to
improve on our approach to diversity train-
ing. We found that students responded with
spontaneous interest, an appreciation for ex-
ploration, and enjoyment in the discovery
process. In the following sections, we share
our classroom experience followed by a dis-
cussion on replicating the process in the
workforce, suggestions for evaluating such
an approach, and a discussion ex-
plicating our final thoughts. For
detailed instructor plans, see
Chavez and Poirier (2007). Research across a
variety of activities
The Classroom Experience
indicates that
In order to tap into this inherent
enjoyment of the learning learners show more
process, the instructors relin-
quished their tendency to control enjoyment and
the classroom by providing stu-
perform better on a
dents with choices. Through
choice, students were able to myriad of learning
bring to the classroom a personal
view of life from which others activities when they
could benefit. The students re-
have a choice of
portedly took ownership of the
learning process. They became subject matter, even
excited, autonomous, self-di-
rected learners—eager to share when choices seem
their ideas and insights.
trivial.
The instructors invited stu-
dent teams of three to four stu-
dents to use food to introduce a
story that had meaning to them. The “food
stories” were to follow academic presenta-
tions scheduled throughout the semester. It
is important to note that students were in-
vited—not assigned—to share a part of
themselves through the use of food. All
teams chose to do so. Some teams jointly
presented a story, while other teams pre-
sented two or three food stories. By the end
of the semester, individuals were asking if
they could present additional food stories.
Student teams had complete autonomy to
use any food to discuss any issue they chose.
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340 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
The stories did not have to tie into the aca-
demic presentation, even though many did.
Instead, students could use the food stories
to expose the class to something new, old,
interesting, or different. The base of interest
could be ethnic, religious, economic, politi-
cal, or social.
The instructor set the example, early in
the semester, by being the first to introduce
a food story (see examples of food stories in
the “An Organizational Approach” section).
The instructor then invited the students to
follow the model during their team presen-
tations. From the instructor ex-
ample, students learned the size
and scope of the food sample.
By selecting their Thereafter, each student team
presented one time during the se-
own areas of mester. Following academic pre-
interest, students sentations, each team shared one
or more individual stories and
brought a portion of then invited students to share in
eating the food. While presenters
themselves into the passed out the samples and stu-
dents tasted, the instructor initi-
presentation.
ated a class discussion tying
course concepts to the stories
when possible. When not possi-
ble, the instructors brought up general topics
such as intracultural diversity, ethnocentric-
ity, or the role one’s experiences play in sub-
sequent expectations and decisions. Often,
the food stories triggered a curiosity—thus
providing an opportunity for appreciative
inquisitiveness.
Through the use of food (a commonal-
ity), an open atmosphere emerged within
which students began to appreciate differ-
ences. Students enthusiastically tried differ-
ent foods, listened with interest to the sto-
ries, and asked many questions during the
discussions. Students willingly contributed
their own experiences and ideas—and they
did so with positive reception and genuine
interest. As the classroom culture changed,
so too did the number of students requesting
to participate. Hence, students did take own-
ership of the experience. Within an atmos-
phere of positive reception, the class was
able to discuss heretofore emotionally
charged subjects such as race, religion, social
class, and politics in a calm and appreciative
environment. Students appeared to take
pride in sharing their differences.
These outcomes indicate that we were
able to meet our first two objectives: to cre-
ate a relational culture of integration while
celebrating the “me” within the “we” and to
maintain a culture within which members
are intrinsically motivated to take ownership
of the learning experience and to learn from
each other. This suggests that an apprecia-
tion for differences, based on a commonality,
can be an effective training approach. Shar-
ing food makes salient our oneness while re-
inforcing pleasant experiences with different
people (as indicated by the stories).
Through “self-determination” about
which foods and stories to share, we were
able to sidestep anxieties about stereotypes.
Participants chose what they shared. Some
chose to use the food stories to identify with
particular groups, while others chose to
demonstrate their uniqueness either within
or despite their group identity. By selecting
their own areas of interest, students brought
a portion of themselves into the presenta-
tion. Students were able to portray what is
important in their lives based on their own
life’s conditioning and experiences. In doing
so, students moved culturally diverse life ex-
periences from an abstract idea into the con-
text of personal reality.
The whole endeavor became a true class
project in which a community of learners
taught each other. In one class, students—
without provocation—took photographs of
presenters, solicited recipes of the foods
shared, and recorded the stories. The instruc-
tor then copied, collated, bound, and distrib-
uted books to each class member as a keep-
sake. In another class, students wrote and
submitted the exercise to the Eastern Acad-
emy of Management conference where it
won a “best experiential exercise” award.
Three students attended and presented their
food stories at the conference. They dis-
cussed the process, the insights, and some of
the emotional realizations that occurred
throughout the semester. Such outcomes in-
dicate that the process had a strong impact
on student learning, enjoyment, and com-
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Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion
mitment to each other, their teams, and the
classroom.
At the end of each semester, we use the
nominal group brainstorming technique to
obtain feedback about the course. We ask
students to list the activities or concepts that
were of the most interest or from which they
learned the most. We visibly record all sug-
gestions. We typically begin the voting with
30–40 ideas. Students then vote (one for
each five to six suggestions) for their favorite
idea. We then eliminate the half that receives
the least votes and allow students to vote
again for the remaining suggestions. Each
time, we have used this approach to teaching
diversity, food stories have emerged as the
top activity. Likewise, 70 to 80% of students
(without provocation from instructors)
wrote positive evaluative comments regard-
ing the exercise and level of interaction. In-
structors received course evaluations near
and/or at the top of their respective colleges
during the semesters in which they used the
food approach.
We have used this semester-long
approach to diversity appreciation in both
undergraduate and MBA courses, in courses
on organizational behavior, strategic man-
agement, human resource management, and
cultural diversity at three large public uni-
versities located in the northeast, northwest,
and the southwest United States. The north-
eastern university has a diverse international
and a diverse American student body. The
southwest university is designated as a “His-
panic-serving” university and has been rated
as one of the best universities for minorities
to attend. The northwest university has a
more homogeneous student body. Class-
room results were the same across all three
universities, indicating that this approach
truly does address uniqueness both across
and within groups. In all cases, we were able
to create a culture of inclusiveness within
which individual perspectives contributed to
the context of the course. We suspect that
the success we have experienced within a 13-
week semester would be amplified in an on-
going organizational effort.
As further evidence of success, we report
the following testimonials as typical of
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
341
those written by many students on course
evaluations:
• “As a senior I finally got to know my fel-
low students. I wish I had this type of
class as a freshman.”
• “I suspect 25 years from now if you ask
the students in this class which course
they remember most, it will be yours for
the single reason that there was a lot of
interaction both in and out of class be-
tween people who would not have other-
wise associated with each other—a very
uncommon teaching prac-
tice.”
• “Wow, I never knew [that In all cases, we
phrase] could be interpreted
so many different ways.” were able to create
• “You truly have brought a re-
spect for differences to the a culture of
class.”
inclusiveness within
• “When I started, I was afraid
because I am different. Now I which individual
have many friends and I like
my difference.” perspectives
• “Thanks for letting us share
contributed to the
ourselves.”
context of the
An Organizational course.
Approach
We can apply the same principles
(developed in the classroom) to a workforce
setting with the goal of developing an inclu-
sive organizational culture. Such an atmos-
phere provides management a strategic op-
portunity to capitalize on the unique
perspectives a diverse workforce offers.
Just as the instructors did, organizational
facilitators can either dictate or leave up to
volunteers the choice of whether or not to
use teams. One advantage to dyadic or team
presentations is that it affords an opportu-
nity to participate to those who might not
do so individually. We recommend that sto-
ries be structured around something of gen-
eral interest to all participants (e.g., music, a
favorite book, art, or favorite quote). This
provides volunteers with some structure
while allowing for choice of what they want
to share as well as the intensity or shallow-
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342 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
ness of that which they choose to share. It is
our experience that once the leader/instruc-
tor/manager sets the example, others will
follow in kind.
It is imperative that top management be
the first to present a story. Doing so sends
the message that management supports the
procedure and defines the scope of the exer-
cise (e.g., size of the food snack,
length and intensity of the story).
Likewise, by demonstrating open
It is imperative that and sharing behaviors, manage-
ment describes a cultural expecta-
top management be tion that others are then more
the first to present likely to replicate.
Second, management must
a story. Doing so allow choice about what people
want to share. Just as instructors
sends the message relinquished control of the class-
room, so too must top managers
that management
learn to relinquish some power
supports the in the process. R. R. Thomas
(1990) identifies the reluctance
procedure and of top managers to relinquish
power as one reason for poor di-
defines the scope
versity training results. He points
of the exercise out that diversity workshops typ-
ically have to depend on the
(e.g., size of the goodwill of top managers, who
themselves may not be commit-
food snack, length ted to change. Thus, much train-
and intensity of the ing occurs top-down, which
places the burden for behavioral
story). change on new recruits rather
than on management.
Third, managers must be
ready for anything. The exercise leads to
some very interesting results. Some exam-
ples:
• One ostensibly Anglo, non-Hispanic-sur-
named student contributed tamales and
related how his Mexican abuela (grand-
mother) made them each year at Christ-
mas. This person welcomed the opportu-
nity to introduce his Hispanic heritage.
• In contrast, an African American student
brought escargot in a rich cream sauce.
She introduced her love for cooking
French food and her dreams of becoming
a professional gourmet cook. This person
chose to share her dreams rather than
her experiences or her heritage.
• Another ostensibly Anglo, French-named
student contributed Chinese tamales and
related how she learned to prepare them
while living in China where she met her
husband. This person chose to share her
cultural experiences rather than her her-
itage. Our discussion centered on what it
is like to be an American living in a Chi-
nese culture contrasted with what it is
like to be a Chinese living in an Ameri-
can culture.
• One Native American student caught,
cooked, and served up fresh trout. He
shared information about his heritage
and his tribe’s celebratory customs. An-
other participant observed that there
were noticeable differences in celebra-
tory schedules between Native Ameri-
can tribes and nations that need to be
respected when scheduling group inter-
actions.
• One of the instructors brought beer
(nonalcoholic) and told a story about
having had cancer that necessitated an
operation. The night before the opera-
tion, her doctor asked if there was any-
thing special she wanted the next day.
She told him she would like a beer. The
doctor agreed to prescribe the beer. Fol-
lowing a successful operation, and just as
soon as she felt well enough to eat, she
asked for the beer. The nurse left and
came back with directions to the beer.
The doctor had fulfilled his promise.
However, he had arranged for the beer to
be on the other side of the hospital with
instructions that the patient had to get it
herself. Obviously, the doctor wanted his
patient to exercise as soon as possible fol-
lowing the operation. At the time, we
were studying conflict/negotiation is-
sues. This became an example of a
win/win (collaborative) strategy.
• A student from Mexico brought a cactus
salad. We learned that Mexicans often
substitute cactus for meat because of the
expense. We also learned about family
eating customs in Mexico. Dinners are
family-oriented and leisurely. At the
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Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion
time, we were doing a case study on Ken-
tucky Fried Chicken (KFC). We tied Mex-
ican culture into the probability of suc-
cess for KFC’s impending expansion into
Mexico. Based on the presentation cen-
tering on Mexican eating customs, stu-
dents decided that KFC’s fast-food con-
cept would fail (which it initially did).
• A Chinese-born American student told a
story of starvation as a youngster in
China. Her family, she relayed, spent
much time discussing and dreaming
about the possibility of turning newspa-
per into food. Her sister grew up to be-
come a chemist working with the team
that created Pringles Potato Chips
printed with edible ink (see your local
grocery store shelf).
• Another student brought what he per-
ceived to be “good old American
coleslaw.” He told of being extremely
poor relative to other kids in his high
school. Consequently, he was embar-
rassed to join his friends for hamburgers.
Still, the social desire to be included was
strong. Therefore, the young man pre-
tended to be a vegetarian. He noticed
that very few people ate the coleslaw
often served with the food orders. It be-
came his practice to eat the leftover
coleslaw. The positive outcome, he said,
is that “I absolutely love coleslaw and I
make the best coleslaw of anyone. I am
sharing my best recipe with you today. If
you do not like it, please set it aside; I will
be around to collect the leftovers.” (For
an elaboration on these and other stories,
see Chavez & Poirier, 2007.)
The skill of the facilitator to “tease out”
and adapt the stories to key issues within the
organization is important. In this vein, facil-
itators must be open-minded, allowing dis-
cussion topics to emerge from the questions,
comments, and enhancements that mem-
bers present. Only then can we be confident
that we are addressing the issues relevant to
the environment within which we are oper-
ating. Trainers can ask leading questions
such as “What issues can we identify for fur-
ther discussion towards understanding the
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
343
nature of human beings?” “How can we
apply the lessons learned here to our work
unit, department, or organization?” “What
issues introduced in this story can we capi-
talize on in an effort to honor and make
comfortable every member of our work-
force?” and “What issues introduced in this
story can we capitalize on in our business . .
. or with our products/services?” Participants
can be surprisingly insightful.
Our examples come from the
classroom so we tied stories to
course content. However, the The skill of the
Pringles story is an example of
how early experiences inform facilitator to “tease
later perceptions and how—if em-
ployees are willing to share—the out” and adapt the
organization can capitalize on stories to key
those experiences. Would KFC
have approached its expansion issues within the
into Mexico differently if the cac-
tus presentation had occurred in organization is
their organization? Might the in-
important. In this
structor’s “beer” story serve as a
prompt to fitness or health organ- vein, facilitators
izations, or organizations that
stress wellness or preventative must be open-
care? The realization that the tim-
minded, allowing
ing of religious and other celebra-
tions differs among different discussion topics to
groups might lead an organiza-
tion to change from a traditional emerge from the
Christian-based holiday schedule
questions,
toward a more flexible schedule
(say everyone gets to take seven comments, and
holidays per year scheduled ac-
cording to individual and organi- enhancements that
zational needs). This would better
serve the needs of employees members present.
while sending a clear message
that everyone is valued. Likewise,
by knowing the needs of individuals, man-
agers could more efficiently schedule the
work of the organization.
The “Slaw Boy” story occurred in a mas-
ter-level course on understanding human be-
havior in organizations. Therefore, discus-
sions of motivation theories (McClelland’s
n/affiliation, Maslow’s social, and Alderfer’s
relatedness needs, etc.) as well as the concept
of social desirability were appropriate topics.
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344 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
Had this story emerged in a work setting,
then perhaps topics such as ethics or fa-
voritism (in-group vs. out-group dynamics)
would have emerged. The suggested topics
for exploration are included to show the
magnitude of this exercise—how one might
apply it to various situations.
Numerous stories exist about business
failures due to cultural misunderstandings
(CultComm, 2004) that might have been
avoided had the organizations had a diverse
workforce that they listened to before at-
tempting to enter new markets. For example,
McDonald’s developed advertise-
ments directed at Hispanics. They
did not distinguish within the
Numerous stories Hispanic population until they
received complaints from Puerto
exist about business Rico that the “ads were too Mexi-
failures due to can.” Likewise, Gerber marketed
its famous baby food in Africa
cultural with the picture of the Gerber
baby on the label. It is no wonder
misunderstandings. Gerber failed, as in Africa labels
are used to present a picture of
the food inside the container.
Ford introduced its Pinto in Brazil under the
name of Corcel. Following a failed, albeit ex-
pensive, marketing campaign Ford belatedly
learned that the word “corcel” was Por-
tuguese slang for “a small male appendage.”
Not all stories are going to be relevant to
the organization’s strategy. However, all pre-
sentations are relevant to those presenting
and allow people to get to know one an-
other. Thomas Edison required his workers
to submit ideas on a regular basis. He set a
personal quota of one minor invention idea
every ten days and a major invention idea
every six months. While the majority of
these ideas did not come to fruition, those
that did made a very big difference (Dubrin,
1998).
With these caveats in mind, one ap-
proach is to set aside time for this process on
a regular basis. The time could be at the be-
ginning of a meeting, during lunch, or dur-
ing afternoon or morning breaks. Following
a managerial demonstration, invite employ-
ees to schedule and share a story at future
meetings. Sharing must be voluntary and
volunteers must choose what they want to
share. Not all participants will volunteer,
while others will seek multiple opportunities
to share. However, most members look for-
ward to the presentations and learning
something about others. Once sharing activ-
ities become an expectation or cultural
norm, volunteerism tends to increase. In the
classroom, volunteerism was sluggish at the
beginning of the semester, whereas we could
not accommodate all the volunteers in the
second half. Some individuals have personal
reasons for not sharing (e.g., fear or shyness),
while others share only surface differences,
opting instead to avoid sensitive issues. We
value the individuals’ right to choose their
level (if any) and depth of sharing, as this is
an element of their uniqueness.
An alternative approach is to ask partici-
pants to bring a symbol that represents a
defining moment in their lives. Ask them to
share how that event changed who they are
or informed who they became. The Pringles
story is one example. Management can first
split participants into groups to share stories
among themselves, and/or have them select a
group story to share externally. To encourage
sharing, award a “silly but fun” prize for the
most interesting story or most creative adap-
tation of a story into the work of the organi-
zation. We believe that people inherently
enjoy sharing their experiences, thoughts,
and perceptions. However, they will only do
so when they feel valued as they are.
A technology research unit in the Idaho
State Government has employees play “King
for the Day.” They hold monthly meetings
designated solely to brainstorming ideas
that the “King for the Day” brings. The
“King” is encouraged to be creative and even
silly. Meeting participants are also encour-
aged to be creative and silly in further de-
veloping the ideas. The technology director
often acts as a court jester in order to keep
ideas flowing. Several ideas have led to
change. One such idea led to a sharing of
common resources (answering services, on-
call technical expertise, etc.) among several
information technology units within the
state government (D. Fournier, personal
communication, 2007).
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Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion
Additionally, we can ask that participants
research the origination of the foods they
choose. By discovering the history of foods,
we may discover some interesting connec-
tions to the rest of the people of the world
and to each other. However, stories do not
need to be embedded within an eating activ-
ity. Having participants design a story around
a favorite poem, quote, book, or movie can
be just as effective. Likewise, the history of
these modes can also reveal interesting con-
nections among seemingly disparate groups
of people. Management can use a combina-
tion of activities in conjunction with each
other or subsequent to each other. For exam-
ple, this year we share food stories, next year
we share music stories, and so on. The key to
sharing is in the stories. To that end, have
participants select stories based on a personal
meaning or fond association that is unique to
themselves. In the next section, we present
several avenues for evaluating the success of
such an approach in organizations.
Evaluating Training Effectiveness
Our inclusion approach rests upon the prem-
ise that management desires a holistic
change, one that advances a change in orga-
nizational culture. Necessary attitudes
within an inclusive environment include a
belief in the business case for diversity, a
desire to develop sensitivity and awareness
about diversity, and a willingness to engage
in behavioral change. Such characteristics
“facilitate a transformation in thinking”
(Guillory & Guillory, 2004, p. 25). Strategies
for successful transformation include provid-
ing members with an organizational impera-
tive for change, building on the successes of
those who are committed to change, and
coaching for leadership skills to support the
change process (Miller, 1998). We can meas-
ure the existence of such attitudes and the
degree to which such strategies exist. We ex-
pect a positive association between the
processes and attitudes needed to create an
inclusive culture and the successful transfor-
mation to an inclusive culture. The degree of
inclusiveness will be unique to the context,
goals, work, and diversity of members within
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
345
each organization. Thus, evaluating diversity
training effectiveness should reflect a process
that integrates training needs, objectives,
and outcomes with key strategic objectives
and goals, and examines training within the
context of the organization’s culture. One
problem with nonintegrative approaches is
the failure to assess diversity interventions
within this context. Other problems stem
from the type of evaluation.
Typically, trainers evaluate participants’
reactions to the training and/or what partici-
pants say they learned from the training con-
tent. We re-emphasize the impor-
tance of evaluating either at the
behavioral level or at the organiza-
tional level—assessing whether Our inclusion
the culture has become more in-
clusive as a result of the interven- approach rests
tion. The evaluation approaches upon the premise
discussed below are general and
varied. They may be used in isola- that management
tion or together and can be
adapted or modified to suit the desires a holistic
particular purposes of each organ-
change, one that
ization that adopts our inclusion
approach. advances a change
• Wardley (2006) suggests using in organizational
a combination of qualitative
culture.
and quantitative data when
using culture as a catalyst for
change. Qualitative assess-
ments include interviews and focus
groups. Wardley then proposes using root-
cause analysis to sort through this qualita-
tive data to get at the two or three key
areas (root causes) that will have the great-
est impact on organizational performance.
• Glaser (2005) advises managers to ask
seven questions to assess culture and as a
way to guide organizational transition.
We have adapted those questions to as-
sess the presence of an inclusive culture.
The questionnaire can be administered
both before and after any training and/or
intervention, or across a time span. Addi-
tionally, we have added two questions
(“b” questions). We recommend using a
Likert scale where 1 = not at all and 7 =
to a great extent.
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346 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008
1. Are conversations about diversity
healthy?
1b. Does everyone participate in diversity
discussions?
2. Is there a spirit of appreciation, or a pos-
itive spirit, regarding diversity?
2b. Do you enjoy sharing and hearing
about diversity issues?
3. Are leaders providing direction with
respect to honoring diverse perspectives?
4. Are diverse employees collaborating and
bonding across boundaries?
5. In what ways are diverse colleagues en-
gaging each other for mutual success?
6. Is there a feeling that we are all in this to-
gether?
7. Is there a spirit of discovery and inquiry
in the enterprise that includes diverse
employees?
• In addition to these qualitative assess-
ments, the Organizational Cul-
ture Inventory, or OCI (Human
Synergistics International, 2005)
We also remind the
can serve as a useful quantitative
reader that there is a diagnostic tool. It measures vari-
ous behavioral norms termed
difference between “cultural styles” that identify
shared beliefs, values, and expec-
visual and hidden tations that guide interactions
identities and that by among organizational members.
The OCI identifies three cultural
failing to address styles: constructive, aggressive/
defensive, and passive/defensive.
deep-seated The survey instrument is adapted
from Kotter and Heskett’s (1992)
differences, we may
study wherein they identified
be relegating those effective organizational cultures
as “adaptive” and ineffective cul-
differences to the tures as “unadaptive.” The OCI’s
“constructive” cultural style is
realm of something
consistent with Kotter and Hes-
“unspeakable” that kett’s adaptive culture and is
characterized as being, among
carries a negative other things, proactive and trust-
ing, having leadership that pro-
connotation.
duces change, and members who
believe they can effectively man-
age any problem.
• Another tool is the Denison Organiza-
tional Culture Survey (Denison & Neale,
1996), which helps organizations set pri-
orities for change (see Carr, 2004, for an
example of how one company used this
survey tool). This tool identifies cultural
norms that make the difference between
profitable and unprofitable companies:
adaptability, mission, consistency, and
involvement.
• See Taras (2007) for a catalogue of 140 in-
struments measuring cultures. Many
measure organizational culture and con-
tain original items, scoring keys, and in-
formation about reliabilities.
Within the context of evaluating our in-
clusion approach, management can adopt a
“pre-post” evaluation design whereby the
culture is assessed before the start of the in-
tervention, then again at later predeter-
mined time periods. Since we view our
approach as a longer-term endeavor,
postassessment(s) might not take place for a
period of years or periodically across several
years. Additionally, organizations can meas-
ure specific key organizational outcomes
such as turnover, retention rates, or absen-
teeism among various identity groups (in-
cluding underrepresented groups) to evalu-
ate the impact of the inclusion process on
both groups and individuals.
Final Thoughts
Our experiences indicate that we were able
to meet our objectives: to create a relational
culture of integration while celebrating the
“me” within the “we”; to maintain a culture
within which members are intrinsically mo-
tivated to take ownership of the learning ex-
perience and thus learn from each other; and
to incorporate a strategy into our classroom
organizations that capitalizes on the multi-
ple perspectives of individuals. We initially
were surprised at the richness of the stories.
However, after experiencing the results de-
scribed across numerous training efforts, we
are confident that we would obtain similar
results in other social environments.
In our experience, there is enough diver-
sity across and within most groups to afford
very interesting discussions, realizations, and
sensitivities about differences in values, atti-
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
09HRM47_2chavez 5/7/08 11:22 AM Page 347
Beyond Diversity Training: A Social Infusion for Cultural Inclusion
tudes, and perspectives. We also remind the
reader that there is a difference between vi-
sual and hidden identities and that by failing
to address deep-seated differences, we may
be relegating those differences to the realm
of something “unspeakable” that carries a
negative connotation. Through empower-
ment, the approach presented here “gets at”
the differences that participants deem im-
portant. Participants decide what is worth
sharing rather than being victims of social
norms and negative expectations.
For example, through choice, a variety of
concerns may emerge for discussion that
management might otherwise overlook. By
allowing employees to direct topics through
their stories, we are reasonably confident that
discussion topics will be uniquely suited to
the needs and interests of each particular or-
ganization and the needs of each employee.
The lessons learned occur within the particu-
lar organizational context or situation as rec-
ommended by Kochan et al. (2003) and Jayne
and Dipboye (2004). Trainers avoid focusing
on the interests of a few diverse groups at the
expense of others. Rather, the training is so-
cially inclusive and circumvents this concern.
Another potential benefit of this approach
is that it encourages open communications
and interactive listening—a practice that
should reduce any negative effects of diversity
on group processes as purported by Kochan et
al. (2003). Instead, we speculate that these el-
ements will enhance relational developments,
which, in turn, should result in greater em-
ployee identification with their work units
and the organizational culture. When mem-
bers of a group have a relational orientation,
social cognitions can address such differences
(e.g., demographic identities) without becom-
ing the focus, as there is a balance between
personal and social identities in such cultures
(Kreiner, Hollensbe, & Sheep, 2006). Thus, we
avoid the “blame and shame” approach, and
people are less likely to become defensive.
Kochan et al. (2003) recommended the
need for a long-term approach that empha-
sizes group processes and relational develop-
ment as a means to leveraging diversity in
organizations. We assert that our method
does promote changes in institutional atti-
Human Resource Management DOI: 10.1002/hrm
347
tudes that can lead to cultural change. We
encourage HR managers to focus more effort
on the continuous support of relationships
among employees with an occasional lesson
in more sensitive issues (e.g., training neces-
sitated by circumstances such as sexual ha-
rassment or other legally mandated train-
ing). Our contention is that negative
emotional reactions (defensiveness, blame,
shame, etc.) will be subdued within a culture
that first stresses supportive relationships.
Therefore, we encourage human resource
managers to seriously consider this
approach (epicurean or other-
wise) to an inclusive culture of
diverse employees.
Like T. Cox and Blake (1991), We assert that
we view an attitude of valuing
diversity as a strategic means to “managing for
enhancing organizational effec- diversity” can be a
tiveness. We assert that “manag-
ing for diversity” can be a com- competitive
petitive advantage through the
attraction, retention, and leverag- advantage through
ing of the unique capacities of a
the attraction,
diverse workforce. Rather than
using a discrimination-and-fair- retention, and
ness paradigm based on assimila-
tion, or an access-and-legitimacy leveraging of the
model predicated on differentia-
unique capacities of
tion, we advocate a learning-and-
effectiveness approach centered a diverse workforce.
on integration as described by D.
A. Thomas and Ely (1996). This is
a win-win approach with many
possible benefits to both individual members
and the organization. Within such an atmos-
phere, people interact and share something
of themselves. Most importantly, they be-
come positively disposed to listen to one an-
other. To this end, we must create a safe and
open culture within which employees can
discover and appreciate differences: a culture
within which workers can take ownership of
the learning process, can teach each other,
and can feel “comfortable” in their own
skin—a culture to which people want to be-
long. In short, we strongly advocate a
change in attitude that moves away from a
focus on “managing diversity” toward an at-
titude of “managing for diversity.”
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348 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Summer 2008

CAROLYN I. CHAVEZ is an assistant professor in the College of Business at New Mexico

State University. She received her PhD from the State University of New York at Albany
(SUNY). Her research interests include power and influence, leadership development,
management education, and training. Her publications include articles in the Journal of
Applied Psychology, the Journal of Organizational Behavior, Leadership Quarterly, and
the Journal of Management Education.

JUDITH Y. WEISINGER is an associate professor in the College of Business at New

Mexico State University. She received her PhD from Case Western Reserve University.
Her research interests include cross-cultural management and diversity. Her publica-
tions include articles in the Journal of Managerial Issues, the Irish Journal of Manage-
ment, and the Journal of Management Inquiry.

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