Sound effects

 Hugh Davies
 https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.47631
 Published in print: 20 January 2001
 Published online: 2001


Sounds and noises, primarily percussive, included in dramatic or musical

performances. They range from sounds made off-stage in theatre, film and television
productions to the many uses by composers of noise-making objects that would not
normally be regarded as musical instruments.

1. Dramatic sound effects.

Off-stage sound effects have been employed since drama began, but their complete
integration into theatrical forms is comparatively recent. In the Japanese kabuki
theatre (popular since the early 17th century) off-stage music (geza-ongaku) is played
behind a curtain or screen to one side of the stage ( see Japan, §VI, 3 ). The concealed
musicians play, sing and make sounds to create a sense of location or mood
appropriate to the drama; the large ōdaiko drum, in particular, is used to evoke natural
sounds such as wind, waves, rain and thunder. In Western theatre from the same
period until the 19th century the principal sound effects were also those of weather,
produced by specially constructed devices such as the Wind machine ; some old
theatres still have a sloping wooden ‘thunder run’ or ‘thunder gallery’ with irregularly
spaced transverse ridges, down which heavy balls are rolled; a more portable
machine, the ‘bronteron’, consists of a hand-operated revolving barrel containing
heavy balls. From the 1890s various devices for creating sound effects formed part of
the ‘traps’ (contraptions) of the percussionists in many theatre orchestras.
Since the beginning of the 20th century sound effects have come into their own with
the advent of recorded art forms such as the (originally ‘silent’) cinema, radio and
television. A number of elaborate machines were constructed to create sound effects,
but humbler devices (coconut shells for horses' hooves, bells, creaking doors etc.)
have been and continue to be used. Percussion instruments were first used for such
purposes as long ago as the 1790s: large automatic instruments of
the Orchestrion type, which imitated the instruments of the orchestra, included
percussive sounds, and ‘Janissary’ effects in the form of a drumstick striking the base
of the soundboard, cymbals and tuned bells, were added to some pianos in the early
19th century. But it was not until around 1910 that special machines and instruments
were made in any numbers. The Allefex, invented by A.H. Moorhouse and
manufactured in Britain from 1909 by A. & H. Andrews, produced some 50 different
effects (many operated by crank handles); it was followed slightly later by a machine
for the cinema, the Kinesounder, and in the 1920s by another, invented by R. Effner
in Berlin. From the same period many keyboard instruments incorporating sound
effects were produced for use in the cinema with silent films and in the theatre; many
of them were automatic instruments such as the player piano and mechanical organ
(they included the Biorkestra, Cinechordon, Cinfonium, Clavitist-Violina, Filmplayer,
Fotoplayer, Movieodion, One-Man Motion Picture Orchestra, Orchestrion and Pipe-
Organ Orchestra), but devices were also added to cinema and theatre pipe organs in
the 1920s and 30s. The effects these instruments could produce ranged from the
sounds of pistol shots, flames, wind, waves, thunder, breaking china, steam engines,
trains, cars, chains, animal cries and horses' hooves to conventional percussion,
whistles, bells and Morse code buzzers.
Parallel to the development of special machines, percussionists and later sound-effects
men (often working in teams) used a great variety of objects and materials to create
realistic sounds for films (both silent and with soundtracks) and radio shows; by the
1940s the Walt Disney sound-effects department had assembled 8000 objects and
musical instruments. From around 1930, in the early days of sound film, film makers
and musicians explored creative applications of the newly available resources in the
cinema: early sound collages on film included Walter Ruttmann's Weekend (c1930), a
film without visuals, in Arthur Honegger and Arthur Hoerée's soundtrack
for Rapt(1934), and in several Russian films, such as Dziga Vertov's Entuziazm:
Simfoniya Donbasa (1930). Musical sound effects were also used: a night-club scene
in the film Ball of Fire (1941) features the jazz drummer Gene Krupa playing on
heating pipes and drumming with matchsticks on a matchbox.
After World War II commercial gramophone recordings increasingly replaced other
methods of producing sound effects. Several electronic instruments were devised that
could be used for the purpose, including the Singing Keyboard (c1936) and the
Mellotron (1962–3), which used respectively lengths of pre-recorded film soundtrack
and magnetic tape; the Kantaphon (c1934), invented by Brandt, in which a
microphone placed against the throat picks up the operator's humming and passes it to
filters and volume controls; the similar Sonovox (c1939), by means of which human
vocal quality could be imparted to any sound; and the Shumofon (c1955), which
synthesizes a wide range of natural and man-made sounds. Synthesizers can also be
used to produce sound effects, though not specifically designed to do so.

2. Musical sound effects to 1950.

While instrumental and vocal imitations of non-musical sounds may be found in
music of all ages, the introduction into the orchestra of special instruments to create
sound effects occurred only rarely before the 20th century. One of the earliest
examples is in Marc-Antoine Charpentier's music for Molière's Le malade
imaginaire (1673), which makes percussive use of apothecaries' pestles and mortars.
The first widely-used sound effects instrument was the anvil, found in Western music
from the early 16th century; it appears in several 19th-century opera scores, including
Wagner's Das Rheingold (1853–4), and is featured in anvil choruses by Verdi (Il
trovatore, 1851–3) and in Riccardo Zandonai's I cavalieri di Ekebù (1923–5).
Leopold Mozart included rifle shots in his Sinfonia da caccia, and Johann Strauss (ii)
featured both gunshots and jingling spurs in some of his dances. In Rossini's overture
to Il Signor Bruschino (1813) the violinists are instructed to tap the tin reflectors of
their candlesticks with their bows. In 1840 the conductor Louis Antoine Jullien added
a ‘rattle’, consisting of dried peas shaken in a tin box, to performances of Beethoven's
Pastoral Symphony to imitate the sound of hailstones; he also used sound effects
extensively in his own compositions and in arrangements, including rattles, crackers,
fireworks, cannon, muskets and revolvers. Thunder and wind machines have become
comparatively familiar in dramatic works (for illustrations see Wind machine ). Other
musical sound effects are related to folk traditions of banging kitchen utensils in
celebrations and protests, and many such found or home-made instruments feature in
Swiss folk music.
From about 1900 burlesque orchestras and American comedy ‘corn bands’ often
made use of sound effects, and this style of playing may still be seen in humorous
cartoon films, using instruments such as a galvanised iron washboard with attached
car horns, saucepans and lids and a Swanee whistle . Early in the century street organs
made by Gasparini incorporated a xylophone-like ‘bouteillophone’. Musical sound
effects were also exploited by popular bands: in the 1920s British music halls Edward
Stanley De Groot, a trained musician, presented his Horn Orchestra of Stanelli,
consisting of two dozen car horns; and from the early 1940s the drummer Spike Jones
made prominent use of unusual and jokey instruments, including tuned car horns,
based on his experience as a session musician. Special effects, such as train noises and
animal and bird sounds, have been produced on the Hawaiian guitar and on the pedal
steel guitar, particularly models with multiple necks.
From around the beginning of the 20th century many composers were inspired by new
industrial sounds. In 1913 Debussy wrote of ‘the incredible sound’ of a steel mill;
similar sentiments were expressed by Ravel in an article ‘Finding Tunes in Factories’
(1933). Among other composers, Michel Brusselmans composed short works for
chamber orchestra in 1927–8 with such titles as La foule, Dans la jungle, Bruits
d'usine, The Railway and Bruits d'avion. The Italian futurists fiercely advocated
industrial sounds; from 1913 Luigi Russolo constructed an ensemble
of intonarumori (‘noise intoners’), and around 1919 he developed a method of
controlling the volume and timbre of an aeroplane engine for use in Fedele Azari's
futurist ‘aerial theatre’. In the 1920s Russolo developed four versions of
the rumorarmonio, which combined elements of his earlier individual noise
instruments. Two motorcycles accompanied one of the futurist Balletti meccanici of
Ivo Pannaggi in 1922. Two dadaist works from 1919featured kitchen utensils, Jef
Golysheff's Antisymphonie (Musikalische Kreisguillotine)and Hans-Jürgen von der
Wense's Musik für Klarinette, Klavier und freihängendes Blechsieb. In 1918–
23 several open-air performances in the Soviet Union commemorated the October
1917 revolution with ‘noise symphonies’, for at least one of which Arseny
Mikhaylovich Avraamov composed his Simfoniya gudkov (‘Symphony of Factory
Sirens’, 1922), which included a calliope-like steam-whistle machine. In the same
period the theatre director and choreographer Nikolay Mikhaylovich Foregger
introduced his Machine Dance, featuring his Noise Orchestra, which combined
drums, jew's harps and vocal sounds with broken glass, packaging, scrap metal, etc.
Similar noise ensembles played in a variety of theatrical productions and in concert
works such as Grigory Smetanin's symphonic poem Fabrika (‘The Factory’, ?1923),
the collectively composed oratorio, Put′ oktyabrya (‘The Path of October’, 1928), by
the group Prokoll, and in Vladimir Mikhaylovich Deshevov's opera Lyod i stal′ (‘Ice
and Steel’, 1930). In films, factory hooters and klaxons accompanied a scene
featuring Lenin's funeral in Plan velikikh rabot (‘Plan of Great Works’, 1930), factory
klaxons and the whistle of a steam turbine appeared
in Vstrechnyi (‘Counterplan’, 1932), similar noise makers in Dela i lyudi (‘Men and
Jobs/Deeds and People’, 1932), and six ship's klaxons in Desertir(‘Deserter’, 1933).
Sound effects 2. Musical sound effects to 1950. 3. Musical sound effects after 1950.:
Table 2
View large

John Cage was particularly eclectic in his choice of instrumentation for his works.
From 1939 he used all sorts of percussive devices in pieces such as First Construction
(in Metal)and Imaginary Landscapes nos.1–3 (1939–42); the last of these was the first
work to use a radio receiver, and Cage extended the idea in Imaginary Landscape
no.4 (1951) and later works (see Table 2 above). The earliest studies by Pierre
Schaeffer in what he later called musique concrète ( see Electro-acoustic music ) were
produced in 1948 as an attempt to compose a noise symphony (Symphonie de bruits)
and were presented under the title ‘Concert de bruits’. Table 1 shows some of the
unconventional ‘instruments’ used to create sound effects in concert works
before 1950; other works featured a Siren .
Sound effects 2. Musical sound effects to 1950. 3. Musical sound effects after 1950.:
Table 1
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Table 1

3. Musical sound effects after 1950.

Sound effects 2. Musical sound effects to 1950. 3. Musical sound effects after 1950.:
Table 1
View large

Since 1950 the range of unusual sounds introduced into their works by composers has
grown enormously, especially in the area of percussion. The sounds produced by all
sorts of objects – from radios and typewriters to motorcycles – and materials – both
natural and man-made – have been added to those of conventional instruments. Many
of the objects listed in Table 1 have continued to be used, including the typewriter (by
Krzysztof Penderecki, Peter Maxwell Davies and others), the siren, and the
metronome (in works by William Russell and John Tavener; a set of four metronomes
in works by Davies and David Bedford, in Per Nørgård's Unendlicher Empfang, 1998,
and, on tape, in Alfred Schnittke's Lebenslauf, 1982). Car horns, which are of two
types: staccato (operated by squeezing a rubber bulb) and sustained
(electromechanical), continue to be used, for example in Ennio Morricone's music for
the ‘spaghetti Western’ film Il mio nome è nessuno (‘My Name is Nobody’, 1973), in
which they play a version of Wagner's Ride of the Valkyries or in Wendy Chambers’
performances on a specially-constructed car horn organ. An ‘anvil effect’ may be
obtained by striking a length of railway track, as in three works by Penderecki from
the early 1970s and Giya Kancheli's Symphony no.4 (1974), while other composers
call for a large metal bar such as a length of scaffolding (Davies and Mark-Anthony
Turnage). A wooden cube is struck in Galina Ivanovna Ustvol′skaya's Composition
no.2 ‘Dies Irae’ (1972–3) and Symphony no.5 ‘Amen’ (1989–90), and in all three
parts of James MacMillan's Triduum (1995–7). Stones are struck in works by Jón
Leifs, Xenakis, Bedford, Alberto Ginastera and Tan Dun, and feature, with whistles,
güiro-like scrapers and other small percussion devices, in Cornelius Cardew's The
Great Learning (1968–70). Other noise makers include clickers, gun shots, chains
(used earlier by Schoenberg, Havergal Brian and others), a bursting paper bag
(György Ligeti) and many different types of whistle. Toy instruments and similar
simple instruments, such as the kazoo, swanee whistle and bird whistle have also been
specified by a number of composers.
R. Murray Schafer's orchestral work North/White (1973) features a snowmobile (as a
protest against its extreme noisiness), while a motorcycle appears in Ferde
Grofé's Hudson River Suite (1955), Simon Desorgher's The Infernal Clanking of the
Chains and Cogs of Beelzebub (1982), which includes amplified sounds played
percussively, and, on tape, in Jan Sandström's A Short Ride on a Motorbike (1989).
Stockhausen's Helikopter-Streichquartett (1992–3) features the members of a string
quartet aloft in four helicopters, the amplified sounds of both elements being mixed
together for listeners on the ground. In Misha Mengelberg's Methwelbeleefde groet
van de kameel (1971–3) the orchestra plays while the composer saws a wooden chair
into several pieces, which are then reassembled in the form of a camel. Broken glass
is rattled in a tin in works by Peter Maxwell Davies, glass fragments are crushed
while others are dropped into a ‘bottle tree’ in Annea Lockwood's Glass
Concert (1966) and crockery is smashed in Ligeti's Nouvelles aventures (1962–5) –
which also includes the destruction of a plastic cup, a tin can, a wooden lath and large
sheets of paper – and in his opera Le Grand Macabre (1974–7). A selection of sound
effects is called for in Wilhelm Killmayer's opera Yolimba (1964), and a vocal ‘sound
effects chorus’ is specified in Bedford's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1975–6).
Cars are played percussively in Robert Moran's Titus No.1 (1967) and Hans Werner
Henze's Der langwierige Weg in die Wohnung der Natascha Ungeheuer (1971), while
in Mathias Spahlinger's Ephémère (1977) and the percussion consists largely of
‘veritable’ instruments (household objects such as saucepans and bottles); other
composers have specified that the performer be a ‘bruitiste’ or noise maker, as Julio
Estrada in ‘Mictlan’ from his opera Pedro Páramo(1992). Several percussionists have
specialized in ‘junk’ percussion, including Donald Knaack, Roger Turner and the
Zero group in Leningrad. Comparable examples are found in lighter music. On a
record album made in 1973 the singer Barbra Streisand is accompanied in the
song The World is a Concerto by over 20 domestic (mainly electric) appliances,
including orange juicers, electric toothbrushes, a pop-up toaster and a kettle. Tom
Waits has employed in song accompaniments the humming of a sewing machine, a
squeaking door and a spinning washing machine.
Not only have composers combined sound effects with ordinary instrumental sounds,
they have composed works scored solely for noise-making devices and objects
(though in some cases voices are included). Table 2 shows some of these. A simple
list of objects used in this way does not, of course, give any clue as to how fully the
work is notated and structured, or the degree of imagination exercised by the
composer. In many instances it is impossible to distinguish between an array of such
devices assembled for one composition and a newly invented instrument. Where a
single sounding object may produce a noise or sound effect, several like objects of
different sizes or tuned to a scale may become an instrument (a set of tuned coconut
shells or anvils, for example); the same is sometimes true of groups of heterogeneous
objects. Some of the new instruments and sound sculptures described elsewhere in
this dictionary are borderline cases, as are certain examples of Cage's work.
Sound effects 2. Musical sound effects to 1950. 3. Musical sound effects after 1950.:
Table 2
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Table 2
Several successful theatrical shows in the 1990s were based on choreographed highly
energetic group percussive music performed on stage. Tap dance (which dates back to
the mid-19th century and derives from earlier stepping dances such as clog dance) is
the main element in the Australian group Tap Dogs; the British team Stomp (formed
in 1991 by Luke Cresswell and Steve McNicholas) by 1998 consisted of five eight-
member groups, performing on metal dustbin lids and buckets, metal and plastic
dustbins and larger barrels (up to 50-gallon oil drums), broomsticks, rattled
matchboxes and assorted crockery in water-filled steel kitchen sinks worn around the
performers' necks, as well as clapping and foot-stamping; the latter two, as well as
body percussion, are prominent in performances by Gumboots, from South Africa.
Many humorists have produced versions of familiar instruments that are made from
everyday materials, have an unusual appearance, are outsize or miniature (favoured
by the clown Grock), or are played unconventionally. Some acts are formed around
music played on such instruments. The Argentine group Les Luthiers, for example,
uses a tin violin (‘Latín’), the ‘vibromatófono di amore’, and the ‘cello leguero’ (the
body of which consists of a bombo leguero: a type of drum audible up to three miles
away), as well as a typewriter for a keyboard, a cardboard trombone on wheels and a
hosepipe trumpet, all constructed by Carlos Iraldi. Three musical humorists have
specialized in adapted and invented instruments and sound effects. The band of Spike
Jones, which first became popular in the early 1940s, used such ad hoc instruments as
washboard, doorbells, cowbells, anvils, saws, tyre pumps and toy whistles. Gerard
Hoffnung realized some of the unusual instruments he had depicted in cartoons at two
concerts in London (1956 and 1959); they included rifles, three vacuum cleaners and
an electric polisher (in Malcolm Arnold's A Grand Grand Overture), a length of
hosepipe (on which Dennis Brain played a movement of Leopold Mozart's Concerto
for alphorn), tuned stone hot-water bottles and the hiss of compressed air. Peter
Schickele has invented a number of instruments for the works of his imaginary
composer P.D.Q. Bach; they include the Hardart (consisting of strings, balloons,
shotguns, whistles, bicycle horn, blown and struck bottles and a cooking timer, all
mounted on a frame), ‘showerhose in D’ and ‘lasso d'amore’ (one of the corrugated
whirler tubes sold as toys during the 1970s).
The human body has been used to make many percussive sounds, from the tongued
glottal click of the Xhosa language (made famous in the singing of Miriam Makeba,
and borrowed by Stockhausen in Refrain, 1959) to whistling, hand-clapping, finger-
snapping, foot-stamping and knee-slapping found in flamenco and other folk music
and dance (and included by Stockhausen in the earliest sections of Momente, 1962–4).
Hand-clapping is the only sound source used in Yasunao Tone's Clapping
Music (1963) and in Steve Reich's Clapping Music (1972) for two performers, and is
often used by singers and audiences in light music – so much so that some Electronic
percussiondevices include a synthesized hand-clap facility. Percussionists who have
specialized in body percussion include Nana Vasconcelos and Knaack; Vinko
Globokar's Corporel(1984) is performed by a percussionist on his own body. Sounds
produced by the body have also been used for humorous purposes: in the French
music halls between about 1891 and 1914 Joseph Pujol, ‘Le Pétomane’, made farting
melodious; melodies have been played by creating an air pocket with a wet hand held
under the armpit and squeezing with the free arm; and a number of entertainers
(sometimes ensembles) have tapped out tunes on their teeth, or, by blowing through
them strongly (often making use of gaps), have imitated musical instruments.
Instruments based on animal sounds have been described and illustrated since the time
of Athanasius Kircher in the 17th century; in several instances they have been realized
with trained animals. Several 19th century newspaper reports, as well as earlier
illustrations, describe instruments, primarily with keyboards, that consist of cats, pigs,
mice or other animals ordered inside separate compartments according to the pitch of
their squeals when they are hit or picked or their tails are pulled; a sequence in the
television series Monty Python's Flying Circus showed such an instrument in which
white mice were struck by mallets. Since the early 1950s an ensemble of trained
canaries – some specially bred for the lower voice parts – has existed in Kharkiv in
the Ukraine; its repertory consisted of over 80 works of classical and light music.
Training of a far humbler order is required to teach mynah birds and members of the
parrot family to mimic human speech, or domesticated canaries, blackbirds,
bullfinches, curlews and parrots to sing; various types of mechanical bird organ
( see Bird instruments ) were invented for this purpose in the 18th century. Wild birds
are still taught to sing in certain parts of the world, such as China.
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