TEMPERATURE, HEAT AND

THERMODYNAMICS
 Outline
I. Temperature
a. Definition
b. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
c. Temperature Scales
d. Thermal Expansion
II. Heat and Energy Transfer
a. Definition
b. Heat and internal energy
c. Calorimetry
d. Modes of Heat transfer
III. Laws of Thermodynamics
a. First Law of thermodynamics
b. PV diagrams
c. Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
d. Heat engines
QUIZ
 An incompressible liquid flows along the pipe as
shown. The ratio of the speeds v2/v1 is:
 Water is pumped through the
hose shown below, from a
lower level to an upper level.
Compared to the water at
point 1, the water at point 2:
 A large tank of water has
3 small holes of different
distance h below the water
surface. Which hole will
give the water the
greatest range
(i.e.displacement along x)?
THERMODYNAMICS
 Thermodynamics

Deals with

Energy transformations

Involving Related to

Heat, work, Properties of

temperature matter
Thermodynamics- study of energy transformation involving
heat, mechanical work, and other aspect of energy and how
these transformation relate to the properties of matter
 CONCEPTS

Temperature Heat

Temperature scales Work, Energy

Thermal equilibrium Effects

(Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics)
Ways of Transferring Heat

Heat
engine//refrigerator Laws of Thermodynamics
 Temperature
The degree of hotness or coldness of an
object.
Hot – higher temperature
Cold – lower temperature

Many properties of matter

varies with temperature

(ex. Metals expand with increasing

temperature, electrical resistance changes
with varying temperature etc.)
•Determines the direction of
heat flow
•Measure of random average
translational KE of molecules of
the body
•KEave=(3/2) kT
KELVIN
•Standard unit
•Ice-point (H2O): 273K
•Steam-point (H2O):
373K
•Divided into 100 equal
parts/marks (degrees)
•0K = absolute zero
Temperature Scales

Relations among Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit temperature scales.

The zero point in Kelvin scale is called as the
absolute zero temperature.
Kelvin scale is also called as the absolute
temperature scale.

•Fahrenheit and Celsius:

TF = 9/5 TC + 32°
TC = 5/9 (TF-32°)
•Kelvin and Celsius:
TK = TC + 273.15
Temperature
Thermometers – instruments used to quantify
(measure) temperature

Note:
Takes Advantage of the fact that some physical properties of matter
changes with temperature.
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium

with a third object C, then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

If TA = TC; and TB=TC then TA=TB

If TA>TB (initially)

TA

TF

TB time
• Heat is energy transferred from one system to another
because of a difference in temperature.
• Symbol: Q, SCALAR

• Unit: Joule (J) [SI], but calorie (cal) is more commonly used.
• 1 cal = 4.186 J

• The US customary unit for heat is BTU (British Thermal Unit)

• 1 Btu = 252 cal = 1.055 kJ
 1. Calorie (cal) – the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of one gram of water from
14.50C to 15.50C .

2. British thermal unit (Btu) – the quantity of

heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water from 63 0F to 64 0F.
•Relationship to the standard unit of energy J:
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 Btu = 252 cal = 1055 J
1. The direction of spontaneous energy transfer
is always from a warmer thing to a cooler
thing

2. Matterdoes not contain heat (matter

contains molecular K.E. and possibly P.E. )

3. Heat is energy in transit

 Internal ENERGY

The total of all energies in an object

Therefore, a substance does not contain heat- it

contains internal energy.

“when the substance absorbs or give off heat, internal

energy increases or decreases”
 Internal Energy vs. Heat
 Internal Energy, U, is the energy associated with the
microscopic components of the system
 Includes kinetic and potential energy associated with the
random translational, rotational and vibration of the atoms or
molecules
 Also includes the intermolecular potential energy

 Heat is energy transferred between a system and its

environment because of a temperature difference
between them
 The system Q is used to represent the amount of energy
transferred by heat between a system and its environment
Change in temperature
Change in phase
 Expansion
 Thermal expansion
Linear expansion – objects increases in length
when
temperature increases, and contracts when
temperature decreases. ΔT ~ ΔL
Note: Different materials have different
coefficients of thermal expansion
 ΔL = α Lo ΔT
Coefficient of linear expansion
Linear Expansion
ΔL directly proportional to Lo
ΔL directly proportional to ΔT
ΔL = ?
Thermal Expansion
 The thermal expansion of an object is a
consequence of the change in the average
separation between its constituent atoms or
molecules

 At ordinary temperatures, molecules

vibrate with a small amplitude

 As temperature increases, the amplitude

increases

 Thiscauses the overall object as a

whole to expand
• Materials usually expand when their temperature increases.
• The temperature change is approximately proportional to
the changes in volume and linear dimensions of the
material.
Linear Expansion
ΔL= α Lo ΔT (linear thermal expansion)
where α is the coefficient of linear expansion

For a body of length Lo at temperature To , its length

L at a temperature T=To + ΔT is

L = Lo + ΔL = Lo + α Lo ΔT = Lo (1+ α ΔT)
Linear (area, volume) Expansion
 For small changes in temperature

L   Lo t
 
The coefficient of linear expansion, , depends on the
material
 Similar in two dimensions (area expansion)

A   Ao t ,   2
 … and in three dimensions (volume expansion)

V   Vo t for solids ,   3
Example 1
A copper telephone wire has essentially no sag between
poles 35.0 m apart on a winter day when the
temperature is –20.0°C. How much longer is the wire on a
summer day when TC = 35.0°C? Assume that the thermal
coefficient of copper is constant throughout this range at
its room temperature value. (α = 17x10-6 /oC)
T  Tf  Ti
L   Lo T
2
L  3.27 x10 m
 Example
A surveyor uses a steel measuring tape that is
exactly 50.000 m long at a temperature of 20o C.
What is the length on a hot summer day when the
temperature is 35o C?
coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.2 x10-5C-1

SOL’N: For a body of length Lo at temperature To , its length L

at a temperature T=To + ΔT is

L = Lo + ΔL = Lo + α Lo ΔT = Lo (1+ α ΔT)
L = Lo (1+ α ΔT)
L = 50.000m (1+ (1.2 x10-5C-1 )(35o C -20 o C))
L = 50.009 m
Applications of Thermal Expansion

1. Thermostats
 Use a bimetallic strip
 Two metals expand differently
2. Pyrex Glass
 Thermal stresses are smaller than for ordinary glass
3. Sea levels
 Warming the oceans will increase the volume of the oceans
Change in temperature
Change in phase
 Expansion
 When heat flows in or out a system, the system’s
temperature changes or the system’s phase
changes

The Associated Heats

1. Specific Heat – heat needed to change the
temperature of a substance without the change
in its phase
2. Latent Heat – heat needed to change the phase
of a substance without the change in
temperature
 Specific Heat
 Every substance requires a unique amount of energy per
unit mass to change the temperature of that substance
by 1° C
 directly proportional to mass (thus, per unit mass)
 The specific heat, c, of a substance is a measure of this
amount

Q Units
c SI Joule/kg °C (J/kg °C)
m T CGS Calorie/g °C (cal/g °C )
Specific heat Capacity

•In terms of the number of moles,

Q = nM cΔT (Heat required for temperature
change of n moles)
M – molar mass of a material

The product Mc is the molar heat capacity (molar

specific heat) and is usually taken as C.
Q = nCΔT
Notes: Heat and Specific Heat

 Q = m c ΔT
 ΔT is always the final temperature minus the initial
temperature
 When the temperature increases, ΔT and ΔQ are
considered to be positive and energy flows into the
system
 When the temperature decreases, ΔT and ΔQ are
considered to be negative and energy flows out of the
system
 Example1: How much heat is needed to raise
Given: temperature of aluminum by 5°C?

Mass: m=0.5 kg Heat is related to mass and temperature by

Temp. T= 5°
Specific heat: Q  mcAl T
cAl =900 J/kg°C   
 0.5kg  900 J kgC  5 C  2250 Joules
Find:

Q=? Thus, energy is flowing into the system! 

Consequences of Different Specific Heats
 Water has a high specific
heat compared to land
 On a hot day, the air
above the land warms
faster
 The warmer air flows
upward and cooler air
moves toward the beach

cSi  700 J kgC

What happens at night? cH 2O  4186 J kgC
Question

What happens at night?

1. same
2. opposite
3. nothing
4. none of the above

How to determine specific

heat?
Calorimeter
 A technique for determining the specific heat
of a substance is called calorimetry
 A calorimeter is a vessel that is a good

insulator that allows a thermal equilibrium to

be achieved between substances without any
energy loss to the environment
 Calorimetry
 Analysis performed using a calorimeter
 Conservation of energy applies to the isolated
system
 The energy that leaves the warmer substance equals

the energy that enters the water

 Qcold
= -Qhot
 Negative sign keeps consistency in the sign convention of
ΔT
Change in temperature
Change in phase
 Expansion
Phase Changes

 A phase change occurs when the physical

characteristics of the substance change from
one form to another
 Common phases changes are
 Solid to liquid – melting
 Liquid to gas – boiling

 Phases changes involve a change in the

internal energy, but no change in temperature
 CALORIMETRY
Calorimetry - the process of measuring heat
Phase - description of a specific state of matter.
• Heat is involved in a transition from one phase to another.

Q =  mL (heat transfer in phase change)

•Solid to liquid:

Q = + mLf (heat transfer in melting)

Lf – heat of fusion, heat required per unit mass.

•Liquid to solid:

Q = -mLf (heat transfer in freezing)

•Liquid to gas:

Q = +mLv (heat transfer in evaporation)

Lv – heat of vaporization
•Gas to liquid:

Q = -mLv (heat transfer in condensation )

•Solid to gas:
Q = +mLs (heat transfer in sublimation)

Ls – heat of sublimation
•Gas to solid :

Q = -mLs

•Combustion:

Q = +mLc (heat transfer in combustion)

Lc - heat of combustion
Latent Heat

 During a phase change, the amount of heat is given as

Q = m L

 L is the latent heat of the substance

 Latent means hidden or concealed
 Choose a positive sign if you are adding energy to the
system and a negative sign if energy is being removed
from the system
 Latent heat of fusion is used for melting or freezing
 Latent heat of vaporization is used for boiling or
condensing
Conservation of Energy: Calorimetry

 Conservation of energy allows us to write the

equation

Q lost + Q gain = 0
 Example A 0.010-kg piece of unknown metal heated to 100°C and dropped into the
bucket containing 0.5 kg of water at 20°C. Determine specific heat of
metal if the final temperature of the system is 50°C

Given: Conservation of energy: heat lost by metal is the same as heat

acquired by water:
Mass: m1=0.010 kg
m2=0.5 kg Qwater Q metal 0
Specific heat (water):
cW =4186 J/kg°C Solve this equation:
Temperatures: Qwater  Qmetal  0  mmetal cmetal Tmetal  mH O cH O TH O
2 2 2
T1=100 °C
 0.01kg cmetal 50 C  100 C   0.5kg 4186 J kgC 50 C  20 C 
T2=20 °C
Tf=50 °C   0.5cmetal  62790 J  0

Find:

Specific heat =?
cmetal  1.25 105 J kgC 

iron
Example:

1. How much heat is needed to convert 10 g of ice at

–15.0 0C to steam at 500 oC?
Constants:
Specific heat (c) Latent heat
Water 1 cal/gC fusion: 80 cal/g
vaporization: 540 cal/g
Ice 0.52 cal/gC

Steam 0.48 cal/gC

Graph of Ice to Steam
 10 g
At 100.00C
–15.00C 0.00C

At 0.00C

100.00C 500.00C

0.00C 100.00C
QTOTAL = Qice + Qice-water + Qwater + Qwater-steam + Qsteam
Methods of Heat Transfer
 Need to know the rate at which energy is
transferred
 Need to know the mechanisms responsible for the
transfer
 Methods include
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
 1. Conduction
 Only occurs within a material or between
materials in contact with each other.
 Heat transfer occurs from a hotter region to a
colder region. Flow: Th --> Tc
1. Conduction
 The transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale
 Itis an exchange of energy between microscopic
particles by collisions
 Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions
with more energetic particles
 Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics
of the substance
Conduction example
 The molecules vibrate about
their equilibrium positions
 Particles near the flame
vibrate with larger amplitudes
 These collide with adjacent
molecules and transfer some
energy
 Eventually, the energy travels
entirely through the rod

Conduction can occur only if there is a difference in

temperature between two parts of the conducting
medium
Conduction
 The slab allows energy to
transfer from the region
of higher temperature to
the region of lower
temperature

Q Th  Tc
H   kA
t L

Heat flow or
heat current flux Thermal conductivity
 CONDUCTION
• We can measure Heat Current Flux ( H or
IH), as given by:
Q TH  TC
H  kA
where T L
k is thermal conductivity of a material
(Watt/m●K),
A is cross sectional area (m2),
ΔT/Th/Tc hot/cold temperature
gradient/temperature (oC or K),
L is the length of the material m.
Unit for H: 1 Watt= 1 J/s
Conduction
 A is the cross-sectional area
 L = Δx is the thickness of the slab or the length of
a rod
 P is in Watts when Q is in Joules and t is in
seconds
 k is the thermal conductivity of the material
 Good conductors have high k values and good
insulators have low k values
The tile floor feels colder than the
wooden floor; even though both
materials have the same
temperature

The tile is better conductor than wood and heat

is more readily conducted from the foot that
makes contact with the tile.
2. Convection
 Energy transferred by the movement of a substance
 When the movement results from differences in density,
it is called natural conduction
 When the movement is forced by a fan or a pump, it is
called forced convection
CONVECTION
Kinds:
•Natural- difference in
density due to thermal
expansion
•Forced- by blower/ pump

H = Q/t = h A ΔT

convection coefficient:
•orientation, form of object
•properties/ motion of fluid
Why do fast-moving molecules rise in air?

We know from common

experience that warm air
rises----why?

Ans: A fast-moving molecule

tends to migrate toward the
region of least obstruction---
upward.
Convection example
 Air directly above the
flame is warmed and
expands
 The density of the air
decreases, and it rises
 The mass of air warms
the hand as it moves by
 Applications:
 Radiators
 Cooling automobile engines
 Radiation
 Canoccur even in regions void of any
matter, such a vacuum.

 Thermal Energy transfer mode of

electromagnetic (EM) waves such a visible
light, infrared and ultraviolet rays.

 And all objects emit and absorb radiation.

3. Radiation
 Radiation does not require physical contact
 All objects radiate energy continuously in the form
of electromagnetic waves due to thermal vibrations
of the molecules
 Rate of radiation is given by Stefan’s Law
Radiation example

 The electromagnetic waves carry the energy from

the fire to the hands
 No physical contact is necessary
 Radiation equation

 H = σAeT4
H is the rate of energy transfer, in Watts
 σ = 5.6696 x 10-8 W/m2 K4

 A is the surface area of the object

 e is a constant called the emissivity

 e varies from 0 to 1
T is the temperature in Kelvins
Energy Absorption and Emission by
Radiation
 With its surroundings, the rate at which the object at
temperature T with surroundings at To radiates is
 Hnet= σAe(T4 – T4o)
 When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it
radiates and absorbs at the same rate
 Its temperature will not change