of the

Lovely M. Patriarca
Gr. 6 – Narra
 SKELETAL SYSTEM

The human skeleton is comprised of the total set of bones that provide the human body
a multifunctional structure. The adult human skeletal system contains 206 bones! It also
consists of the joints, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments that connect them.
 • A rigid form of connective tissue that is part of the
BONES skeletal system of vertebrates and is composed
principally of calcium.
• A small band of dense, white, fibrous elastic tissue.
Ligaments connect the ends of bones together in
LIGAMENTS order to form a joint. They also assist in holding
organs in place.
• A tough, flexible and inelastic band of fibrous
TENDONS connective tissue that connects muscles to bones.
• Joints hold the skeleton and support movement.
They can be grouped together by function and
JOINTS structure, such as ball-and-socket, hinge, and pivot
joints.

The main functions of the skeletal system are:

 Support of the body

 Locomotion
 Provide protection for internal organs
 Act as a site for the production of blood cells and the storage of minerals,
particularly calcium
 Growth and development

Types of Bones Different Types of Joints

Long Bone: Helps to facilitate movement and support the weight
of the body. Long bones are characterized by a long tubular shaft
and an articular surface at each end of the bone where ligaments
and tendons attach. These bones include the major bones of the
arms and legs such as the humerus and femur, tibia and fibula, and
the radius and ulna.
Short Bone: Helps to provide stability and movement within the
ankle and wrist joints. They provide little to no movement. Short
bones are roughly cube shaped and are as long as they are wide.
Examples of this type of bone include the carpals and metacarpals
in the wrists and ankles.
Flat Bone: The primary purpose of this type of bone is to protect
internal organs such as the brain, heart and lungs. It also provides
a large surface area for muscles to attach to. Examples of this type
of bone include the cranium (skull), the thoracic cage (sternum and
ribs) and the ilium (pelvis).
Irregular Bone: These types of bones vary in size and structure
with the shape usually being very complex. Irregular bones serve
different functions depending on location. For example, vertebrae
protect the spinal cord and together make up the spinal column.
Another example would be the hyoid bone which helps to maintain
tracheal and pharyngeal support.
Sesamoid Bone: The function of this bone is to protect tendons
and diminish friction and wear on joint surfaces. This type of bone
is usually small and round and is found in the hands, feet, and
knees. A common example of a sesamoid bone is the patella
(kneecap).
By Function
Synarthrosis: These immovable and strong joints
include skull sutures, the articulations between the
teeth and the mandible, and the joint found between
the first pair of ribs and the sternum.
Amphiarthrosis: These joints allow slight movement
and include the distal joint between the tibia and the
fibula and the pubic symphysis of the pelvic girdle.
Diarthrosis: These joints allow full movement and
include many bone articulations in the upper and
lower limbs. Examples of these include the elbow,
shoulder, and ankle.
By Structure
Fibrous: Thick connective tissues composed of
collagen fibers found between the articulations of
fibrous joints.
Cartilaginous: Joints that join bones with cartilage.
Synovial: These are characterized by the presence of
an articular capsule between the two joined bones.
Bone surfaces at synovial joints are protected by a
coating of articular cartilage.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Without muscle, humans could not live. The primary job of muscle is to move the
bones of the skeleton, but muscles also enable the heart to beat and constitute
the walls of other important hollow organs.
There are three types of muscle tissue:

 Skeletal muscle: This type of muscle creates movement in the body.

There are more than 600 skeletal muscles, and they makes up about 40
percent of a person’s body weight. When the nervous system signals
the muscle to contract, groups of muscles work together to move the
skeleton. These signals and movements are nearly involuntary, yet they
do require conscious effort. However, humans do not need to
concentrate on individual muscles when moving.
 Cardiac muscle: Cardiac muscle is involuntary muscle. This type
makes up the walls of the heart and creates the steady, rhythmic
pulsing that pumps blood through the body from signals from the brain.
This muscle type also creates the electrical impulses that produce the
heart’s contractions, but hormones and stimuli from the nervous system
can also affect these impulses, such as when your heart rate increases
when you’re scared.
 Smooth muscle: Smooth muscle makes up the walls of hollow organs,
respiratory passageways, and blood vessels. Its wavelike movements
propel things through the bodily system, such as food through your
stomach or urine through your bladder. Like cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle is involuntary and also contracts in response to stimuli and
nerve impulses.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body,
including internal organs. In this way, the nervous system’s activity controls the
ability to move, breathe, see, think, and more.
The nervous system has two main parts:

 The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from
the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body.

The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell, or neuron. The human brain
contains about 100 billion neurons. A neuron has a cell body, which includes the cell
nucleus, and special extensions called axons (pronounced AK-sonz)
and dendrites (pronounced DEN-drahytz). Bundles of axons, called nerves, are
found throughout the body. Axons and dendrites allow neurons to communicate,
even across long distances.
Different types of neurons control or perform different activities. For instance,
motor neurons transmit messages from the brain to the muscles to generate
movement. Sensory neurons detect light, sound, odor, taste, pressure, and heat
and send messages about those things to the brain. Other parts of the nervous
system control involuntary processes. These include keeping a regular heartbeat,
releasing hormones like adrenaline, opening the pupil in response to light, and
regulating the digestive system.
When a neuron sends a message to another neuron, it sends an electrical signal
down the length of its axon. At the end of the axon, the electrical signal changes to
a chemical signal. The axon then releases the chemical signal with chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters (pronounced noor-oh-TRANS-mit-erz) into
the synapse (pronounced SIN-aps)—the space between the end of an axon and
the tip of a dendrite from another neuron. The neurotransmitters move the signal
through the synapse to the neighboring dendrite, which converts the chemical
signal back into an electrical signal. The electrical signal then travels through the
neuron and goes through the same conversion processes as it moves to
neighboring neurons.
The nervous system also includes non-neuron cells, called glia (pronounced GLEE-
uh). Glia perform many important functions that keep the nervous system working
properly. For example, glia:

 Help support and hold neurons in place

 Protect neurons
 Create insulation called myelin, which helps move nerve impulses
 Repair neurons and help restore neuron function
 Trim out dead neurons
 Regulate neurotransmitters

The brain is made up of many networks of communicating neurons and glia. These
networks allow different parts of the brain to “talk” to each other and work together
to control body functions, emotions, thinking, behavior, and other activities.
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is the system in the human body that enables us to
breathe.
The act of breathing includes: inhaling and exhaling air in the body; the absorption
of oxygen from the air in order to produce energy; the discharge of carbon
dioxide, which is the byproduct of the process.
The parts of the respiratory system
 The respiratory system is divided into two parts:

Upper respiratory tract:

This includes the nose, mouth, and the beginning of the trachea (the section that takes air in and
lets it out).

Lower respiratory tract:

This includes the trachea, the bronchi, broncheoli and the lungs (the act of breathing takes place in
this part of the system).

The organs of the lower respiratory tract are located in the chest cavity. They are delineated and
protected by the ribcage, the chest bone (sternum), and the muscles between the ribs and the
diaphragm (that constitute a muscular partition between the chest and the abdominal cavity).

The trachea – the tube connecting the throat to the bronchi.

The bronchi – the trachea divides into two bronchi (tubes). One leads to the left lung, the
other to the right lung. Inside the lungs each of the bronchi divides into smaller bronchi.

The broncheoli - the bronchi branches off into smaller tubes called broncheoli which end in
the pulmonary alveolus.

Pulmonary alveoli – tiny sacs (air sacs) delineated by a single-layer membrane with blood
capillaries at the other end.

The exchange of gases takes place through the membrane of the pulmonary alveolus, which
always contains air: oxygen (O2) is absorbed from the air into the blood capillaries and the
action of the heart circulates it through all the tissues in the body. At the same time, carbon
dioxide (CO2) is transmitted from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and then expelled
through the bronchi and the upper respiratory tract.

The inner surface of the lungs where the exchange of gases takes place is very large, due to
the structure of the air sacs of the alveoli.

The lungs – a pair of organs found in all vertebrates.

The structure of the lungs includes the bronchial tree – air tubes branching off from the
bronchi into smaller and smaller air tubes, each one ending in a pulmonary alveolus.
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to perform the
following functions:
To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and
protective fluid (semen)
To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
To produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the male
reproductive system

The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It

produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or
oocytes. The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization.
Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian
tubes. The next step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the walls of the
uterus, beginning the initial stages of pregnancy. If fertilization and/or
implantation does not take place, the system is designed to menstruate (the
monthly shedding of the uterine lining). In addition, the female reproductive
system produces female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

EXTERNAL PARTS INTERNAL PARTS

• PENIS • VAS DEFERENSE

• SCROTUM • EJACULATORY DUCTS
• TESTICLES • URETHRA
• EPIDIDYMIS • SEMI VESICLES
• PROSTATE GLANDS
• BOULBORETHRAL
GLANDS

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

 Labia majora - Larger lip-like external structures that cover and protect
sexual structures.
 Labia minora - Smaller lip-like external structures found inside the labia
majora. They provide protection for the clitoris and for the urethra and
vaginal openings.
 Clitoris - Sensitive sexual organ located in front of the vaginal opening. It
contains thousands of sensory nerve endings and responds to sexual
stimulation.
 Vagina - Fibrous, muscular canal leading from the cervix (opening of the
uterus) to the external portion of the genital canal.
 Uterus - Muscular internal organ that houses and nurtures female gametes
after fertilization. Also called the womb, the uterus is where a developing
fetus resides during pregnancy.
 Fallopian tubes - Uterine tubes which transport egg cells from the ovaries
to the uterus. Fertilization typically occurs in these tubes.
 Ovaries - Female primary reproductive structures that produce gametes and
sex hormones. There is one ovary on each side of the uterus.
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Combined with the cardiovascular system, the circulatory system helps to fight off
disease, helps the body maintain a normal body temperature, and provides the right
chemical balance to provide the body’s homeostasis, or state of balance among all its
systems.
The circulatory system consists of four major components:

 The Heart: About the size of two adult hands held together, the heart rests near
the center of the chest. Thanks to consistent pumping, the heart keeps the
circulatory system working at all times.
 Arteries: Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart and where it
needs to go.
 Veins: Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs where they receive
oxygen.
 Blood: Blood is the transport media of nearly everything within the body. It
transports hormones, nutrients, oxygen, antibodies, and other important things
needed to keep the body healthy.

There are three different types of circulation that occur regularly in the body:

 Pulmonary circulation: This part of the cycle carries oxygen-depleted

blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and back to the heart.
 Systemic circulation: This is the part that carries oxygenated blood
away from the heart and to other parts of the body.
 Coronary circulation: This type of circulation provides the heart with
oxygenated blood so it can function properly.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The lymphatic system has three main functions:
 It maintains the balance of fluid between the blood and tissues, known as fluid homeostasis.
 It forms part of the body's immune system and helps defend against bacteria and other
intruders.
 It facilitates absorption of fats and fat-soluble nutrients in the digestive system.
The system has special small vessels called lacteals. These enable it to absorb fats and fat-
soluble nutrients from the gut.
They work with the blood capillaries in the folded surface membrane of the small intestine. The
blood capillaries absorb other nutrients directly into the bloodstream.

The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels, ducts, nodes, and other tissues.
Around 2 liters of fluid leak from the cardiovascular system into body tissues every day. The
lymphatic system is a network of vessels that collect these fluids, or lymph. Lymph is a clear
fluid that is derived from blood plasma.
The lymph vessels form a network of branches that reach most of the body's tissues. They work
in a similar way to the blood vessels. The lymph vessels work with the veins to return fluid from
the tissues.
Unlike blood, the lymphatic fluid is not pumped but squeezed through the vessels when we use
our muscles. The properties of the lymph vessel walls and the valves help control the movement
of lymph. However, like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves inside them to stop fluid from
flowing back in the wrong direction.
Lymph is drained progressively towards larger vessels until it reaches the two main channels,
the lymphatic ducts in our trunk. From there, the filtered lymph fluid returns to the blood in the
veins.
The vessels branch through junctions called lymph nodes. These are often referred to as
glands, but they are not true glands as they do not form part of the endocrine system.
In the lymph nodes, immune cells assess for foreign material, such as bacteria, viruses, or
fungus.
Lymph nodes are not the only lymphatic tissues in the body. The tonsils, spleen, and thymus
gland are also lymphatic tissues.
 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system is the system of an organism's body that performs

the function of excretion, the bodily process of discharging wastes.

The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes

produced by homeostasis.
 Kidneys and Nephrons
The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs just above the waist. A cross-section of a kidney is
shown in Figure below. The function of the kidney is to filter blood and form urine. Urine is the
liquid waste product of the body that is excreted by the urinary system. Nephrons are the
structural and functional units of the kidneys. A single kidney may have more than a million
nephrons!

Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one
of the major ways the body maintains homeostasis. Although the kidneys are the main
organs of excretion, several other organs also excrete wastes. They include the large
intestine, liver, skin, and lungs. All of these organs of excretion, along with the kidneys,
make up the excretory system. This lesson focuses on the role of the kidneys in
excretion. The roles of the other excretory organs are summarized below:

 The large intestine eliminates solid wastes that remain after the digestion of food.

 The liver breaks down excess amino acids and toxins in the blood.

 The skin eliminates excess water and salts in sweat.

 The lungs exhale water vapor and carbon dioxide.

Urinary System
The kidneys are part of the urinary system, which is shown in Figurebelow. The main
function of the urinary system is to filter waste products and excess water from the
blood and excrete them from the body.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones,
chemical substances produced in the body that regulate the activity of cells or
organs. These hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the physical and
chemical processes of the body), and sexual development and function. The
hormones are released into the bloodstream and may affect one or several organs
throughout the body.

Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They transfer

information from one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of
different parts of the body.
Hypothalamus - secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of
hormones in the pituitary gland

Pituitary Gland - often considered the most important part of the endocrine
system because it produces hormones that control many functions of other
endocrine glands

Thyroid Gland - produces thyroid hormones that regulate the body's metabolism

Parathyroid Glands - release parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in regulating

calcium levels in the blood and bone metabolism

Adrenal Glands - The two adrenal glands are triangular-shaped glands located on
top of each kidney. The adrenal glands are made up of two parts. The outer part is
called the adrenal cortex, and the inner part is called the adrenal medulla. The
outer part produces hormones called corticosteroids, which regulate the body's
metabolism, the balance of salt and water in the body, the immune system, and
sexual function. The inner part, or adrenal medulla, produces hormones called
catecholamines (for example, adrenaline). These hormones help the body cope with
physical and emotional stress by increasing the heart rate and blood pressure.
 INTERGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system has many functions, most of which are involved in
protecting you and regulating your body’s internal functions in a variety of ways:

Protects the body's internal living tissues and organs

Protects against invasion by infectious organisms
Protects the body from dehydration
Protects the body against abrupt changes in temperature
Helps dispose of waste materials
Acts as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold
Stores water and fat
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, the subcutaneous tissue below the skin, and
assorted glands.The most obvious function of the integumentary system is the protection that the skin gives
to underlying tissues. The skin not only keeps most harmful substances out, but also prevents the loss of fluids.

A major function of the subcutaneous tissue is to connect the skin to underlying tissues such as muscles. Hair
on the scalp provides insulation from cold for the head. The hair of eyelashes and eyebrows helps keep dust
and perspiration out of the eyes, and the hair in our nostrils helps keep dust out of the nasal cavities. Nails
protect the tips of fingers and toes from mechanical injury. Fingernails give the fingers greater ability to pick
up small objects.

There are four types of glands in the integumentary system: sudoriferous (sweat) glands, sebaceous glands,
ceruminous glands, and mammary glands. These are all exocrine glands, secreting materials outside the cells
and body. Sudoriferous glands are sweat producing glands. These are important to help maintain body
temperature. Sebaceous glands are oil producing glands which help inhibit bacteria, keep us waterproof and
prevent our hair and skin from drying out. Ceruminous glands produce earwax which keeps the outer surface of
the eardrum pliable and prevents drying. Mammary glands produce milk.

Skin
In zoology and dermatology, skin is an organ of the integumentary system made up of a layer of tissues that
guard underlying muscles and organs. As the interface with the surroundings, it plays the most important role
in protecting against pathogens. Its other main functions are insulation and temperature regulation, sensation
and vitamin D and B synthesis. Skin is considered one of the most important parts of the body.

Skin has pigmentation known as melanin that is provided by melanocytes. Melanin absorbs some of the
potentially dangerous radiation in sunlight. It also contains DNA repair enzymes which reverse UV damage, and
people who lack the genes for these enzymes suffer high rates of skin cancer. One form predominantly
produced by UV light, malignant melanoma, is particularly invasive, causing it to spread quickly, and can often
be deadly. Human skin pigmentation varies among populations in a striking manner. This has sometimes led to
the classification of people(s) on the basis of skin color.

Damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue, often giving rise to discoloration and depigmentation of
the skin.

The skin is often known as “the largest organ in the human body.” This applies to exterior surface, as it covers
the body, appearing to have the largest surface area of all the organs. Moreover, it applies to weight, as it
weighs more than any single internal organ, accounting for about 15 percent of body weight. For the average
adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square meters, most of it is between 2–3 mm
thick. The average square inch of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more
than a thousand nerve endings.

The use of natural or synthetic cosmetics to treat the appearance of the face and condition of the skin (such
as pore control and black head cleansing) is common among many cultures.

Layers
The skin has two major layers which are made of different tissues and have very different functions.

Skin is composed of the epidermis and the dermis. Below these layers lies the hypodermis or subcutaneous
adipose layer, which is not usually classified as a layer of skin.
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is uniquely constructed to perform its specialized function of

turning food into the energy you need to survive and packaging the residue for
waste disposal.
Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here
when taking the first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more
easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down
into a form your body can absorb and use.

Esophagus
Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food
from your mouth when you swallow. By means of a series of muscular contractions
called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to your stomach.

Stomach
The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed
with enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells
in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are
responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are
sufficiently processed, they are released into the small intestine.

Small intestine
Made up of three segments - the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum - the small intestine is
a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the
pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food
through and mixing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The
duodenum is largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process, with the
jejunum and ileum mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing
through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in
consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue
liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or
colon.

Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the
small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The
pancreas also makes insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief
hormone for metabolizing sugar.

Liver
The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to
process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into
the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition, the liver is the
body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and
makes all the various chemicals the body needs to function. The liver also detoxifies
potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum
to help absorb and digest fats.

Colon (large intestine)

The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.
The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse
(across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to
the rectum. The appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is
a highly specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the
bowels is easy and convenient.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by
means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes
through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until
a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes
about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris
and bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing
various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles, and protecting against
harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties
its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.

Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the
anus. It is the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that
there is stool to be evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When
anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The
brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they can, the
sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot
be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the
sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the
pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the
upper anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the
contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are
important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between
the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to.
The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. It keeps us
continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. When we
get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool
until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.