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Chapter 5 - Snyder
Chapter 5 - Snyder
Howard R. Kessler
The Bedside
Neuropsychological
Examination
I. DISORDERS OF COMMON
REFERRAL POPULATIONS
Patients possessing a number of different conditions may be
referred for bedside assessment, each presenting unique barriers
to the evaluation. These conditions include the following.
A. Stroke
Patients with middle cerebral artery strokes may suffer from
hemiparesis (which limits the use of tests requiring significant
motor, visual, or sensory function), may be aphasic (limiting
the use of any task requiring language for a response or for
comprehension of task demands), or may present with hemi-
spatial neglect or hemi-inattention (requiring changes in the
manner in which test materials are presented in space). Patients
with posterior circulation strokes may suffer from hemianopsia,
requiring presentation of test stimuli in the unaffected field.
Patients experiencing anterior circulation strokes maybe anergic
or akinetic, limiting their capacity to respond and to expend
sufficient effort during testing. These limitations frequently ne-
cessitate major alterations in the test battery, as well as in the
mode of stimulus presentation.
B. Traumatic Brain Injury
Patients experiencing the acute effects of traumatic brain injury
(TBI) likely suffer from posttraumatic amnesia, and accompany-
ing agitation or inattention may interfere with test administra-
tion. Because these patients may perform at an artificially de-
pressed level, formal tests should not be administered until they
are sufficiently alert and well oriented in all spheres. These pa-
tients may also change or progress rapidly over the course of
only a few days, so the examiner must determine the optimal
time for formal test administration. This will be dictated largely
by the goals stated in the referral question.
C. Dementia
A wide variety of diseases, both systemic and neurological, may
result in progressive cognitive decline. A differential diagnosis
often needs to be made among various classes of dementia,
The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination 77
D. Delirium
Delirious patients may demonstrate a fluctuating level of con-
sciousness, as well as fluctuating levels of orientation and cogni-
tive capacity. These patients often need to be examined across
a number of days, and at various times of the day, for an accurate
diagnostic impression to be obtained. This may necessitate the
addition to the test battery of a very brief, repeatable measure
that may be sensitive to such fluctuating levels of cognition and
awareness. Further complicating the diagnosis is the fact that
78 Howard R. Kessler
E. Postsurgical Deficits
F. Systemic Illness
C. Neuroimaging Results
The three imaging procedures most commonly used in the ter-
tiary care setting are electroencephalography (EEC), computed
tomography (CT) scanning, and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). A variety of newer scanning techniques, as well as more
sensitive experimental MRI modeling techniques, are also avail-
able but generally are not used in most hospitals. EEC may be
useful in identifying the presence of seizure disorders or space-
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The Bedside Neuropsychological Examination 85
2. SELF-CARE
Has the patient been compliant in taking his or her medica-
tions? If hypertension or diabetes is present, how stable or brittle
has the condition been? If the patient suffers from diabetes,
how often has the patient tested his or her blood glucose levels?
Has the patient conformed to dietary restrictions? How cogni-
tively and physically active and stimulated was the patient prior
to hospital admission? Has there been risk of inadvertent self-
harm at home (e.g., from falls or burns)?
3. PRIOR CNS INSULTS
Mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) often goes unnoticed and
is rarely found in the patient's medical record. Many physicians,
in fact, generally do not address the issue in the standard history.
It is important to question the patient regarding the history of
such events. It is crucial to look for evidence of not only inci-
dents accompanied by loss of consciousness and anterograde
or retrograde amnesia but also more subtle events accompanied
by some "alteration" in consciousness. Because whiplash injury
can present with cognitive impairment, the history of such epi-
sodes must also be ascertained. Additional questions should be
posited, looking for a history of things such as near-drowning
episodes or a history of toxic exposure. Has the patient experi-
enced episodes of brief interruptions in consciousness (e.g.,
fugue, or frank loss of consciousness), which may indicate some
ongoing or episodic process, such as cerebrovascular disease or
seizures? Is there a history of excessive alcohol, drug, or tobacco
use, which may contribute to or provoke neurological disease?
The literature on alcohol and drug effects on cognition is fairly
specific with regard to the effects of various agents. It is impor-
tant to be aware of the reversibility or permanence of cognitive
impairment provoked by these substances. It is also important
to note that withdrawal from some substances may provoke
temporary alterations in cognition.
4. INSIGHT, SELF-AWARENESS, AND CONCERN
During the course of the clinical interview, it is important
to determine the patient's level of awareness of his or her medi-
cal state and insight into cognitive and physical limitations.
Lack of awareness alone is not necessarily pathognomic of cogni-
tive decline. For example, it is not unusual for a patient to be
unaware of medical subtleties because the condition has not
been explained adequately to him or her. Poor awareness, in
combination with neuropsychological deficits, is, however,
helpful in neuropsychological diagnosis. For example, some
86 Howard R. Kessler
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100 Howard R. Kessler
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