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7PPX0 Lecture Notes - Dimensioning of Structures - Timber - V05 PDF
7PPX0 Lecture Notes - Dimensioning of Structures - Timber - V05 PDF
2018-2019
1 Introduction
This is the introduction to the course “Timber structures” developed by the Faculty Architecture,
Building and Planning, Unit Structural Engineering and Design (SD), at Eindhoven University of
Technology.
For centuries wood has been an important construction material. After the development of "modern"
materials like concrete and steel, a steady decline in the amount of wood as construction material
occurred. This is illustrated in Figure 1.1 [1].
Since a number of years the application of wood in constructions is increasing. The material is
"rediscovered". Especially the visual qualities and the "cuddle factor" of the material, whatever that
may be, contributes to this increase. Also other positive qualities such as the high strength and
stiffness parallel to the grain in relation to the mass, the high fire resistance, “free form” production
possibilities, chemical resistance, the natural durability, the very low energy use in production and very
low emissions of so-called greenhouse gases (e.g. CO2) contribute.
The low natural durability of different wood species is often seen as a negative property. However, the
natural durability is no indicator for sustainability of structures realized with certain wood species.
Wood constructions realized with low durable wood species still function after hundreds of years
because the conditions for damaging mechanisms (fungi – insects – bacteria) are absent or very low
in many circumstances.
The variation in wood appearance is very large. Even within one tree significant differences occur.
This results in possible fascinating designs. Also with regard to the structural properties big variation
can be expected. Also in this case: every piece of wood is different. Result is that considerable efforts
need to be made to get a well-defined impression of the properties. Hundreds, if not thousands, of
wood species exist. Only a limited number, ca. 45, are classified in so-called strength classes, so that
these species can be used structurally in a sound, well defined way. However, for most of these
species all the wood is classified in only one strength class limiting the efficient use.
Wood can be cut (sawn) into all kind of elements (girders, columns, boards, laths, etc). Sawn elements
can be combined into so-called composite elements, with glue (glulam) and/or mechanically (wire
nails, bolts, etc.). Veneer, usually obtained by peeling the tree, is glued on less attractive wood
species to obtain plate material for furniture manufacturing or finishing panels. Veneer layers can be
glued together to obtain, plywood, a sheet material, or LVL (laminated veneer lumber). Thicker boards
glued together crosswise result in so-called CLT (cross laminated timber).
From waste, from sawdust to chips other sheet materials like particle board, composed plate OSB
(oriented strand board), MDF (medium density fibre board) and HDF (high density fibre board) are
manufactured. Generally the structural properties reduce with increasing amount of glue needed (e.g.
MDF needs relatively much glue and plywood relatively little). All these products are used in the
construction, often as finishing (embellishing, fire resistance, etc.). In a number of cases structurally for
which plywood, CLT, LVL, fibre board, OSB and particle board are most suited.
Figure 2.1 shows, that more than half of the felled trees is used as firewood. In Western Europe, North
America and Japan the ratio is completely different. There is the portion firewood relatively small (can
be ignored). For the Netherlands the use of wood is shown in Figure 2.2.
The use of the forests, the suppliers of wood, differs. These different purposes do not always
strengthen each other (these purposes compete). Different purposes are:
• Human shelter (especially in certain areas in Africa, Asia and South America) and animal
habitat.
• Recreation (especially in the so-called Western world).
• Supplier of food, medicine, etc.
• Supplier of wood for all kinds of applications.
• A positive contribution to the so-called CO2 (carbon dioxide) balance.
Worldwide about 0,5 m3 of wood is used per person per year. In Netherlands this is approx. 1 m3, in
Japan and the United States even slightly higher. Despite we hardly use wood for cooking in
Netherlands we use more than twice as much as the average world inhabitant. Figure 2.3 shows
values in tabular form.
Figure 2.3 shows, that the wood use worldwide, despite the occasionally ominous messages in the
media about huge deforestation of especially tropical deciduous forests, is smaller than the growth.
However, the situation is still worrying, not least for those population groups that traditionally depend
for their entire existence on the forests (for example, Pygmies in Cameroon and the Dayak in
Kalimantan-Malaysia). The situation for different animals is also critical. On the other hand, in certain
areas more wood grows than is harvested. In these areas the (economic) value of wood is recognized
and ensured in a sustainable way. In these areas, forests are maintained like farms. See also the table
in figure 2.4.
Socially, ecologically and economically, it is becoming less accepted, that the used wood contributes
to the negative effects of deforestation of the Earth. It is more and more expected that the wood used
is coming out of sustainably managed forests, aimed at forest conservation and at positive socio-
economic development for all involved. Organizations like FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) or PEFC
(Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification) define global standards for forest
management. Basis for these standards, which need to be developed in more detail for each country
or region, are the 10 FSC principles, which can be found on www.fsc.org, describing good forest
management. If forest owners meet the FSC standards their forest can be certified. Independent
inspectors ensure compliance with the rules.
The table in Figure 2.3 shows the situation of all wood, deciduous and coniferous wood, together. In
the Netherlands mainly softwood (mostly coniferous) wood species are used, which is almost
completely originating in the European Community. The wood species used most are Norway Spruce,
Pine, Larch and Douglas Fir. See the table in Figure 2.5 for a bit more detailed information [2].
Figure 2.5 Wood use in Netherlands with pictures of the species most used (Dutch
names between brackets)
Deciduous wood species are mostly used in furniture, facade carpentry (window frames, doors, etc.)
and civil engineering structures (bollards, scaffolding, alignments, etc.). This wood is predominantly
originated from tropical forests. Historically, in the Netherlands the used tropical deciduous wood is
originated from Indonesia (Merbau, Meranti in construction), Suriname (Basralocus, Demerara
Greenheart, etc. in hydraulic engineering constructions) and West Africa (Azobé in hydraulic
engineering constructions). It is clear, that the origin of these wood species is linked to the Dutch
colonial past. The last decade’s wood from FSC certified tropical forests in Brazil (Massaranduba,
Angelim Vermelho, Cumaru, Itauba, Piquia, etc.) are increasingly used.
Most coniferous wood species grow between 70 and 50 latitude as a belt bordering the Arctic across
North America, Europe and Asia. Also in the southern hemisphere forests with coniferous wood
species can be found (e.g. in in New Zealand, South Africa and Argentina-Chile, where large areas
are forested with so-called Radiata Pine trees).
Tropical forests (in which deciduous trees are found) are present in the rest of the world: globally in the
temperate, subtropical and tropical zones between the 50 latitude north latitude and 50 South latitude.
Figure 3.1 shows the global growth areas.
Deciduous trees respond strongly to the changing of the seasons. The food intake in the root structure
occur especially in spring time resulting in a relative high growth rate (creating so-called early wood)
and leave creating, through which moisture evaporates. Summer growth conditions for the tree are
more hazardous resulting in slowing down of the growth rate and leave creating, which almost fully
stops in autumn and winter periods. The wood created in summer, autumn and winter periods, the so-
called “late wood”, is denser than the wood created in springtime. The “late wood” is visualized by the
so-called annual rings. Consequently, no annual rings develop in regions where the differences
between the seasons are negligible. Deciduous wood trees lose their leaves in winter time; coniferous
wood species, except Larch, do not loose leaves (needles).
The wood structure of deciduous wood species is different from that of coniferous wood species.
There are also similarities. Both are shortly discussed with the help of figures 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4.
Fibre structure
A tree grows in two directions, longitudinally and radially (height and in thickness directions). In
longitudinal direction, the cells split at the top of the branches, the stem and the roots. Actually, these
cells stretch themselves. The thickness growth in the stem, the roots and the branches takes place in
the cambium, a single cell layer between the bark and the sapwood. Growth rings are formed.
Nutrition from the roots to the tree crown takes place through the outer parts (inner bark to sapwood)
of the trunk: in the sapwood the rising flow takes place, the inner bark the descend flow. Horizontal
moisture transport is possible via the rays.
After some years, the middle section no longer contributes to the nutrition transport. This part, the
heartwood, "dies" after the cells present herein may be filled with natural chemicals to enlarge natural
durability, after which in most species these cells are closed (for durability reasons too).
Figure 3.4 Difference in structure between coniferous and deciduous wood [3].
All important wood properties such as strength, stiffness and shrinkage / swell behaviour are explained
on the basis of the chemical structure and the anatomy, or the structure of the cells and the properties
of the cell wall material. If the cell wall material degenerates due to e.g. wood degradation or fire, the
material and thus the mass and strength properties reduce.
Because wood is a natural product, growth “failures” and imperfections like knots and growth
disturbances (due to geometrical imperfections) can be expected. The wood grain is not completely
straight resulting in strength and stiffness reductions.
Wood is characterized by its fibre direction (longitudinal direction). Due to this typical structure, the
wood anatomy, physical and mechanical properties vary widely in different directions (e.g. the material
strength is higher parallel to the fibre direction than perpendicular to the fibre direction).
The strength properties generally exhibit a slightly larger variation in softwood than in deciduous wood,
due to the difference in the presence of knots. Generally deciduous wood is also heavier than
softwood, which is reflected in the strength properties. The differences in wood structure and the
dependence of the strength and stiffness on the fibre direction is clearly shown in the strength classes
of wood (tables 6.1 and 7.1).
4 Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology, or tree ring research, is the scientific discipline that deals with dating of wooden
objects or archaeological findings on the basis of recognizable annual rings in the objects (growth
rings). Large parts of the world exhibit seasons. The largest growth occurs in the spring, the smallest
in the winter. As a result, the spring wood (early wood) with large wide cells distinguishes itself, see
Figure 3.4, from the late wood (formed in summer, autumn and winter). This results in a "circular" lines
pattern, also known as annual rings. This enables the age determination of a tree, by counting the
number of rings between the edge and the center (pith). This can easily be done after the tree is cut
down. For still standing trees this can also be done after retaining a wood cylinder form the tree using
a special wood drill, designed for this purpose (increment drill, which is a hollow drill).
Thus, dendrochronology is not limited to living, or recently felled, trees. With a piece of
(archaeological) wood containing older unknown annual ring information in addition to known annual
ring information the dating calendar can be expanded. Figure 4.1 shows this principle based on a tree
cut in 1973 whose ring pattern perfectly suits the growth ring patterns in older wood.
It is essential to realise that the dating calendars are attached to a combination of growth area and
wood species. Consequently, the correct dating calendars must be used. If this is done correctly,
information on the growth areas of the wood used can be obtained. Based on these studies it is
shown that the oak for the Dutch ships during the Dutch Golden Age was obtained from the Baltic
Area (North Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany).
5.1 Density
The density of wood varies from ca. 150 kg/m3 (balsa) until ca. 1230 kg/m3 (lignum vitae). The density
is calculated with formula (5.1).
m
= [kg/m3] (5.1)
V
The mass of the solid material in the cell wall is, at = 12 %, approximately 1550 kg/m3 for every
wood species. The proportion of air, the hollow spaces (void cavities), is the reason for the large
differences in density between the different wood species. The amount of void space relative to the
material without void cavities is expressed in the pores share [%] that is calculated using formula (5.2).
p = 1001 − 12 [%] (5.2)
1550
Formula (5.3) shows the definition of the wood moisture content: the mass of the water in the wood,
expressed as a percentage of the mass of the dry wood. Note that wood moisture content values
higher than 100% is realistic. For example: the void cavities in spruce occupy, see table 5.1, 72% of
the total (wood) volume. If these void cavities are filled with water the wood weighs ca. 400 + 720 =
1120 − 400
1120 kg/m3 and the wood moisture content 100 = 180 % (+12%) .
400
Moisture in wood is partly bound and partly free. Bound water is chemically bound to the cell walls.
Free water is located in the hollow spaces (void). If all positions where moisture can be bound to the
cell walls are occupied, the wood has reached the so-called saturation point (FSP: Fibre Saturation
Point); see also Figure 5.3.
The wood moisture content is governed by climatic conditions, described with the relative humidity
(RH) and temperature, see Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Relationship between the wood moisture content (equilibrium moisture
content) and climatic conditions (Temperature and Relative air humidity).
[%]
1 12 Standard indoor conditions
2 20 Outdoor, covered structures
3 >20 - poorly ventilated spaces (indoor)
- fully exposed to outdoor conditions (not covered)
- structures in and underneath water
If the climatic conditions change, the wood moisture content will also change. The change rate of the
wood moisture content depends on the wood species, the surface area of end grain cut (moisture
exchange with the environment through end cut surfaces(parallel to the grain) is much faster than
perpendicular to the grain) and dimensions of the wood. In any case there is a delay between the
changes in climatic conditions and setting the associated wood moisture content (preferably the
equilibrium moisture content). This is illustrated in Figure 5.2; the graph shown in figure 5.2 is called
hysteresis.
From the above it can be concluded, that wood moisture content values exceeding the Fibre
Saturation Point, result in filling up the void spaces (free water), and almost exclusively causing the
density to increase.
Figure 5.5 Effect of the load duration (and wood moisture content) on the deformation
of a permanently loaded beam.
On the other hand, the stresses reduce in time when an element is deformed with a constant value;
this phenomenon is called relaxation (decreasing internal stresses under constant deformation).
The strength of wood is reduced for long term loaded elements compared to the strength of short term
loaded elements. This is illustrated in Figure 5.6.
The load duration effects on strength are described on experimentally-based models. One of these
models, the so-called Madison Curve [5], is indicated in Figure 5.6. This is a so-called regression
equation based on many experiments (with which only the average values are accessed). The
Madison curve is important, because the modification factors kmod , involved in construction
calculations, described in formula (6.1), are based on this model.
Consider the chains in Figure 5.7. The individual links have certain strength. Due to variation in
individual link properties, the "links" are of wood, the individual links vary in strength. This strength
In analogy the probability on a weak spot in a large timber element is greater than in a small timber
element. The chain represents so-called brittle failure modes (no redistribution possible: if one link
breaks, the full system fails). For practical calculations, this volume effect is translated into a volume /
height factor. This factor is therefore only applicable to those material properties showing brittle failure
modes. Wood in tension and/or bending show brittle failures and consequently the factor applies to
these material properties. On the other hand, wood under compression shows tough failure behaviour
and consequently the volume Factor (or height factor) is not applicable to compression.
The values for the volume / height factors are derived from the so-called Weibull distribution (a
probability distribution), displayed with formula (5.4).
Probability [ 1 = f for a given Volume V1 and given probability [ 0 = f for a given Volume V0 ] (5.4)
In which 1 = tensile stress level in volume V1 [N/mm ] 2
The tensile strength corresponds to a volume V0 = 0.01 m3 which is subjected to a uniform tension
stress. The volume V0 is so-called reference volume. Elaboration of formula (5.4) results in, see [10],
formula (5.5).
0,2
V0
max; d
d Vh f d [N/mm2] (5.5)
0,2
1
Vh
Vh ( ( x, y, z) ) dV
In practice, formula (5.4) is for tension and bending parallel to the fibre direction simplified to a height
factor kh and length factor k l . The length factor is exclusively used for laminated veneer lumber
(LVL); see Chapter 7.
span
for roof beams
20 to 25
span
for floor beams
15 to 20
5.9 Heat-properties
Heat conduction, heat capacity and expansion due to temperature increase are defined.
W
m K
The heat conduction is expressed with the conduction coefficient . Wood is a material with
different properties in different directions. In radial and tangential direction both perpendicular to the
grain directions, the values for globally equal. The value parallel to the wood fibre is 2 to 3 times as
large. Wood has, relative to many other materials, a low thermal conductivity. This makes wood a
suitable material in heat-insulating constructions. See table 5.5 in which some values for are given.
Joule energie
The heat capacity is expressed in 3
m K
= m3 Kelvin .
Joule
kg . With a mass of 500 kg/m , this leads to a heat
3
Dry wood has a specific heat of ca. 1880
Joule Joule
capacity of 500 1880 = 940 103 3 . Stone has a specific heat of ca. 840 m3 K . At a mass of
m K
Joule
1800 kg/m3, this leads to a heat capacity of 1800 840 1500 103 3 . From this it can be
m K
concluded that a wooden wall heats up considerably faster than a stone wall. The wooden wall cools
down, however, also significantly faster. From this it can be concluded, that for energy reduction
spaces which are not constantly heated can better be realised in wood than in stone.
Wood tends to expand when temperature increases. At the same time the wood moisture content
reduces resulting in shrinkage. The effect of shrinkage due to moisture decrease is much larger than
the temperature expansion and consequently thermal expansion is seldom regarded.
For European coniferous wood the following values for the coefficient of thermal expansion can be
used: 0 4 10−6 ; 90;radial 20 10−6 ; 90;tangential 20 10−6
5.11 Durability
The wood moisture content has a big impact on the durability of timber structures. This is illustrated in
Figure 5.3: provided that the wood moisture content is ca. 21%, no fungi (causes of wood rotting)
develop. Durable detailing and construction is based on reducing the wood moisture content to below
21%.
There are big differences in the so-called
natural durability between different wood
species. General statements in the practice of
"common deciduous wood is more durable
than softwood" and "tropical (hard) wood
species (these are deciduous species) are
much more durable than the most commonly
used uses coniferous wood species" are to a
certain extent true. These statements need,
however, nuances which can be understood
by studying the tree cross section from Figure
5.9.
bark protects the tree, e.g. against forest fires, an consists out of dead material as well).
Before on the border of heartwood and sapwood wood cells are added to the heartwood, many wood
species add components to these cells (e.g. natural toxins), which increase the resistance against
fungal degradation. In addition, the cells are closed (in coniferous wood species the border pits, see
Figure 3.4, are closed). After the addition of the cells to the (dead) heartwood, these cells are no
longer active and the tree itself is no longer capable to protect these cells. Some wood species, e.g.
beech, do not protect the cells before adding to the dead heartwood which explains that the heartwood
of these wood species can be destroyed by fungi completely.
The living part (mainly sapwood) is protected by the tree itself. At the moment the tree is cut, this part
is hardly affected by fungi, insects, etc. On the other hand, the tree did not take precautions to protect
this part. In other words, the sapwood is not protected like the heartwood. Consequently, the sapwood
of each type of wood has a rather low natural durability. The variation in natural durability between
different wood species is therefore only true for the heartwood. Consequently, the durability classes
given in table 5.4 only reflect the heartwood.
The heartwood of different wood species is classified in a so-called durability class based on
experimental research, the so-called "graveyard” test.
.
Five durability classes are distinguished, see table 5.4.
Notes: (1) durability is always guaranteed when the wood moisture content does not exceed 21%. In
that case all wood species, regardless the natural durability, can be applied.
(2) under certain conditions wood from durability class III can be applied in an unprotected
outside environment (climate class 3), see table 5.2. From table 5.4 it follows that for this
application the heartwood of deciduous wood species (tropical) is most suitable. For (almost)
vertical elements however, the heartwood of Larch and Douglas Fir (durability class III) are
suitable as well in these conditions.
5.12 Preservation
To prevent the wood from fungi attack it can be treated with toxic substances. This is called wood
preservation. Two of the most well known processes are the so-called "waterborne preservatives",
5.13 Modification
Due to the fact that preservation with toxic compounds is increasingly restricted in recent years, new
environmental friendly alternatives have been developed. The so-called modification techniques, both
thermal as chemical, are well upgraded to industrial scale and used more and more frequently.
5.14 Summary
Table 5.5 shows a number of wood properties discussed in this chapter. A much more extensive table
can be found in the “Houtvademecum” [6] (in Dutch).
species
density [kg/m3]
λ [W / m·K]*
remark
rad. tang. rad. tang.
European beech 720 12 0.17 0.36 V deciduous
European oak 720 15 0.16 0.26 0.18 II deciduous
Silver Fir 0.12 0.27 0.11 IV coniferous
20·10-6
35·10-6
f c ,0, k N/mm2 18 21 24 27 30 36 24
Seviceability Em,0, mean N/mm2 9,000 11,000 11,000 13,000 14,000 20,000 11,500
Limit
Em,90, mean N/mm2 300 370 730 870 930 1,330 300
States
(SLS) Gmean N/mm2 560 690 690 810 880 1,250 650
For structural calculations using the accidental load combinations, e.g. in seismic design, the material
factors all reduce to m = 1.0 . Also for calculations in Serviceability Limit States m = 1.0 .
In this paragraph, the influence of the load duration on the modification factor kmod is analyzed. For
this reason Figure 5.5 is extended to figure 6.1.
permanent load and a (number of) variable load, can exceed the Fu for a period of time ( t1 t1 )
'
At t = t1 the load value increases from permanent load level to F1 due to an increased variable load.
'
The strength is not considerably reduced compared to the short duration strength (perhaps this
strength is slightly reduced due to load history and ageing). Consequently the load duration should
be slightly less than t1 and the failure load curve is shifted in time.
Occasional increased load levels F1 Fu are therefore no problem and allowed provided that the
cumulative value of the time that F1 Fu does not exceed t1 ( ti t1 ). The time spans referred to in
table 5.3 equal these cumulative values.
The time span ti for load level F1 is determined by the load duration of the variable load. The variable
load is the shortest load in the load combination (permanent + variable load). Consequently, for the
analysis of the structure loaded with permanent + variable loading the load duration effects due to the
load duration of the variable loading has to be considered. Since the load duration effects are taken
into account by a modification factor kmod , the kmod values have to be taken from the variable load.
In general: the modification factor value depends on the shortest load in the considered load
combination.
Generally, load combinations consist out of permanent loads and variable loads (long, medium or
short duration) and often the modification factor associated to the medium or short hour loading has to
be taken into the calculations. Additionally for construction with a high level of dead load a
combination considering only the permanent load has to be taken into account
On an average level the value 0.56 (see figures 5.5 and 6.1) On the characteristic value level this
value is higher. Table 6.3 shows a number of values for the modification factor kmod according to EN
1995-1-1 [9].
Factors kh and k l
The factors kh (height factor) and k l (length factor) are both "volume factors”, described in Chapter 5.
The volume effect is only considered for those material properties showing brittle failure.
Consequently, the volume effect derived from formula (5.5), repeated as formula (6.2), is exclusively
for tension both parallel and perpendicular to the grain and for bending. For bending and tension
parallel to the grain equation (6.2) is reduced to the factors kh (height factor) and k l (length factor).
0,2
V0
max; d
d Vh f d [N/mm2] (6.2)
0,2
1
Vh
Vh ( ( x, y, z) ) dV
In the denominator of formula (6.2) the volume-integral is elaborated resulting in one single value for
different cases. The values listed in NEN-EN 1995-1-1, 6.4.3 [9], Eurocode 5, are repeated in table
6.4.
Generally for calculations in the Serviceability Limit States the average values of the modulus of
elasticity ( Em,0, mean ) and shear modulus ( Gmean ) are used. Depending on load duration, possibly
resulting in creep, and the climate class the expected deformations are calculated. Figure 6.2 shows
the basis for these calculations.
The creep deformation is dependent on the load duration. The load duration differs for different loads
(e.g. the load duration for permanent loading is much larger than for variable loading). From the
variable load only small part is permanently present. This part is taken into account wit a factor 2
(0 ≤ 2 ≤ 1,0), with which the quasi-permanent value of a variable load is calculated, defined in EN
1990 (Eurocode 0) [11]. In principle, the load calculated by multiplying the characteristic variable load
(
u fin,Q1 = uinst ,Q1 1 + 2,Q1 kdef ) for a variable load Q 1 (6.5)
With 0,i = combination value of simultaneous variable loads. 0 and 2 are zero for loading by
wind, rainwater, temperature and snow so no for these situations no simultaneous variable loads are
present. For variable loads on floors usually only one single variable load is prescribed. Overall this
results normally in only one single simultaneously variable load in the combination. However for every
occurring load the final deformation needs to be checked. For determining the final deformation ( u fin )
formula 6.4 to 6.6 can then be simplified in formula 6.7:
(
u fin = uinst + ucreep − uc = uinst ,G (1 + kdef ) + uinst ,Q1 1 + 2,Q1 kdef − uc )
(
u fin = uinst ,G (1 + kdef ) + uinst ,Q1 1 + 2,Q1 kdef ) (keep this in mind!) (6.7)
Example calculations are made during the exercises. Values for 0 and 2 (and 1 ) are given in
table 6.5 (based on EN 1990 [11]).
Figure 7.1 Example of marked wood (on the end grain cut of the element).
For wood applications, a distinction must be made between quality classes and strength classes. For
the classification in quality classes, as described above, visual aspects apply. These visual
requirements may also be linked to strength classes. However, for the classification in quality classes
other requirements for the visual aspects apply than for the classification in strength classes.
The Dutch quality class format is governed by the standards of the KVH 2010 series (quality
requirements for wood), NEN 5461, NEN 5466, .... etc. A distinction is made in four classes: A t/m D.
Class A: for application with very high demands on the appearance, for example furniture.
Class B: for applications with high demands on the appearance, for example constructions with
extra demand on the visual aspects.
Class C: common quality, for example timber for regular constructions
Class D: for applications with no requirements on the appearance; for example,
non-load-bearing studs and battens or products like pallets.
For calculations according to EN 1995 (EUROCODE – Wood constructions: Eurocode 5) the so-called
characteristic values of the material properties are necessary. Calculations related to strength and
stability (safety) are carried out in the Ultimate Limit States (ULS) for which the characteristic values
are 5% lower values. Calculations related to deformations are carried out in the Serviceability Limit
States (SLS) for which the characteristic values are the mean values of the modulus of elasticity and
shear modulus.
The characteristic values are taken from a table with strength classes like table 7.1 (extension of table
6.1 – based on EN 338 [7]); the strength class itself is chosen by the structural designer. The choice is
mainly based on availability.
The Dutch strength class format is related to the European and is enshrined in EN 338 [7] for sawn
timber and EN 1194 [8] for glued laminated timber.
Table 7.1 shows the strength classes for sawn timber (C-classes with “C” from Coniferous and
D-classes with “D” from Deciduous). Moreover, the D-classes indicated in table 7.1 are based on the
(relatively strong and stiff) tropical deciduous species, also called hardwoods. Result is, that most
deciduous species from the temperate regions (Poplar - beech - Birch - oak -.... etc.) do not meet the
strength valued listed in table 7.1 and are therefore in classified to C-classes.
f c ,0, k N/mm2 18 21 24 27 30 36 24
Seviceability Em,0, mean N/mm2 9,000 11,000 11,000 13,000 14,000 20,000 11,500
Limit
Em,90, mean N/mm2 300 370 730 870 930 1,330 300
States
(SLS) Gmean N/mm2 560 690 690 810 880 1,250 650
• A distinction is made between C-classes ("softwood") and D-classes ("hardwood").
• Any constructive element must be classified in class a strength (no batch approval allowed
based on the approval of random pieces).
• Wood for structural applications can mechanically or visually be graded. If the wood is
visually graded, in the Netherlands this has, for “softwoods” to be carried out according to
NEN 5499 [13]. The class T1 defined in NEN 5499 equals class C defined in the
“KVH”. The class T2 defined in NEN 5499 equals class B defined in the “KVH”.
• Visually graded Pine, spruce, larch, Douglas (European) and classified in class T1
according to NEN 5499 [13] meets the requirements for strength class C18.
• Visually graded Pine, spruce, larch, Douglas (European) and classified in class T2
according to NEN 5499 meets the requirements for strength class C24.
• Visually graded Douglas (European) and classified in classes T2 according to NEN 5499:
C22
• Oak (Central European), classified in class B accordance to “KVH”: C20
• Meranti (red): strength class D24
• Oak (Polish): D18 / D24 / D30
• Iroko: D24 (unsorted)
• Vitex, Robinia, Sucupira vermelho: D30
• Bilinga: D24 / D50
• Merbau: D30 / D50
• Teak, Iroko (sorted) Sucupira, Itauba, amarelo, Piquia: D40
• Bangkirai, Sapucaia, Angelim vermelho, Denya: D50
• Masseranduba, Cumaru: D60
• Azobé: D70
Note: the strength classes for the different wood species are based on "Wood hand Strength data
[12], a publication of “Centrum Hout” in Almere, the Netherlands.
Table 7.2. Link between the strength classes determined according to NEN 5499 with the European
strength classes in EN 338.
NEN 5499 EN 338
T0 C14
T1 C18
T3 C24
T4 C30
Figure 7.2 is based on bending tests. Figure 7.2 clearly shows that the relationship between the
modulus of elasticity and the bending strength is ambiguous. Given the measurement of
E = 8000 N/mm2, the bending strength can (on the 5% lower and 95% upper levels) vary between
f m = 33 N/mm2 and f m = 78 N/mm2 (more than a factor of 2!). However, the majority of the test results
is close to average making it very unlikely that on the basis of the measured modulus an extremely low
or extremely high bending strength is obtained. Figure 7.2 shows abundantly clear that on the basis of
the indicator (modulus of elasticity) mistakes are made. The extent to which errors are created can be
minimised by considering, besides the modulus, other indicators: for example: density, visible
discolorations, knots, slope of grain, etc. For capturing these indicators devices are developed which
are useful in the grading process (for example, X-ray measurements of the density, knot recognition,
reaction wood, ... etc.; Laser Scan to capture dimensions, slope of grain ... wane, etc.).
The system shown in figure 7.3 “guarantees” that an element/product/material carrying a KOMO
certificate automatically meets all requirements from public law (“Bouwbesluit” requirements).
Consequently, an element/product/material carrying a KOMO certificate can be applied without any
additional testing.
8 Wood products
Sheet material
See powerpoint slides lectures on:
https://canvas.tue.nl/courses/7506 7PPX0 (2018-2) Dimensioning of structures
[2] Leen Kuiper and Rino Jans (eds). ‘Dutch wood use in image’ ProBos Foundation, Zeist, 2001.
[3] J. Kuipers. ‘Wood and Wood constructions’ Technische Hogeschool Delft, 1979 (in Dutch).
[4] Jan f. rijsdijk and Peter b. Laming. ‘Physical and related properties of 145 timbers, Infomation for
practice’ Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 1994, ISBN 0-7923-2875-2.
[5] Paragraph Foschiand Z.C. Yao. ‘Another look at three duration of load models’ Proceedings of CIB-
W18/paper 19-9-1, 1986, Florence, Italy.
[7] EN 338. Wood for structural applications – strength classes. Dutch, Delft Standards Institute, 2016.
[8] EN 14080. Timber structures – Glued laminated timber — Strength classes and determination of
characteristic values. European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), Brussels, 2013.
[9] EN 1995-1-1. Eurocode 5: design and calculation of wood constructions – Part1-1: general –
common rules and rules for buildings. Dutch Standardization Institute, 2005.
[11] EN 1990. EUROCODE – basis of the constructive design. Dutch Standardization Institute, 2002.
[12] Wood wiser ' Strength ', a publication of the Data Centre Wood to Almere, located under
http://www.houtinfo.nl/pdf/Houtwijzer%20Sterktegegevens%20van%20hout.pdf
[13] NEN 5499. Requirements for visually graded softwood for constructive applications (in Dutch).
Dutch Standardisation Institute, Delft, The Netherlands, 2007.
[14] EN 1912. Structural timber – Strength classes – Assignment of visual grades and species.
European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), Brussels, 2012.
[15] EN 14081. Timber structures - Strength graded structural timber with rectangular cross section.
European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), Brussels, 2016.
10 Introduction
When designing you start with a course draft, which has to be refined. Designing is a multidisciplinary
process. Input from every relevant discipline is necessary. Within the building industry all kind of
construction works within the built environment, usually buildings, and civil engineering objects.
This part of “Introduction to Timber Structures” focuses on buildings in which architecture, urban
planning, building physics, accommodation of installations and structural design are involved in the
multidisciplinary designing process.
The design process needs a systematic approach. The first design at the start of the building process
is extremely important. In this phase, the preliminary design phase, the design effort pays off. Further
on in the design process the effect of efforts reduces. This is illustrated in figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1 Influence on the design in the various phases of the construction process.
During the design phase a (large) number of possibilities should quickly and efficiently be assessed.
Experienced designers use their experience where rules of thumb and/or simplifications (for example,
the reduction of complex structures into easy to understand static structures) play an important role.
The rules of thumb are based on earlier experience. In this part of the course rules of thumb are
presented for dimensions based on [1]. Only profiles with a rectangular cross-section are considered.
On the basis of figure 10.2 three hinge arches can be optimised. Since hardly ever an element
loaded in bending is subject to constant moment loading, material is saved by introducing non-
prismatic elements. In these cases an option can be to vary the cross section dimensions in
relation to the variation in bending moment. Figure 10.3 shows an example.
Non prismatic elements must be designed with great care since stresses perpendicular to the
grain are introduced and wood is significantly weaker perpendicular to the grain than parallel
to the grain. Especially cases where tension stresses perpendicular to the grain are introduced
should be avoided (to avoid brittle failure).
• High narrow cross sections are usually more economical than low wide cross sections. It
should be noted, that this is especially true for glued laminated bending elements, for which
h
cross sections with 8 are common. Sawn timber profiles are generally stocky (from
b
b x h = 59 x 146 to 69 x 269). For rafters in prefabricated roof elements sawn timber cross
sections are more slender: approximately 30 ≤ b ≤ 40 mm with height ≤ 286 mm).
• Since higher strength and stiffness properties result in smaller cross section dimensions, it can
be efficient to find an optimal match between these properties and the application conditions.
• For elements in bending, the most outside fibres are stressed most. Therefore, for glued
laminated timber so-called combined cross sections are produced (so-called GLc – in which
“GL” denotes Glued Laminated and “c” denotes combined) for which the outer lamellas are
chosen from a higher strength class.
The application of sawn timber is limited to relatively small spans in roofs and floors, storey high
columns and facade poles.
Glued Laminated timber on the other hand, is much wider applicable. The dimensions are not limited
by the tree dimensions.
For standard timber floors and roofs a first estimation of the cross section dimensions can be obtained
using rules of thumb as indicated in figure 11.1.
Note: The cross section width for the sawn timber beam types given in figure 11.1can be calculated
c.t.c. c.t.c.
according to b = for floor beams and b = for roof beams. (with c.t.c.. = beam
10 15
h h
spacing). The cross section width for glued laminated elements varies from b = to .
8 5
In many cases deformation limits are governing the design and consequently the cross sectional
dimensions can be corrected by keeping b h3 constant. In those cases that strength is governing,
b h2 must be kept constant.
Example: flat roof with beam span L = 4.8 m and beam spacing c.t.c.. = 0.6 m
4800
Design bar dimensions h= = 250 mm
19
600
b= = 40 mm
15
Fore uniformly loaded beams on two or three supports the governing design bending moments M d
are given in figure 11.2.
Figure 11.2 Values for M d (design of girders on the basis of strength; ULS).
In many cases, certainly for most beams on more than two supports, deformations are governing the
design. Deformations are assessed in the so-called Serviceability Limit States (SLS). The required
cross section dimensions can be calculated according to formula 11.2.
1 C qd 12 C qd
I b h3 = mm4 and h3 [mm] (11.2)
12 E bE
For a preliminary design phase the loads can be taken from figure 11.4.
ULS: qd = G Gk + Q Qk
G = 1.08 , G = 1.35 (consequence class CC1)
SLS: qkr = q fin = Gk (1 + kdef ) + Qk (1 + 2 kdef )
k def = 0.6 (climate class 1)
floors Roofs
dwellings office buildings sloped flat
2 = 0.3 2 = 0.3 2 = 0.0 2 = 0.0
Gk = 0.50 kN/m 2
Gk = 0.50 kN/m 2
Gk = 0.75 kN/m (tiles)
2
Gk = 0.50 kN/m2
Qk = 1.75 kN/m2 Qk = 2.50 kN/m2 Qk = 0.80 kN/m2 Qk = 1.00 kN/m2
Figure 11.4 Loads.
1 1
M d = qd L2 = 1,13 4,82 = 3.3 kNm
ULS 8 8
6 Md 6 3.3 106
b = 44 mm : h = = 165 mm
b f m,0, d 44 16.6
(
qkr = c.t.c. Gk (1 + kdef ) + Qk (1 + 2 kdef )) = 0.6 ( 0.50 (1 + 0.6) + 1.00 (1 + 0.0 0.6)) = 1.08 kN/m
4,800
max = = 0, 004 4,800 = 19.2 mm
250
SLS 5 L4 qkr 5 4,8004 1.08
I = = 0.0353 109 · mm4
384 max E 384 19.2 11, 000
The calculation in the Serviceability Limit States results in a higher height value. Consequently SLS is
governing. Cross section dimensions (standard available): 44 x 219 mm.
Buckling
L
h=
20
F e
sawn timber bh = 1 + 3
5 h
F e
glued laminated timber b h = 1 + 3
7 h
with b h2 = constant
Figure 11.5 Rules of thumb for elements loaded in compression (and bending) [1].
Example: flat roof with beam span L = 4.8 m and beam spacing c.t.c.. = 0.6 m,
strength class C24
qd = c.t.c. ( G Gk + Q Qk ) = 0.6 (1.08 0.50 + 1.35 1.0 ) =1.13 kN/m
1 1
M d = qd L2 = 1,13 4,82 = 3.3 kNm
8 8
Additional the element is subjected to a design compression load of Fd = 100 kN. The calculation is
carried out in the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) only.
4,800
h= = 240 mm
20
M 3.3 106
e= = = 33 mm
F 100 103
F e 100 103 33
b= 1 + 3 = 1 + 3 = 118 mm
h5 h 240 5 240
The profile 118 x 240 mm is not a commercial size. With b = 121 mm it follows that
118 2402
h = 237 mm. Commercial size: 121 x 245 mm.
121
Figure 12.1 Three-hinge kinked frame (left half) and curved frame (right half).
The dimensions of the cross section of three hinge frames are mainly determined by bending
moments. The axial forces are of minor importance.
Figure 12.1 also shows the so-called “line of thrust” for uniform distributed loading. If the system line of
the frame coincides with this “line of thrust” no bending moments develop; the load is transferred by
the frame by axial forces only indicated with "N" in Figure 12.1. This is the roughly case for a parabolic
arch truss.
If the truss system line does not coincide with the “line of thrust” bending moments develop which can
be calculated by multiplying the axial load by the distance between the system line and the “line of
thrust”; e.g. the bending moment in the cranked corner (figure 3.1 – left) equals M = ek N . The
deviations are indicated in figure 12.1 with " ek " for the cranked truss (left half) and " eb " for the curved
truss (right half). Since " ek eb " the bending moments developed in the frame with the cranked corner
(left) are larger than in the frame with the curved corner (right). Consequently, frames with cranked
corner require more material than frames with a curved corner. This is reflected in the application of
the rules of thumb given in figure 12.2.
The cross section dimensions obtained by the rules of thumb in figure 3.2 can be transformed into
available dimensions by keeping b h2 = constant.
Figure 13.2 Load carrying capacity of a connection with a single dowel type fastener,
depending on the timber thickness (t1 and t2)
Figure 13.3 Rules of thumb for determining the design load carrying capacity of
connections with dowel type fasteners.
Note: n = number of fasteners (parallel or perpendicular to the grain)
Example: calculation of the maximum normal force N for the connection below
Fv, Rd ,tot = nshear plane nbolts Fd = 2 12 4,320 = 103.68 103 N = 103.7 kN
Connections in tension are, in the past, also realised with so-called carpentry joints (traditional timber
connections). An example is shown in figure 13.4 (Angera castle, Lago Majore, Italy).
The effectiveness of the connection shown in figure 13.4 is low because only a small portion of the
timber element is activated for load transfer (only the compressed area). The effectiveness of the
connection shown in the example on page 50 is much bigger. This is the main reason the so-called
carpentry connections are not applied often nowadays. However, aesthetic reasons and because of
the fact that due to automatic production processes the prefabrication is much faster and accurate
than they used to be, carpentry connections revived up to a certain extend.
Examples where the forces are mainly transferred by contact pressure, the most efficient way of
detailing, are developed for prefabricated roof structures. One possible detail is shown in figure 13.5.
The axial and shear loads, indicated in Figure 13.5, are transferred into vertical and horizontal loads H
and V introducing compression and tension perpendicular to the fibre and rolling shear in the wall
plate. Additionally, bending stresses are introduced into the F-shaped steel element. The screw only
serves to position all elements and for transferring an upward shear load due to wind suction (loading
the screw in withdrawal).
Figure 13.6 shows an example of a post and beam structure where the mechanical fasteners (in this
case: dowel type fasteners) play a key role in the load transfer.
In principle the beam shear force results in a compression force in the column. The connection has to
transfer this force. The shear force is transferred to the T-shaped steel element by fasteners “A” from
which the force has to be transferred to the column central axis. Obviously an eccentricity, resulting in
a bending moment “M”, develops. The bending moment due to the eccentricity in the connection (in
the case shown in figure 13.6 M = 140 · shear force) is transferred by fasteners “B”, through which de
beam is loaded parallel to the grain.
Since the fasteners “B” transfer load parallel to the fibre direction, the holes for these bolts in the T-
shaped steel plate can be oval shaped (with the large oval axis vertically) allowing the timber to shrink
and swell without developing tension stresses perpendicular to the grain. This becomes important
when the distance between the bolts “B” in glued laminated timber exceeds 500 to 600 mm and in
sawn timber 180 to 200 mm (the reason for this difference between glued laminated timber and sawn
timber is that during erection generally the wood moisture content of sawn timber is much higher).
Obviously the bending moment on the column resulting in bending stresses is shown in figure 13.6 as
M = eccentricity · shear force.
Walls, roofs and floors are loaded perpendicular to the plane. Forces due to stability load these
elements in plane for which they can be designed properly (by activating the sheet material with which
these elements are usually finished). For walls and roofs, however, often special bracing elements are
added.
For roofs of houses the sheet material is, however, mostly activated. This is illustrated in figure 14.1.
Legend to figure 14.1: N1 Normal force due to the wind load perpendicular to the Gables [kN].
qw = wind load in kN/m2.
A force parallel to the Gables needed for moment equilibrium [kN]
The connection between the gable and roof sheet material must be designed on a force which is a
combination of the forces “N1” and “A”. The connection between the individual elements in the roof
must be able to transfer the shear force A and a portion of the load N1.
Bracing systems can be carried out using inclined steel bars, exclusively on loaded in tension (e.g.
the cross bracing system shown in figure 14.4). They can also be realised with inclined timber
elements (also cross bracing) of which half of the elements is loaded in tension and the other half in
compression; see figure 14.3.
No eccentricities should be introduced. This is illustrated in Figure 14.2: it is useful to situate the steel
rods underneath the beams. However, than an eccentricity is introduced resulting in an eccentricity
moment causing the main girder to rotate: figure 14.2 (a). Figure 14.2 (b) shows an example where
this eccentricity, and its negative effects, is overcome.
Wooden bracing, whether or not in cross bracing, have the advantage that the elements are able to
transfer both tension or compression resulting in half of the force in the elements (compared to the
situation above, where, due to the steel cross bracing, the elements can be loaded in tension only).
Consequently, the connections can be designed on half of the force as well. Figure 14.3 shows a
cross bracing with timber elements.
Because of the element cross sectional dimensions they need to be notched at the intersection (in the
middle). This notch is a disadvantage regarding the buckling behaviour of the element in compression
(which is, however, supported by the element in tension through the bolt indicated in figure 14.3).
The notches cause an eccentricity, resulting in a bending moment, resulting in deformation of both the
element in tension and compression. Consequently, the deformation of the element in compression
reduces the buckling resistance. The annoying thing is that both the elements in tension and in
compression tend to deform in the same direction.
When assessing the stability in plane of the cross bracing system, half of the element length (see
figure 14.3) can safely be taken as buckling length. In the other direction, perpendicular to the cross
bracing plane, this somewhat more nuanced; in this direction 0.75 times the element length can safely
be taken as buckling length. Due to this larger buckling length, the orientation of the elements with the
For halls (many main elements parallel to each other, the best location for the cross bracing is
immediately after the gables. In that case the wind load on the gables is directly transferred into the
roof bracing system. However, gable frames are often not applied. In that case the cross bracing is
shifted away from the gable.
In order to transfer the gable wind load directly into the roof bracing system it is advisable to match the
purlins in the roof structure with the façade poles.
The "width" of the bracing, in figure 14.4 indicated with "L", must be large enough to prevent
overloading of the frames / trusses.
In the bracing section of the building, as shown in figure 14.4, vertical loads develop for slopes > zero.
These loads, in figure 14.4 indicated with V, increase with increasing slope; for a flat roof the effect is
not existing. The effect reduces with increasing “L” (see figure 14.4).
Table 14.1 gives a number of recommendations (rules of thumb) to keep this effect acceptable.
Note: L total “width” of the cross bracing; e.g. L in figure 5.5 is the total “width” of the three
bracing systems. The cross bracings are spread over the roof structure. Choose a maximum
spacing between the cross bracings of about 20 to 25 meters.
Cross bracing systems transfer wind loads and support elements which are loaded in compression
and/or in bending. For elements in bending cross bracings are most effective when supporting the
cross section zone subjected to compression. However, timber is a very light weight material also
applied in large span flat roof structures where wind suction is higher than the dead weight of the
structure. Consequently the compression zone is not located near the roof, where it is rather easy to
support, but at the opposite side causing this zone to buckle (this phenomenon is called torsion
buckling). To avoid torsion buckling the cross section has to be supported against rotation. Figure
14.6 shows some possibilities.
Figure 14.6 Support of the cross section against rotation (avoiding torsion buckling).
[1] W.J. Raven. ‘Rules of thumb for determining of floors, beams and columns in wood, steel and
concrete' Faculty of civil engineering of the Technical University in Delft, 2003.
[2] EN 1995-1-1. Eurocode 5: design and calculation of wood constructions – part 1-1: general –
common rules and rules for buildings. Dutch Standardization Institute, Delft, 2007.
As a calculation example a floor beam on two supports and a span of 10 m will be checked. No normal
forces are taken into account. The loads and safety factors (Consequence Class 1) are:
- Gk = 4.0 kN/m1 (including dead load of the beam), g = 1.2
For the assessment of the wooden beam material and modification factors are needed to determine
the design value for strength:
- Partial factor ( M ) for the material properties for glulam: M = 1, 25
- Modification factor ( kmod ) for climate class and the duration of the load: kmod = 0,9 (climate
class 1, short term action)
- Modification factor ( k def ) for creep: k def = 0.6 (climate class 1, glued laminated timber)
- Factor for variable load: 2 = 0.3 (Category A: dwellings)
Glulam beam with dimensions: width x height = 130 x 680 mm (h: L/16, w: h/5) Strength class GL28h
For indoor conditions the thickness of the lamellas is 40 mm, for outdoor conditions the thickness is 27
mm. A total of 17 lamellas gives a height of 680 mm.
Bending strength ( m , d f m , d )
The design value of the load is:
qd = g Gk + q Qk = 1.2 4.0 + 1.35 8.0 = 15.6 kN/m1
Shear stress ( v , d f v , d )
The theory of the calculation of the shear force and the associated shear stresses is also based on a
completely elastic behavior of the cross-section. Thus, the shear stress curve is assumed to be
parabolic about the height. For the maximum shear stress v ,d in the heart of the beam, therefore,
applies:
3 Vd f
v ,d = fv ,d = v,k kmod
2 bh M
v,d 1.32
Unity Check: = = 0.52 ≤ 1.00 OK
fv,d 2.52
(
u fin = uinst ,G (1 + kdef ) + uinst ,Q1 1 + 2,Q1 kdef ) → q fin = Gk (1 + kdef ) + Qk (1 + 2 kdef )
q fin = Gk (1 + kdef ) + Qk (1 + 2 kdef ) = 4.0 (1 + 0.6 ) + 8.0 (1 + 0.3 0.6 ) = 15.84 kN/m1. This is the load
including all the creep factors! No adjustments are now needed anymore for the stiffness (elastic
modulus E0,mean ).
u fin 48.1
Unity Check: = = 1.20 ≥ 1.00 not OK
wlimit 40.1
Adjustments are needed to increase the stiffness to satisfy the conditions for the deflection.
[%]
1 12 Standard indoor conditions
2 20 Outdoor, covered structures
3 >20 - poorly ventilated spaces (indoor)
- fully exposed to outdoor conditions (not covered)
- structures in and underneath water
f c ,0, k N/mm2 18 21 24 27 30 36 24
Seviceability Em,0, mean N/mm2 9,000 11,000 11,000 13,000 14,000 20,000 11,500
Limit
Em,90, mean N/mm2 300 370 730 870 930 1,330 300
States
(SLS) Gmean N/mm2 560 690 690 810 880 1,250 650
• A distinction is made between C-classes ("softwood") and D-classes ("hardwood").
• Any constructive element must be classified in class a strength (no batch approval allowed
based on the approval of random pieces).
• Wood for structural applications can mechanically or visually be graded. If the wood is
visually graded, in the Netherlands this has, for “softwoods” to be carried out according to
NEN 5499 [13]. The class T1 defined in NEN 5499 equals class C defined in the
“KVH”. The class T2 defined in NEN 5499 equals class B defined in the “KVH”.
• Visually graded Pine, spruce, larch, Douglas (European) and classified in class T1
according to NEN 5499 [13] meets the requirements for strength class C18.
• Visually graded Pine, spruce, larch, Douglas (European) and classified in class T2
according to NEN 5499 meets the requirements for strength class C24.
• Visually graded Douglas (European) and classified in classes T2 according to NEN 5499:
C22
• Oak (Central European), classified in class B accordance to “KVH”: C20
• Meranti (red): strength class D24
• Oak (Polish): D18 / D24 / D30
• Iroko: D24 (unsorted)
• Vitex, Robinia, Sucupira vermelho: D30
• Bilinga: D24 / D50
• Merbau: D30 / D50
• Teak, Iroko (sorted) Sucupira, Itauba, amarelo, Piquia: D40
• Bangkirai, Sapucaia, Angelim vermelho, Denya: D50
• Masseranduba, Cumaru: D60
• Azobé: D70
Note: the strength classes for the different wood species are based on "Wood hand Strength data
[12], a publication of “Centrum Hout” in Almere, the Netherlands.
Gk = 0, 46 kN/m2
Qk = 1.75 + 0.50 = 2.25 kN/m2
Center to center: 600 mm
L
u fin = 0, 004 L =
250
q fin = Gk (1 + kdef ) + Qk (1 + kdef 2 ) = ( 0.46 (1 + 0.6 ) + 2, 25 (1 + 0.6 0.3) ) 0.6 = 2.03 kN/m1
q fin = 2, 04 kN/m1
5 q fin L
4
L
=
250 384 E I
1
E = 11, 000 N/mm2 I= b h3
12
b = 32 - 59 mm
b = 32 mm wlimit = u fin b = 59 wlimit = u fin
mm
5 q fin L 5 q fin L
4 4
L L
= =
250 384 E I 250 384 E I
384 E I L4 384 E I L4
= =
250 5 q fin L 250 5 q fin L
1 1
384 11, 000 32 h3 384 11, 000 59 h3
12 L4 12 L4
= =
250 5 2.03 L 250 5 2.03 L
L4 L4
4439 h3 = 8184 h3 =
L L
(16, 4 h ) = L3 ( 20, 2 h ) = L3
3 3
L L
= 16, 4 = 20, 2
h h
Example
L 3000
Estimate the beam height: h= = = 162 mm → 46 x 171 mm
18,5 18,5
u fin =
384 E I
5 2.03 30004
u fin = = 10.2 mm
384 11, 000 1917 104
L 3000
wlimit = 0, 004 L = = = 12.0
250 250
u fin 10.2
Unity Check: = = 0,85 ≤ 1, 00 OK
wlimit 12.0
f m, k 24
f m,d = kmod = 0.8 = 14.8 N/mm2
m 1.3
Wherein is:
I = moment of inertia, in mm4
E = modulus of elasticity, in N/mm2
b = width of the beam, in mm
h = height of the beam, in mm
L = span in mm
Md = design value of the bending moment, in kNm
Gk = permanent load, in kN/m2
Qk = variabel load, in kN/m2 (floor load = 1.75 kN/m2 variabel lightframe walls = 0.50 kN/m2)
q fin = representative load for determining the deflection including creep
qd = design load, including the safety factors
u fin = final deflection (including creep)
wlimit = maximum deflection
d = design value of the bending stresses, in N/mm2
f m,d = design value of the strength, in N/mm2
a 300 - 500 mm
Portal frame
Arched frame
Sawn Timber
Scandinavian Other
Lumber Standard
(SLS)
38 x 89 mm 32 x 100 40 x 146 mm 59 x 146 mm 71 x 146 mm
38 x 120 mm 32 x 125 40 x 171 mm 59 x 156 mm 71 x 171 mm
38 x 140 mm 32 x 150 46 x 146 mm 59 x 171 mm 69 x 194 mm
38 x 184 mm 32 x 200 46 x 171 mm 57 x 194 mm 69 x 219 mm
38 x 194 mm 44 x 194 mm 69 x 244 mm
38 x 235 mm 44 x 219 mm 69 x 269 mm
38 x 286 mm