BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI INSTRUCTION DIVISION FIRST SEMESTER 2012-2013 Course Handout Part Il Date: 03/08/2012 In addition to part -| (General Handout for all courses appended to the time table) this portion gives further specific details regarding the course. Course No. : CE C381 Course Title : Design of Steel Structures Instructor-in-charge :MANOJ KUMAR 1. Scope and Objective of the Course The course intends to impart design skills to common type of Civil Engineering Steel Structures as found in practice as per revised code IS 800: 2007. An understanding of basic design concepts, loads and stresses to be used as per Indian standards for steel design work will be developed. The course deals with designing of steel structural elements subjected to axial tension, axial Compression, bending, combined twisting and bending. Moreover, emphasis will be also given to the special structures such as beam-column, trusses, and plate girders. In addition, analysis and design of various types of connections such as bolted and welded will be discussed for use in fabrication of tension, compression, and flexural members in the framed structures. All design approaches will be based on Limit State of strengths and serviceability. Furthermore, a special chapter on Plastic design of steel will also be introduced.Text Book S. K. Duggal, “Limit State Design of Steel Structures”, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2010 Reference Books (i) | N. Subramanian, ‘Steel Structures: Design and Practice’, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2011. (ii) | N. Subramanian, “Design of Steel Structures”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2010. (iii) Teaching Material on Structural Steel Design, by Institute for Steel Development and growth (INSDAG), Calcutta, htip//www.steel- insdag.org/new/contents.asp . (iv) 1S 800:2007 ‘Code of practice for General construction in steel’ Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi (v) IS 875 : 1987 (parts | — IV) “Code of practice for design Loads”, Bureau of Indian Standards.Lectur | Learning Topics to be covered Reference eNos. | Objectives Chap. No. of TB 3 General Introduction, Advantages & Chapter 1 considerations | Disadvantages of steel as structural material, properties of structural steel, rolled steel sections, Loads considered for structural design, basis for design, design philosophies 3 Introduction to | Bending of beams, Re-distribution of | Chapter 2 Plastic Design | moments and Reserve of Strength, Shape factor, Load factor, Mechanisms, Plastic Analysis and Design of simple beams and frames 3 Introduction to | Limit States (LS) design method for Chapter 3 Limit State Steel: LS of strength, LS of Design Serviceability, probabilistic basis for design, design criterion 3 Design of Types of connections, Introduction to | Chapter 4 bolted and Riveted joints, Design of bolted Pined connections, Design of pin connections connectionsLecture | Learning Topics to be covered Ref.Chap Nos. Objectives No. of TB 3 Welded Types of welds and their symbols, Design of Chapter 5 Connections | Groove welds, Design of Fillet welds: Fillet weld specifications, Design strength, Design of welds 4 Design of Types of tension members, Net sectional area, | Chapter 6 Tension net effective area, design strength of tension Members members, slenderness area, design of tension members, lug angles, splices, gusset plate 4 Design of Effective length, Slenderness ratio, types of Chapter 7 Compressio | compression members, Design strength of n Members | compression members, design of axially loaded compression members, Design of built-up columns, design of Lacings and Battens 4 Design of Types of beam sections, behavior of beams in | Chapter 8 Beams flexure, lateral stability of beams, bending strength of (i) laterally supported and (ii) laterally unsupported beams, shear strength of beams, web buckling, web crippling, deflection, design of rolled beams, design of built-up beams, beam bearing plates.Lecture | Learning Topics to be covered Ref.Chap Nos. Objectives No. of TB 3 Members | Design of crane members, behavior of beam Chapter 9 subjected | columns, design of beam columns to axial load and moment 3 Column Types of column bases, design of slab bases, Chapter 10 bases and | design of gusset bases, design of bases of caps columns subjected to axial load and moment 4 Design of | Elements of plate girders, general design Chapter 11 plate considerations, proportioning of web, girders proportioning of flange, flexural strength and shear strength, design of plate girder, design of stiffeners, flange curtailment, design steps 2 Gantry Loads, fatigue effects, design of Crane girders Chapter 12 Girders 4 Eccentric | Beam column connections, Un-stiffened and Chapter 13 connection | stiffened connections, Bolted bracket connections, Welded bracket connectionsExamination S. No | Evaluation Duration | Weight | Date & Time Remarks Component age 1 Mid-Sem Test 90 mts 35 04/10 2:00 — 3:30 PM CB Tutorials 50 mts 20 Every M 8:00-8:50AM | OB Comprehensive | 3 Hrs 45 01/12 2:00-5:00 PM cB 5. Make-up Policy No Make-up will be given for Tutorials. Make-up for Mid-Sem Test will be given only for genuine cases if applied in advance. 6. Chamber Consultation Hour: To be announced in the class. Students must adhere to the announced _ timing. 7. Notice: Notice if any, concerning this course will be displayed on the Civil Engg. Dept. Notice Board.5. Make-up Policy No Make-up will be given for Tutorials. Make-up for Mid-Sem Test will be given only for genuine cases if applied in advance. 6. Chamber Consultation Hour: To be announced in the class. Students must adhere to the announced timing. 7. Notice: Notice if any, concerning this course will be displayed on the Civil Engg. Dept. Notice Board. Instructor-in-charge CE C381steel structure> an assemblage of a group of members (elements) Members- sustain their share of applied forces and transfer them safely to the ground. Depending on the orientation of the member in the structure and its structural use, the member is subjected to forces either (i) axial, (ii) bending, or (iii) torsion, or a combination thereof. Axial load > tensile—Tension Members (tie), Compressive —- Compressive Members (Strut) Flexural Force > Beams and girders Torsion > Shafts (Not discussed here) Steel members are connected using the rivets, welds, bolts, pins The connection between steel members> Joints Joints> Rigid —can transfer moments) Flexible —can transfer axial loads (shears); Semi-rigid —that fall in between rigid and flexible Steel structures are used in: Roof trusses for factories, railway station platforms, cinema halls, auditoriums Bridges for railways Crane girders in industry Water tanks Telephone Towersrank Beam Circular Column oroer rower eg fe jower | Bracing Bracing }<—Column Upper chord Ridge strut Vertical stiffener Eave strut + Plate girder Roof truss. Knee brace fy Bay width Horizontal alianii stiffener (c) Rail-road bridge (©) Industrial buildingSteel Sections: Steel sections are rolled in industry in the standard shapes > called rolled sections The shapes of rolled sections are: Steel I-Sections; Channel Sections; Angle Sections; Tee Sections; Steel Bars; Steel Tubes; Steel Plates; Flange. [! Flange— ff AL f a tee] fe pies |p « ey pet ! (a) Rolled beams (b) Rolled channels _(c) Angles (unequal) (d) Tees and columns et r 1 ; ‘ I | Elenite ee -+}— 0 —4 Fig UA Rolled stracturad shapes and dimensionsbo “ae 1, kes L Po. b+ L, eT et T= eh d | eee | |, —olfbet (@) Compound sections (|-sections with cover plates) dt jb —>| (b) Fabricated sections (welded girders) fbr tert y Double angle section Doub! (©) Built-up sections Fig. LS Sections for heavy loadsADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL high strength per unit weight > small section = little self-weight > members resists heavy loads > smaller column sections > lesser columns in buildings > easy to transport > prefabricated members can be used > Steel > ductile material> No sudden failure > Steel > may be bent, hammered, sheared or even the bolt holes may be punched without any visible damage. > Steel Properly maintained steel structures have a long life. > Steel properties mostly do not change with time > Additions and alterations can be made easily > Can be erected at a faster rate. > Highest scrap value amongst all building materials and can be reused and recycledDISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL When placed in exposed conditions> corrosion > require frequent painting and maintenance Strength reduces drastically in fire > Needs fire-proof treatment > Needs additional Cost Excellent heat conductor > may transmit enough heat from a burning location to adjoining room. Fatigue > one of the major drawbacks At stress concentration locations > steel may lose its ductility (tearing of steel) Fatigue at very low temperatures> aggravate the situationStress-Strain Curve for Steel 400 wo S So Q Stress (N/mm’) nD So o BOO oS 100 0 0.11 1.50 25 Percentage elongation Fig. 1.2 Stress-strain curve of mild steelStress-Strain Curve for Steel E Point A> Limit of Proportionality; B- elastic limit; eo C’ > upper yield point (strain increase with out increase | «= oy > upto C’, stress is elastic § 00 io / > obtained by loading the specimen rapidly T wate” > not found in hot rolled steel due to residual stress & “4 > no practical significance ? 100 C > Lower yield point, ott t80 25 > stress at lower yield point > called yield stress, fy. Receriage sxigeteh > obtained by loading the specimen slowly train curve of mild steel CD > plastic yielding; strain at D = approx 10 times of strain at yield, provided ductility DE > strain hardening, Presently this strength is not used in design E > Ultimate stress, after this point, section area reduced locally> necking EF> Strain softening, stresses reduces in this zone and finally specimen breaks at point F If fractured section makes cup-and-cone arrangement > Ductile failureNotes: Same curve for tension as well as in compression. + Actual behavior is different and indicates an apparently reduced yield stress in compression. * Divergence from the ideal path is called the Bauchinger effect. + The actual stress-strain curve may be idealized into bilinear or tri-linear form + At High Temperature, curve will be more rounded with no clear yield point Properties of Structural Steel: Ultimate Strength or Minimum Guaranteed ultimate strength or Engineering ultimate strength . P 7 UltimateTensile Load UltimateTensile strength (UTS) =e ese ne Originalarea of cross — section Actual Ultimate Strength UltimateTensile Load Actual Ultimate Tensile strength (UTS) = onsite M0 area of cross — sec tionat breaking po int Since area of cross-section varies with load, it becomes difficult to measure area at different load stage+ Characteristic Ultimate Strength: * The strength below which not more than 5% of samples falls. Fi = frnean1.040 where, o=s tan dard deviation= : i t\ Normal distribution ! curve i fi; 0.05 = ©/froan — i i i Frequency or 1.64 = f, OF f= fynas 1.640 Strength(f) te 1.640," Fig. 13 Definition of characteristic strengthDesign Strength: |n order to incorporate the reduction in strength due to corrosion and accidental damage, the partial safety factor of 1.1 is used. Thus Design strength of steel = Characteristic strength/partial safety factor (1.1) Ductility: capacity of steel to undergo large inelastic deformation without significant loss of strength or stiffness % Elongation elongated length— gaugelength +100: % elongation= gauge length gauge length=5.65,/A, 3A, =areaof cross —section Toughness: Capacity to absorb energy, measure of fracture resistance under impact. Area under the stress-strain curve is a measure of toughnessProperties of Structural Steel Two types of steel in India: (i) Standard Structural steel , (ii) Micro-alloyed medium /High strength steel Standard Structural Steel> Designated as Fe 410 (IS 2062) Characteristic yield strength for thickness <20mm > 250MPa for thickness 20-40 mm > 240 MPa for thickness > 40 mm > 230MPa Available in three grades Grade A > used for structures subjected to normal conditions Grade B > used for situations where severe fluctuations are there but temp > 0° C Grade C > may be used upto — 40°C and have high impact properties Modulus of Elasticity (E)= 2 105 N/mm? Shear Modulus (G) = 0.769 105 N/mm? Poission’s Ratio (j1) in elastic range = 0.3 in plastic rang Ka] Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = 12 10°/°C Classification Based on manufacturing process, Two types of Section: (i) Cold Formed Sections, (ii) Hot rolled Sections Cold formed sections: produced by steel strips (thickness < 8mm ) > Light in weight > used for smaller loads where hot rolled becomes un-economical Hot Rolled Sections > Simply called as Rolled Sections > more commonly used as structural steelRolled Sections Sections produced by hot rolling process in rolling mill, Due to hot-rolling > no loss of ductility In India available standard Sections as per IS 808:1989 are: Indian Standard Junior Beams Indian Standard Light-weight Beams Indian Standard Medium weight Beams Indian Standard Wide-Flange Beams Indian Standard Heavy weight Beams Indian Standard Column-Sections Indian Standard Junior Channels Indian Standard Junior Channels Indian Standard Light weight Channels Indian Standard Medium-weight Channels Indian Standard Angles Indian Standard Normal Tee-Sections Indian Standard Deep-Legged Tee-Sections Indian Standard Light weight Tee-Sections Indian Standard Medium-weight Tee-Sections (ISJB) (ISLB) (ISMB) (ISWB) (ISHB) (ISSC) (ISJC) (ISJC) (ISLC) (ISMC) (ISA) (ISNT) (ISDT) (ISLT) (ISMT)Flange, Flange. rn ae fe 7 ic Cr “ dq | t (a) Rolled beams = (b) Rolled channels (c) Angles (unequal) (d) Tees and columns ke 7 4 } { b—o o ‘Square hollow commas hollow: Circular hollow sections section (SHS) ‘sections (RHS) (e) Hollow sections (tubes) Co) ) |< 400 mm | Square Circular bars ,_. 900 mm —| © (@) Fiat (h) Plate Fig. 14 Rolled structural shapes and dimensionsLOADS (1i Dead Load; (ii) Live loads; (iii) Environmental loads DEAD LOADS (IS 875: Part I): (i) Due to gravity: acts in the direction of gravity (due to self weight) DL not known before design, so initially is assumed and later on is checked (ii) Superimposed loads: permanent loads (such as partition walls) LIVE LOADS (IS 875: Part IV): Loads which may change in position and magnitude (Furniture, equipments, occupants) Also some reduction in live loads are made for residential buildings. No. of floors carried by member % reduction of Live load on all floors above under consideration the member under consideration 1 0 2 10 3 20 4 30 5to 10 40 Over 10 50Impact Load: When a load is applied suddenly or load is in motion, Used for Lifts and Industrial buildings Frames supporting lifts and hoists 100 Foundations, footings, piers supporting lifts and hoisting apparatus 40 Light machinery shaft motor units 20 Reciprocating machinery or power units 50 Installed machinery 20 Earth pressure: Used for Underground structures such as basement, retaining walls Water current force: For piers and abutments Thermal Loads: due to Temperature variations, may be up to 25% of LL in bridges and Trusses Environmental Loads: Wind Loads Pressure, suction, uplift More for tall structures Design wind pressure at height ‘z’ above mean ground level, P = 0.6Vz2 (N/m2) Vz = Vy ky Ko ka k, > probability or risk factor, k, > terrine (height) factor, ks> topography factor Vp = basic design speed, increases with height (constant up 10 m from MGL) Wind Force: F=C,A,p, where C; = force coefficient for buildings depends on shape of structureBASIS FOR DESIGN Steel Structure are designed for + Integrity: lts constituent parts should constitute a stable and robust structure under normal loading and Columns must be anchored in two directions at right angles * Stability: Remain fit with adequate reliability and are able to sustain all actions + Durability: Not seriously damaged (collapse) under accidental events : Sway resistance is distributed throughout the building METHODS OF ANALYSIS Working Stress Method: An elastic method of design material behavior elastic + Based on concept that maximum probable stresses due to applied loads < permissible stresses + Permissible stress = Material strength (yield strength) / Factor of safety + Factor of safety is used (only to strength) to make structure safe + Factor of Safety accounts: — Overloading under certain circumstances — Secondary stresses due to fabrication, erection and thermal — Stress concentrations — Unpredictable natural calamities * Disadvantage: (i) only limited material capacity is used, (ii) no check at overloadingPlastic Method Steel > ductile material major portion of curve lies beyond the elastic limit (from the stress-strain curve) higher strength after elastic limit > called reserve strength > used in plastic design method Plastic method > based on failure conditions rather than working load conditions Structure> designed for collapse load rather than elastic loads > excessive deformations at collapse Design Load in plastic design (Collapse Load) = working loads _load factor At plastic stage> Plastic Hinge formation > infinite rotation > More P Hinges > Collapse of structure Since actual loads are less than design loads > Structure do not collapses Disadvantage: Design at ultimate loads only , no check for serviceability Limit State Method also known as load and resistance factor method overcomes the drawbacks of (i) Working stress and (ii) Plastic Design Limit State> a state beyond which the structure is unable to function satisfactorily Two major categories of limit states: limit state of strength> load carrying capacity (plastic strength, fracture, buckling, fatigue) limit state of serviceability > perform. of str at service load (deflection., durability, vibrations, fire, etc)Limit states of strength: * associated with failures (or imminent failure), under the action of probable and most unfavorable combination of loads on the structure using the appropriate partial safety factors, which may endanger the safety of life and property. It include: + Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or any of its parts or components + Loss of stability of the structure (including the effect of sway where appropriate and overturning) or any of its parts including supports and foundations. + Failure by excessive deformation, rupture of the structure or any of its parts or components, + Fracture due to fatigue, + Brittle fracture. Limit state of serviceability: + Deformation and deflections, which may adversely affect the appearance or effective use of the structure or may cause improper functioning of equipment or services or may cause damages to finishes and non-structural members. It includes: + Vibrations in the structure or any of its components causing discomfort to people, damages to the structure, its contents or which may limit its functional effectiveness. Special consideration shall be given to systems susceptible to vibration, such as large open floor areas free of partitions to ensure that such vibrations are acceptable for the intended use and occupancy (see Annex C). + Repairable damage or crack due to fatigue. * Corrosion and durability, + Fire.Objective of LSM design * structure not to become unfit for use with an acceptable target reliability OR + Very low probability to reach structure to LS during its lifetime In Limit state design method + Loads >Characteristic loads (loads with small probability exceeding this value) * Strength > Characteristic strength (strength with small probability less than this value) * Checks are made for serviceability + However, in the LSDM, Structures are designed using the ‘Design Strength’ and ‘Design Load’. + Design Load = Partial safety factors for load (y;) Charact. load + Design Strength = Charact. strength / Partial safety factors for material (7,,) Partial Safety Factor for Loads: + Partial safety factors are different for different load combinations: + DL+LL/CLcase for DL 1.5 for LUCL 1.5 + DL+LL/CL + WL/EL case for DL 1.2 for LUCL 1.2 for WL/EL 1.2 > DL+WL/ELcase forDL 1.5 (0.9) ---- for WL/EQ 1.5 + DL+ER case forDL 1.2 (0.9) forER1.2Design Strength + Design Strength, S,, is obtained as given below from ultimate strength, S, and partial safety factors for materials, 7,, given in Table 5 of code. Sa=Su/ Ym where partial safety factor for materials, y,, account for: + Possibility of unfavorable deviation of material strength from the characteristic value, + Possibility of unfavorable variation of member sizes, + Possibility of unfavorable reduction in member strength due to fabrication and tolerances, and + Uncertainty in the calculation of strength of the members.Introduction to riveted connections: + Riveted connections are obsolete + Rivet made up of round ductile material round bar called ‘shank’ * Classified based on head shape: ‘snap (common), ‘pan’, ‘flat countersunk’, ‘round countersunk’ + Diameter of shank > nominal diameter * Two types> Hot Driven and Cold Driven also shop rivets and Field Rivets Hot Driven Rivet + Rivets are first heated > increase in diameter > heated diameter > shank diameter > gross diameter + Oncooling> length of rivet reduces > joint becomes tighter, > Diameter of rivet reduces > some space remains between rivet and hole Cold Driven Rivet + Needs high pressure + Strength of cold driven rivets > hot driven rivets Rivet Pattern: * Chain Pattern; Staggered Pattern; Diamond Pattern; Staggered Diamond Design of Riveted Sections are Same as Bolted Connections, with following differences + In Case of Rivets, Diameter of Rivet = Diameter of Hole, + incase of Bolt , Diameter of bolt = nominal diameter of bolt + Design Stress of rivet > Design Stress of boltsBOLTED CONNECTION * Consists of bolt (shank with a head at one end and threaded at other end), nuts and washers. + Washers are used to: — Distribute the clamping pressure on bolted member, — to prevent the threaded portion + Ifthe section is subjected to vibrations > nuts are locked Advantages of Connections over Riveted connections: * Speedup erection of structure, + Needs less skilled persons * Overall cost of bolts less as compared to Rivet due to Reduction in labour and equipment cost Objections on use of bolts: * Cost of bolts > cost of rivet material + Tensile strength of bolt < tensile strength of rivet (due reduction in area of cross-section at root of thread) + May loose due to vibrations and shocksMethods of making Holes for bolts: (1) Drilling , (2) Punching simple: — saves time and cost but reduction in ductility and toughness — As per IS:800-2007 permits punching, only when * material yield stress < 360 MPA, * thickness < 5600/f, mm + If punching is to be used, holes are punched 2 mm less than required and 2 mmis drilled TYPES OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS: Classification On the basis of Resultant Force Transferred * Concentric> when load passes through CG of section (in case of axial loads) + Eccentric > load is away from CG of connection (such as in channels) + Moment resisting> joint subjected to moments (beam-column connection) * Classification On the basis of Type of Force: + Shear connection > Load is transferred through shear (lap joint, butt joint) * Tension connections > load transfer by tension on bolts (hanger connections) + Combined shear and tension connection> (inclined member connected to a bracket) (bracing connections)Types of Bolts: (1) Unfinished Bolts; — (2)High Strength bolts Unfinished bolts + Also known as Ordinary, rough or black bolts + Used for connecting light structures for static and secondary members (purlins, bracings, trusses etc) + Not suitable for vibrations and fatigue + Made from mild steel rods forged from low carbon steel + Heads are made square or hexagonal (costly but better appearance) + Available in 5 mm to 36 mm diameter designated as M5 to M36 * Instructural steel generally bolts used are M16, M20, M24 and M30 + Ratio of net tensile area / nominal plane shank = 0.78 (as per IS 1367) + InIS 800: above ratio is taken as 1.0 + Asper IS 800 > net tensile area is considered at root called stress area or proof area + Bolts are designated by i.g. 4.6 > Ultimate stress 400 MPa and yield stress 0.6x400 = 240 MPa + Not significant clamping stress is developed . Eotee is transferred through the interlocking and bearing > bearing type join/ Cotter pin Castellated nut Hole Ordinary (c) Locking nut by cotter pin hexagonal t ; (a) Bolt assembly head bolt Ordinary square head bolt Fig 4.3 Ordinary Bolts (o)N\ bolt shank a (a) Standard ) (¢ )Short Slot bolt shonk_f hote—r\ (d) Long slot Figure 8 Hole types for HSFG boltsRods with enlarged ends, called upset rods (shown in Figure 2-19), have been used to circumvent the problem of reduced cross-sectional area under the threads. The enlarged end is proportioned so that the strength at the threads is greater than the strength of the unthreaded body of the rod. The forging process used to create the enlarged end is expensive. Therefore, upset rods are less common in construction applications than they are in machine applications. FIGURE 2-19 Upset rod.High Strength Bolts Made from medium carbon heat-treated steel and from alloy steel * Tightened until they have very high tensile stress (twice ordinary bolts) + Load resisted at high stress > called proof load + Connected parts are clamped together Loads are transferred primarily by friction not by shear > called friction bolts to avoid slip> surfaces to be connected must be free from rust, paint, grease Better vibration and impact resistance Available in 5 mm to 36 mm diameter designated as M5 to M36 Commonly used grades of bolts are 8.8S, 10.9S (written at cap of bolt) — 8.8S (diameter < 16 mm) _ ult. Stress 800 MPa yield stress 640 MPa — 8.8S (diameter > 16mm) _ ult. Stress 830 MPa yield stress 660 MPa - 10.98 ult. Stress 1040 MPa yield stress 940 MPa Advantages of High strength bolts: No slip between elements connected > rigid joint >high strength of connection + No shearing and bearing failure + No stress concentration in the hole > more fatigue strength + Uniform tensile stress in bolt + No loosening in bolts + Less man power (compared to rivets) > cost saving + Less Noise nuisance + Less number of bolts are required as compared to rivetsTypes of bolted joints Two types: (i) Lap Joint, (ii) Butt Joint Lap Joints + Two members are overlapped and connected together * May be single bolted or two bolted joint + Loading axis of members do not match > Load is eccentric > uneven stress distribution + Bending of joint > couple is formed > bolt may fail in tension > at least two bolts must be use Butt Joint + Members are placed end to end + Cover plates are provided in two ways > (i) single cover plate butt jt. (ii) Double cover plate butt jt. + Double cover plate joints better than lap joint since: — SF in double cover plate = (1/2) of SF in lap joint — Shear strength of double cover plate = 2 x Shear strength of Lap joint — In double cover plate joint > no bending(c) Double bolted lap joint (d) Eccentricity in lap jointoo00 oo000 (d) Single-cover single bolted butt joint «HF (g) Single-cover double bolted (h) Double-cover single bolted butt joint butt joint Table Contd.Table Contd. e000 e000 ooo 0 e000 e000 oooe ES ~ SHEE (i) Double-cover single (j) Double-cover double bolted butt joint bolted butt joint ameapemal =P <—-P (k) Lap joint, bolt in single shear (|) Butt joint, bolt in double shear Fig. 46 Zypes of bolted jointsFailure of Bolted Joints: Six-types of failures: (i) Shear failure of bolt, * Occurs when shear stress in bolt > Nominal shear stress Shear failure : Two types > (i) Single shear Failure > shear failure at one section of bolt > occurs in case of Lap joint, (ii) Double Shear Failure > shear failure at two sections of bolt > occurs in case of Butt joint (ii)) Bearing Failure of bolt and (iii) Bearing Failure of Plate + Ingeneral, transfer of force in connecting parts > through bearing action * half circumference of plate in contact with bolt get crushed (plate weaker than bolt) * half circumference of bolt in contact with plate get crushed (bolt weaker than plate) * or partially both plate and bolt are get crushed (iv) Tension Failure of bolt + If bolt in Tension and Tensile stress in bolt > Permissible stress >Tension Failure at root of thread (weak)T+ Bearing stresses - Figure 13 Bearing connection(Vv) Tension or Tearing Rupture failure of plates + Inplates, holes in plate for connection > Reduction in net effective area of plate > Tension Failure of Plate * Tension Failure of Plate may be prevented by > (i) fewer holes, (ii) staggered holes + Plate breaks along the bolt line (vi) Shear Failure of Plate * Due to insufficient end distance (distance from end of plate from center of nearest hole measured along force direction) * portion of plate of width equal to diameter of hole is sheared * to prevent shear failure > provide enough end distance (vi) Block Failure > + Acombination of shear failure and Tension Failure + Aportion of plate (block) shears along the force directionSingle shear Double shear (a) Shearing at bolt shank Crushing Crushin« —_— — _— — (b) Bearing on plate and bolt (©) Shear tear-out of plate Gusset plate Failure O° __, Gusset plate £ oo — — Tension member Tension member (4) Tension failure of plate (€) Block shear faiture Fia. 4.7 Failure modes of bolted jointsPitch: C/C distance between individual fasteners (bolts) in a line/ rows (measured parallel to load/stress)- p + If bolts are in zig-zag pattern > distance measured parallel to direction of load/stress > staggered pitch- p, —= End distance’ Line/row v. [Base distance Gauge: distance between adjacent gauge (bolt) lines (measured perpendicular to force) Limitations on Pitch: + Minimum Pitch: + Pitch * 2.5 x nominal diameter of bolt > called Minimum pitch * Pitch * minimum pitch due to following reasons: + To prevent bearing failure between two bolts «for sufficient space to tight the bolts * to avoid overlapping of washers + to avoid tear-out of plate (between bolts in a roughMaximum Pitch: In Tension Members: Pitch # 16t or 200 mm, whichever is less (where t = thickness of thinner plate) In compression members: Pitch #12t or 200 mm, whichever is less, (where t = thickness of thinner plate) In compression members, where forces are transmitted through the butting facing: Pitch 4.5d } for a distance of 1.5xb from the butting faces, where b= width of member Pitch for edge row of the outside plate #(100 mm + 4t) or 200 mm, whichever is less If bolts are staggered at equal interval and gauge $75 mm, > pitch for tension and compression members may be increased by 50% provided Pitch 32t or 300 mm Pitch + Maximum Pitch due to following reasons: To reduce the length of connection and gusset plate>to have compact joint For Long joints (> 15x diameter of bolt) > end bolts are stressed more > progressive joint failure — called unbuttoning Unbuttoning is controlled by limiting the maximum pitch In case of built-up compression member joints > buckling of cover plates In case of built-up Tension Member joint > connected plates apt (tends) to gap apart (from cover plate in transverse direction)+ Edge Distance: + Distance from center of any (extreme) bolt hole to edge of plate (measured perp. to load direction) + End Distance: + C/C distance of bolt holes to the edge of an element (measured along load direction) + Minimum Edge Distance and Minimum end distance (book table is given for up to 32 mm dia) - < 1.7 hole diameter > in case of sheared or hand-flame cut edges (uneven) -¢ 1.5 hole diameter > in case of rolled, machine-flame cut, sawn(saw) & planed (plane) edges If Edge distance < mini. Edge distance and End distance < mini. end distance: + Plate may fail in tension . Stee! of plate opposite the hole may bulge out (in direction perp to load) > crac Hole Diameter: + Hole diameter = Nominal diameter of bolt + clearance + For nominal diameter from 12 mm to 14 mm > clearance = 1.0 mm + For nominal diameter from 16 mm to 24 mm > clearance = 2.0 mm + For nominal diameter > 24 mm > clearance = 3.0 mmMaximum Edge Distance + Edge distance to the nearest line of fasteners from an edge of any un- stiffened part #12t¢, where e=,/250/ f, and t= thickness of the thinner outer plate. + Above is valid for fasteners interconnecting the components of back to back tension members. + Where members are exposed to corrosive influences, edge distance + (40 mm+4t), (t=thick. of thinner plate) If Edge distance > maximum edge distance + Edges may separate > Moisture may reach between parts > Corrosion problem in jointt : : ? ? t : ? i Edge distance tH — || |<—>| End Pitch distance End distance (a) Double-cover butt joint Fig. LT 5 & 1 3 | —>T i Gauge 2 5 J 2 Gauge \__: = (short direction) Ko 2 eH —>p (b) Lap joint with wide plates 48 Spacing of bolt holesBearing Type Connections (in case of un-finished or ordinary bolts): + Load transferred > friction resistance > bearing action + Bolts in Bearing type connection are checked for (i) shear, and (ii) bearing Load to betransferred No.of bolts required = - Strength of one bolt Since single bolt may fail and result in collapse > Minimum no. of = 2 or 3 Strength Bolt Strength of bolt = Minimum of (i) Strength of bolt in bearing, and (ii) Strength of bolt in shearing Strength of bolt connection = strength of one bolt x no. of bolts Strength of joint = Minimum of (i) strength of bolt or bolt group, and (ii) net tensile Strength of plate Note: Bearing plane is considered in the threaded portion for safe design (since bolts may be put in both ways)Determination of Shearing Strength of Bolt: Shear strength of bolt depends on (i) Ult. tensile strength of bolt, fy, (ii) No. of shear planes with threads, n,, (iii) No. of shear planes without threads (shanks), n, (iv) Nominal area of shank, A,,, (v) Net stress area of bolt A, Shear capacity of bolt, Visb = eo (a nb * Ms Ay. Reduction factor in shear for Long Joints If the length of joint > 15d > Long Section If the section is long > Stress in outer bolts > inner bolts. > Need to apply Reduction factor (pj) fi, accounts for overloading of the end bolts I py=bors.{ 2] but 0.75 Bj = 1Tin Bolts T - Tensile force n- number of bolts tr (a) Bearing-type (b) Assumed shear (c) Actual shear distribution connection distribution (rigid plates) (elastic plates) Fig. 4.9. Shear distribution in a@ long bolted connectionReduction factor in shear for Large grip length (i.e. more thickness of plates) more thickness of plates> more grip length of bolt > More Bending Moment in Section For the safe design > Need to apply a reduction factor for large grip length (B,.) If total thickness of the connected plates > 5xnominal diameter of the bolt > more grip length > Use Big DG and pi, $B, Reduction factor for packing Plates If packing plate thickness > 6 mm > bending is developed in shank Need to apply a reduction factor in shear capacity (Bpxg) Bing = (0.0125 1 where txg = thickness of packing plate Dkg Nominal Strength of Joint Fig. Ex. 4.6 The nominal shear strength of the bolt taking in to account reduction factors Sub so GA Acs Bi Be BaFactor of Safety of material (y,,,,) For safety of joint in shear, a factor of safety for material is used (y,,,) — Vaso — Sub sb Yn AB Y ny A. . "s4sb db Pe Pri where y,,, = partial safety factor of material of bolt = 1.25 For 4.6 grade bolt, f, = 400 MPa 400 + “Bam mss pi Pa 8 ae p7 184.75 GA tn A, Bi Pu Bou V,, = 184.75 A, By Bre Borg yt” sb Where, A,= CA, b =2x GA,» nA, for bolts in Double shear For normal bolts and members > threads are excluded, if considered > very conservative design +n, A sb for bolts in sin gle shearTable Cond. o f° cope. cio | i, a) Jeciee| ty ej} cofoo (0 Double-cover single (i) Double-cover double bolted butt joint bolted but joint pe +p GLb UL P ep 2-4 5 p+ 3 PrtP bore ri? 2 pots a fio {K) Lap joint, bol in single shear (\) Butt joint, bolt in double shear Fia, 48 Mvves of bolted foints f i = Single shear Double shear (a) Shearing at bolt shankBearing Strength (Capacity) of bolt Due to Bearing > hole elongates > Due to Excessive bearing > tearing of plate To avoiding excessive elongation of hole > Bearing stress not greater than Nominal bearing strength of bolt Nominal bearing strength of bolt = projected bearing area x ultimate Tensile stress Vapp = 2-Skyd tf, Failure surface ~ Where, k, =smaller of {B-oasl fe and 10 O a" Ba, Poh ; Failure surface 7 d = nominal diameter of bolt; Fig. 4.10 Failure in excessive diameter of hole bearing—end shear Pp = pitch of the bolt (along bearing direction); fear-out e = end distance of the bolt (along bearing direction) fy» = ult tensile stress of bolt; f, = ult. Tensile stress of plate t= total thickness of the connected plates subjected to bearing stressing inthe same direction in case of countersunk bolts > t = plate thickness — (1/2) x depth of counter sunk For safety of joint: need to use a Factor of safety, ¥n, ¥mb = 1.25 Vipb Si VS => V,,$2.5k, dt Tmo YnbTensile Strength of Plate Net Area, A,=@-—nd, ¢ at (for chain bolting) Net Area, A, =| B—nd, ge Ps hee (for staggered bolting) ma Tensile strength of plate, T,, =0. oA, fe ; oo ; Fn -_ > Where, f, = ultimate stress in MPa; = A, = net effective area in mm? Frecore, Hektor bnte Ym1 = partial safety factor = 1.25 me x ea Strength and Efficiency of Joint Strength of bolted joint = minimum of (strength of connection based on (i) shear, ple (ii) bearing , ili) strength of main mem! Efficiency of connection es 9} in, mer ME ed Joint per pitch length 100 = Strength of solid plate @ithout deductions for holes per pitch length ©(a) Chain bolting (b) Staggered bolting Pla P24} (© Pitch and gauge Fig. 4.11 Net-section of bolted plateTension Capacity of bolt If the bolts are subjected to tension > Tensile stress in bolt Tensile strength of bolt Tensile of bolt is checked in (i) Shank zone as well as in (ii) threaded zone T,= 0.9fA,, @ threaded zone > Tan 5 7, c09 fab Ars mb Ynb For bolt to be safe in tension, Tension force in bolt, Ty, Also the bearing strength is to be checked shank zone T,, < f,, Ay, (“) @ shank zone | ‘a0 Where, ult tensile stress of bolt; yo = yield stress of bolt \ qT, T, \ Anp = net tensile stress area of bolt; uty pty Agp = shank area of bolt Ym» = Partial safety factor for bolt material = 1.25 | Ymo = partial safety factor for bolt material ‘Genesis governed by yielding= 1.10 { =2T, T,=2T, Fig. 414 Hanger connectionBolt subjected to combined shear and tension Tee-section for connection bracing T= Force in bracing T |<-I-Section column Fig. 4.12 Connection subjected to shear and tension 2 2 [%) (2) <1 Van Tw V,, = factored shear force on bolt; T, = factored Tensile force on bolt; Vip = design shear capacity Tap = design Tension capacityExample: Two plates are connected by single bolted double cover butt joint using M20 bolts at 60 mm pitch: steel grade 410 MPa and bolts 4.6 grade; Calculate bolt efficiency NEO me 4-mrm-thick cover plates emmy 7 Assume bolt pitch = 60 mm End distance = 30 mm Strength of M20 bolt in shear For M20 bolts > Diameter of bolt = 20 mm > Diameter of bolt hole = 22 mm For Fe 410 Grade steel> Net Tensile Stress area = 245 mm? (from Table 4.3 of TB) For Fe 410 Grade steel > ult strength f, = 410 MPa For 4.6 grade bolt > ult strength of bolt, f,, = 400 MPa Partial safety factor for bolt materiel ~ = 1.25 “; ‘bolt in shea - “a Strength of bok in shear V,., =i A Any +",Ayy Bi Be Br Since, there is only one line of bolts > % question of overloading >= 1 Since thickness of plates to be connected < 5 nominal dai of bolt i.e.5 20 mm>B,, = 1 Since, size of connecting plates is equal > no packing plate > fi. = 1 f “ ib Strength of bolt in shear Vis sa ith io Ano *f ub. Strength of bolt in shear V. = Fa mi nny + nAy. Due to double cover butt joint > The bolt will be in double shear, Assuming, both the shear planes in net area section > n, = 2, n,=0,A,, = 157 mm? Sub Sup > Sub x Sun pote (4,44 Ay, > me ,,+04,,37, G04, 5 ys 40 =2x245x 209 __o0 53K b 25x Strength of M20 bolt in bearing Where,k, =smaler of |, 1-2 —0.25|, J and 1.0 3d, 3d, uw d = nominal diameter of bolt = 20 mm ; dy = diameter of hole = 22 mm = pitch of the bolt = 60 mm; e = end distance of the bolt = 30 mm fy = ult tensile stress of bolt = 400 MPa; f, = ult. Tensile stress of plate = 410 MPa t = minimum of (thickness of the connected plates, Sum of cover plates) >6 mm Where, k,, = smaller of (3 { 60 02s}, * and 10) 3x22" [3x22 =Smallerof @.454, 0.659, 0.975, 1.0 +0.454_ 2.5k,dtf, _2.5x0.454x20x6x400 Pan 1.25 Strength of bolt = Minimum of strength bolt in shear and in bearing = minimum of (90.53 KN and 43.58 kN) = 43.58 kN V, =43.58kN Determination of Strength joint per pitch length Strength of plate per pitch length in Tension Tensile strength of plate, T,, =0.9 A, fu 209 ¢@ -dp ie Yn Ym =0.9x 60-22 6x28 =67.3kN 1,25 Strength of joint per pitch length = Minimum of (strength bolt, strength of plate) = minimum of (43.58KkN, 67.3 kN) = 43.58 kN Strength of solid plate per pitch length in Tension i 410 Tensile strength of plate, T,,, =0.9 A, fu = 0.960% 6x55 = =106.27KN Uoa=rarsa fy Strength of joint per pitch length, 43.58 aeaerccaeeaeeeeeeee i % Efficiency of join= = . = = Strength of solid plate per pitch length 106.27ooo0o°o oooo°o <—l os | ]— (i) Double-cover single bolted butt jointExample: In previous example, find the efficiency of joint if joint have two lines (j) Double-cover double bolted butt joint Shear strength of bolts = 2 90.53 kN = 181.06 kN Bearing strength of bolts =2 43.58 KN = 87.16 kN Strength of plate = same as in one line case = 67.3 KN Strength of joint = Minimum of above three = 67.3 kN Strength of solid plate = 106.27 kN ) Efficiency of join 273. 63.3% 106.27Slip Critical Connections At service loads > load < Friction resistance > No significant slip Large Member force or when connection length limited > slip > bearing action To avoid bearing action > High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts most suitable > Joint with HSFG bolts > called slip resistant connection At service loads> No slip > behave as Slip resistant connection At ultimate loads > Slip develops > Bearing > Bearing type connection As the load go on increasing > Slip occurs at particular load called critical load > Connection is called slip critical Connection In Bridges > Loading & unloading > fatigue >Slip critical connections not good > use slip resistant connection Theoretically, at service loads > In slip critical connections > No Slip > Load transfer by Friction only (i.e. no shear, no bearing) In practice, > Slip occurs > Slip Critical connections are designed for bearing also Principal of HSFG Bolts Bolts dia > Bolt dia > bolt not fills complete hole No bearing and shearing at loads < slip critical loads Since, In the tightened to a very high load > 90% of proof load Bolts > Initially load is transferred by > ) Friction action (load Friction resistance > Load is transferred by (i) shear and (ii) bearing actions Gap between shank and hole > At No Slip stage shearing load transfer by Friction only Friction force developed depends (i) Tension in bolt and (ii) Friction Coeff. between plate and nut/washerDesign of HSFG Bolts Horizontal Friction Resistance, F=,T Where,T =TensioninBolt and 1, =slip factor Types of HSFG bolt connections: HSFG Parallel Shank bolts > no slip at service loads but may slip at ultimate load > Slip critical connections HSFG Waisted Shank bolts > No slip at service as well as at ultimate loads > Slip resistant connections a 8 8 |p on gross section Failure i on net section a 4) Load transfer by { bearing + shear 200 —Maior slip 3 100 | Load transfer by & friction Average bolt shear (N/mm’) ° ° 5 10 15 20 25 Deformation over a (mm) Fig. 4.13 Behaviour of friction-type connectionShear Connections with HSFG Bolts Slip Resistance, V,; =H, n, K, F, n, = number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to slip 1.0 for fasteners in clearance holes (gap is there) = 0.85 for fasteners in oversized and short slotted holes and for fasteners in the long slotted holes loaded perpendicular to slot = 0.7 for fasteners in long slotted holes loaded parallel to the slot. F, = minimum bolt tension (proof load) at installation ( = A,, f,) Aj» = net area of bolt at the threads; f, = proof stress (= 0.70 f,,), where f,,, = ultimate stress of bolt. Design Slip Resistance, Vy = Vo en. Ky By Ying Ving Ving = 1.10 (if slip resistance is designed at service load) Ym = 1-25 (if slip resistance is designed at ultimate load) Correction For Long Joint The above determined load is to be multiplied by long joint correction factor 1 B, =1.075- (zaha] but 0.75 slip takes place > Need to check the strength of connection due to bearing at ult. Load In the same way as in case of black bolts. Tensile Strength of HSFG Bolts Same as for black bolts denoted as T,; Combined Shear and Tension For Slip Critical Connections tal (e) ate Vu Ty V, = applied factored shear force at design load; T, = externally applied factored Tensile force at design load Vag; = design shear strength Ta; = design Tensile strengthPrying Action When a channel section, with flexible flanges (in tension), is connected to roof > flange bends > the CG of the compressive stress (prestress) in the plate shifts towards the end > additional force in bolt> called Prying force fee, = extemal tactored tensile force applied f, one bolt Q = Proging force corresponding 1 to one bot T, = Factored tensile ar, + T =Total force in the bolt (7, + Q) force in the hanger ar, =2T, (a) Fabricated Tee-section (0) Fabricated Toe-section 1227, Fig, 414 Hanger connection Fig. 418 Pprng action (neglecting Second terminbraket) Prying force is given as, on b|4 Pry than veal, ont Prd) Tb (ieplecting Second rerminbraket) T=T,+0 9 Where, |, = distance from bolt center-line of bolt to the = |=} (i) toe of the fillet weld or (ii) half the root radius for the rolled section (Fig) distance between prying force and bolt center-line which is taken minimum of (i) end distance and (ii) 1.1? /f B= 1 for pre-tensioned bolts, 2 for non-pre-tensioned bolts, y = 1.5 for Limit State Design; b, = effective width of flange; fo = proof stress; t= thickness of end plate, To minimise the Prying Force: + Use fully tensioned bolts (i.e. applied tensile force in the plate pre-stress in the plate) + Use thick plate or stiffened the plate + Limit the distance between bolt and plate edge Design of Connection Subjected to Prying Force Based on Trial and error > Since the prying force depends on section thickness and no. of bolts (controls the edge distance) Based on plastic analysis, the thickness of the end plate may be determined as Lo A Jets e 4} T= Total force inthe bolt (7, +.) ar,PIN CONNECTIONS Fork end bar Qo Collar Fig 418 Bars connected with a pin Provided where rotations are allowed For satisfactory function > minimum friction is required Pinned connections make the structure determinate Large force > since only one pine is provided rather than more as in case of bolts Pins are available in diameter 9 m to 330 mm Pins application: (i) Tie Rod (ii) Diagonal bracings in beams and columns (iii) Truss Strength of Pined Connections Shear Capacity: (a) If no rotation is required and the pin is not intended to be removed; Shear capacity = 0.6 fy, A (b) If rotation is required or the pin is intended to be removed; Shear capacity = 0.5 f,, A Where, f,, = design strength of pin, A= Cross-sectional area of pinBearing Capacity (a) If no rotation is required and the pin is not intended to be removed; Bearing capacity = 1.5 f, dt (b) If rotation is required or the pin is intended to be removed; Bearing capacity = 0.8 f,dt Where, f, = lower of design strength of pin and connected part, d = diameter of pin; t= thickness of plate Flexural Capacity of Pin There is gap between the connected members due to following reasons: (i) To prevent friction (ii) To allow bolt heads if built-up connection (iii) To facilitate painting (a) If no rotation is required and the pin is not intended to be removed; Moment capacity = 1.5 fp, Z (b) If rotation is required or the pin is intended to be removed; Moment capacity = 0.8 f,, Z Where Z = Section modulus of pin Note: Flexure is more critical > Pin diameter is generally governed by Flexure “ = d=) 2133 Sy 3 If pin is cylindrical, M,=1.5f,,Z => M,=15 f,, =— ypWELDED CONNECTIONS two pieces of metal >connected by heating them to a plastic or fluid state called fusion Welding process > two types > Electric welding, (ii) Gas Welding — Electrode Extruded Welding machine ac or de . cooling power source and controls / Electrode holder Molten poo! / / Electrode { [| thes Ground cable ~ Electrode cable Fig. 84° Metal arc welding Assumptions in Welded Joints Welded are homogeneous, isotropic and elastic Welds are rigid and no deformation with-in welds. No residual stresses in welds (due welding processAdvantages of welded connections over bolted connections: + No deductions for hole > gross section is effective > More efficient use of material «small size of gusset plates > more compact joint + Economical due to saving in time in preparing drawings and fabrication + Fast speed of fabrication and erection + No connecting plates > Less weight of structure > economical + Better for fatigue, impact and vibrations (earlier it was assumed not good in fatigue) + Produces rigid connection > produce one piece Construction > less deformation * requires less depth of beam reduced overall ht of building + Less noise pollution + Watertight / airtight connections > good for liquid/gas storage tanks + Avoids problem of hole alignment + Needs power supply at site Disadvantages of welded Joints: + Needs skilled labour + Needs costly equipments + Difficult to inspect the joints > needs NDT testing methods such as Magnetic particle method, dye penetration method, ultrasonic method, radiography + Welded joints if over rigid (than members) may fail in fatigue > cracking in membersTypes of Welded Connections Welds classification based weld procedure (i) Fillet weld, (ii) butt or groove weld (iii) plug weld (iv) slot weld classification based on its location (i) flat weld; (ii) horizontal weld(iii) Vertical weld (iv) overhead weld Welds classification based on type of joint (i) butt welded joint (ii) lap welded joint (iii) Tee Welded joint (iv) corner welded ‘Hs cwee eee Groove welds Fillet welds A A A A tL _t h 4 tw oF, Section A-A Section A-A Plug weld ShavedHorizontal Tee fillet Flat butt weld fillet Fig. 51 Zypes and positions of weldsButt Joints +Used when members to be joined are in a line or aligned in the same plane «Needs edge preparation> costly and time consuming -The grooves have a slope of 30 -60° +If two plates are of different thicknesses > thicker plate is made thin near joint Size of weld (effective throat) Fusion zone | Face of i, 2s Face | Neal Reinforcement: <> reinforcement | / Overlap Toe of _ J->| |< (undesirable) Throat weld ST | mm \ ee Weld size vl aa Sl Fig. 5.6 Groove weld Foot Ff _ * Root face Feinforcement” | | eset opening Teper not exceeding Taper not exceeding 1 in S tins 1 5 Weld] @ © Reinforcement: Butt welding of parts of unequal thickness and/or unequal width «makes the butt joint stronger under static load *Smoothen the flow of forces concentration develops in case of fatigue loads > leading to cracking and early. *Not greater than 0.75 mm to 3 mm Extra reinforcement removed by machineTypes of Butt (groove) Welds: (i) Single and double square (ii) Single and double V (iii & iv) Single and double Bevel (v & vi) Single and double U (vii & viii) single and double J Incomplete penetration welds :- single V, single bevel, Incomplete penetration > stress concentration > Complete penetration is better than incomplete one Square welds: Easy but are used for plate up to 8 mm thickness only f+ £\F3 Square Single-V fa) (b) f¥3 £13 Single bevel Double bevel @) (e) Double-U Single-J (9) (h) Fig. 11.4 Types of groove weldsFillet Joints: sused to joint two members in different planes > lap joints -Easy to make +Needs less material preparation *High stress concentration For given amount of weld > flat welds are poor than butt welds *flat welds more common than butt (groove ) welds Types of Fillet Welds Triangular in shape: when two perpendicular members are connected and in lap joints May be (i) Concave or (ii) Convex, (iii) Mitre Surface not | | in tension (\_ Surface in \ A tension InN. Convex Concave Mitre Fig. 53 Types of fillet weld Lap Joints Advantage of lap joints> plates with different thicknesses can be joined Drawback of a lap joint > introduces some eccentricity of loads (May be avoided if double lap joint is used)Gusset plate 4 Angle Channel fa) (b) ee teean Gusset Plate wef] | (a) (} Welded Lap Joints AL LL Fillet weld T-Joints— J Fillet weld on an Bevel-groove V-groove Bevel-groove inside comer inside comer outside corner outside comer (no preparation) Defects in Welds Lack of fusion Incomplete 1 cack of tsion penetration { 4 | F Cincompiete Root-lace penetration (@) (b) Slag inclusioDESIGN OF BUTT JOINTS Forces in butt joints:- (i) Axial: > Tension or Compression), and (ii) shear if any Design Specifications Reinforcement: Extra weld metal (above the plate level) Reinforcement is required: > to avoid error in thickness of weld > to increase in static load capacity > increase in efficiency of joint Reinforcement thickness > at least 10% of plate thickness but not more than 3 mm > Reinforcement is made at the time of welding > later they are dressed flush > Reinforcement is ignored in calculation Reinforcement is not provided in case of vibrations and impact > to avoid failure due to stress concentration Size of Groove weld Size of groove weld = size of throat > called effective throat thickness (t,) In case of complete penetration of the groove weld > Throat dimensions = thickness of thinner member Effective Throat thickness = 7/8 of thickness of thinner member In calculation, Effective Throat thickness = 5/8 of thickness of thinner member Effective area of weld: > Effective area of weld = Throat thickness (t,) = effective length of weld (Ly) (measured along wiath) Effective length of weld = length over which required size of weld is doneDesign Strength Design Strength of groove weld in tension/compression Lt, ry ol Yinw {, = smaller of ULTIMATE stress of weld (fyw) and parent material (fy) L, = effective length of weld in mm t, = effective throat thickness of throat in mm Ymw = Partial safety factor = 1.25 for shop weld and 1.5 for site weld Design Strength of groove weld in shear vit Lay Le vy, = fol Yinw fyi = Smaller of yield stress of weld (Fyy/V3) and parent material (f/y3) Design Procedure: In Case of Complete penetration > weld strength = member strength > no calculation required In case of incomplete penetration > determine throat thickness > calculate length required to develop strength of weld equal to member strengthDesign of Fillet Weld Used when two members overlap each other Stresses developed > (i) Direct stress Minor (ii) Shear stress > Major Two more widely used fillet weld shapes > concave and convex (mitre not common) Concave weld > less penetration than convex > smaller throat (than convex) > on cooling > outer face in tension > cracks > Not Good Convex welds > More penetration > Large throat > convex weld stronger > on cooling > Compression in outer face due to shrinkage > Good Note: If concave welds are desired > in first pass they are made cnnvex and in second concave | Surface not A in tension ( Surface in tension Concave ConvexSize of Fillet welds Weld size = minimum leg length of weld Leg length = distance from the root to the toe of fillet weld Leg lengths are measured along the largest right angle triangle inscribed within weld Throat size > perpendicular distance Size of weld > (i) equal and (ii) unequal Equal is preferred In some circumstances > unequal is used to increase the throat size (hence strength) (in butt angle connected to plate where thickness of weld on angle is limited) Weld Size Specifications Thicker plates > Heat dissipation in horizontally as well as vertically > Lesser fusion depth due to high heat dissipation > Need to limit the maximum thickness of plate Thin Plates: Heat dissipation mostly along horizontally > Lesser depth may be sufficientMaximum Size of weld To avoid the melting of base material If plate thickness < 6 mm > Max Size of weld = Thickness 0 plate If plate thickness > 6 mm > Max size of weld Aithick. of thinner member — 1.5 mm) (to avoid over stressing of weld at ends) Max size of weld for round toes Aiaia) thickness of toe thickness @ Fig. 11.17 Sie of filet welds Minimum Size of weld In a thick member, Small size of weld > no proper bond between weld and member Thickness of Thicker member Minimum Weld size (as per |S 800) 0-10 mm 3mm 10- 20mm Smm 20 - 32mm 6mm 32- 50mm 8 in first run finally 10 mm Also Minimum weld size # thickness of thinner member Generally minimum size of weld is preferred due to following reasons: Only one run is required (more the size > needs more than one runs such as in plates of thick > 32 mm) Less weld size — cheaperEffective Throat Thickness Shortest distance from root of fillet to the face line of weld i.e perpendicular distance Effective throat thickness = K Size of weld =KS In equal welds , K = 0.707 > size of weld = 0.707 S For other angles K is given as Angle between fusion faces 60°- 90° 919- 100° 101° — 106° 1079- 113° 114°- 120° K 0.70 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 Effective thickness of throat x3 mm 0.7 x thickness of thinner member x thickness of thinner member in spl circumstances ‘Fusion zone ' hroat SS =07078 “ Face a Leg size wot lw oI Increased effective T ec = 1.262 /™ “| | Fi 2ero (b) Throat increased by 26% (c) Throat increased by 26% ‘Area increased by 100% Area increased by 59% Increased effective throat = 1.262 Added weld Added weld cla “metal oe IEnd return Effective Length of Weld Effective length of weld = Overall length of weld - 2S = Actual length of weld 4S jt ( Slots in Welds In the Tension/compression members, if / Stress concentration at ends To avoid, this stress concentration, Code puts limit on length /as Distance of longitudinal fillet welds } 6xthickness of thinner member If above condition is not satisfied, slots are made in plate These slots are welded by welding of same strength as longitudinal weld Some times slots are made to increase the length of weld If slots are made, they need to be cheeked just behind the weld for failure wae Section AA Section BB Fig SI2_Disibution of stress in side-welded tension bar with and without slotCorrection for Long Welds If length of weld > 150 x throat size of weld > reduction in weld strength pain <1.0 where, |j = length of joint and tt throat size of weld 1502, Effective Area = Effective length of weld Effective throat size of weld Overlap of plate in lap joints: 4xthickness of thinner plate or 40 mm whichever less Transverse spacing of welds Length of weld on either side &X Transverse spacing of welds ws t6t ‘Weld both ‘orbetween ends [eat] or 40 mm Lap joints Flat bar to gusset plateDesign Strength of Weld Design Strength of Fillet Weld (in tension or shear): atin =“ Where, f,,, = nominal strength of weld Design stress of fillet weld, f, wd Design strength of weld, P,,=L,t, f,,, =Lyt, fs L,KS J NB Paw VB Yo L, = effective length, t, = throat thickness, S = Size of weld ; f, = smaller of ult strength of weld and parent material ‘YImw = Partial safety factor = 1.25 for shop weld and 1.5 for site weld Design Steps Weld may be subjected to axial load shear > Shear critical > shear controls the design Assume size of weld based on thickness of member Determine length of weld = force transmitted / strength of weld Length of weld is provided in sides and should not be less than |, Also provide end returns of length equal to 2S If length of weld > 150 t, > apply length correction Commonly weld is provided on all three sides (in this case no need to check transverse spacing)Example on Butt or Groove WeldExample on Fillet Weld : Design a connection to joint two plates of size 250 x 12 mm of grade Fe 410, to mobilize full plate tensile strength using shop fillet welds, using (i) a double cover butt joint with 8mm cover plate (ii) lap joint (i) Connection using Double cover plate Butt joint Assume width of cover plate = 250 - 2 x 15 = 220 mm Area of cover plate = 220 x 8 = 1760 mm? Required area of cover plate = 1.05 x 250 x 12/2 = 1575 mm? < 1760 mm? For the 8 mm thick plate well size between 3 and 8 mm > Let us use a 5 mm fillet weld Strength of the 5-mm weld = 410/(V3_ 1.25) x 0.7 x 5= 661.5 Nimm Required length of weld = 681.82 x 1000/661.5 = 1031 mm, say 1040 mm Length of the connection = [(1040 - 2 x 220)/4] x 2 = 300 mm < 150 t,i.e. 150 x0.7x8 > Joint is not a long joint Hence, provide two cover plates of size 300 x 220 mm Pasa(ii) Connection using lap joint (large force) _250x @50x127 1 egy, 82kN Y mo Ll 1000 Minimum = 5 mm ( from Table) Maximum = 12 - 1.5 = 10.5 (clause 10.5.8.1 of IS 800) Assuming weld size s = 8 mm (in order to reduce the connection length not taken minimum) f, ks _410@7x8> 1 Plate strength = strength of weld = ~.—=—= = —— =1058 N/mm V3 ¥0 V3 1.25 — 1000 Required length of weld = SOO 4 mm say 650mm om Weld length available at end = 150 mm “ LL paso ta Length of weld on one side e = (650 - 150)/2 = 250 mm sls 3 £ < 150x 0.7 x8 = 840 mm ¢ > not a long joint (ant OK 1 aftExample on lap joint (limited force) Determine the size and length of the site fillet weld for the lap joint to transmit a factored load of 120 KN through a 8mm thick and 75 mm wide plate. Steel Fe 410 Solution Minimum size of weld for a 8-mm thick section = 3 mm Maximum size of weld = 8 - 1.5 = 6.5mm Choose the size of weld as 6 mm (in order to reduce the connection length) Effective throat thickness = ks = 0.7 x 6 = 4.2 mm f ~ strength of weld wefy ts M0 @7x6, 662.7 N/mm V3 Yn V3 15 1000 3 Required length of weld eee =181lmm 162.7 p— E41 Assuming that there are only two longitudinal (side) welds, 8" ims Length to be provided on each side = 181/2=90.5mm>75mm OK Hence, provide 95 mm weld on each side : 4 with an end return of 2si.e.2 6 = 12mm. —/ H Therefore, the overall length of the weld provided vaokN = 2x (90.5 +2x 6) =205mmAlternative solutions: Minimum size of weld for a 8 mm thick section = 3 mm. Maximum size of weld = 8 - 1.5 = 6.5mm Let us choose the size of weld as minimum specified i.e. 3 mm f fj ~ Ay ks 410 073.4 NV 331.4 N/mm V3 Ym V3 1.5 ~ 1000 120x10° strength of weld = Required length of weld = = 362.1 mm say 363mm Two possible solutions are shown in Figure (i) If only longitudinal welds are provided, Length of each side weld = 363/2 = 181.5 mm Total length on each side including end return = 181.5 + 2 x 3 = 187.5 mm (ii) If welds are provided on three sides E41 E41 Length of each side weld ome oat = (363 - 75)/2 = 144 mm > 75 mm (width of the plate) OK aren i L y ‘ 2018 01 This solution is preferred since ! > connection is more compact . eat . G > provides better stress distribution Selsion 1 sotng VI @ oFillet Weld for Truss Members: The weld may be done on (i) two sides (one side not recommended) or (ii) three sides i.e. two sides as well as at end For the angle section CG not at mid of width, > Weld is done such that CG of weld coincides with CG of angle section KH (ee i L eho Fig, S18 Filler Welds for Truss Member kL If welding is done on two sides only tr | ii Phe p— Taking moment about P, P,h—-Ph,=0 > P,= 7 L h Lt Taking moment about P, Rh—Ph,=0 => P = Ph —~______] ~ h in LH Po PG&-h> Ph, alternatively, A =P—P,=P— h hIf welding is done on three sides p, [a al = Pe P eal : P,.—| a “ f Fig Poh S8 Strength of end weld, P,=/.t, A “ Ynw h Ph, P, Taking moment about RPh, — P,h- P.5=0 = as Taking moment about P, RheP2—Ph = co pf alternatively, R =P —P,—P,=P— Ph, -B -P, =p—Ph_B_ Phy oP ho 2 2 h 2Design of intermittent weld When design force for weld small > use smaller size of weld and provide on full length When loads are very small > Length required to weld (even with smallest size) < available length > Intermittent weld is selected Intermittent weld > discontinuous welds > two types chain, (ii) staggered — better than chain weld 8 (140) 70 140) _ shop weld 50 50 10" 50 (100) 50 (100) 10mm weld Mi 100. 8 mm weld Ee ee % 140 70 149. 79 Design Specifications for Intermittent Weld: Minimum effective length of intermittent weld = 4weld size (except for plate girder) Clear spacing between the intermittent weld in compression > 12t also 200 mm Clear spacing between the intermittent weld in Tension 416t also x 200 mm If end weld not done: Length of longitudinal weld at the end =< width of the member If end weld done: Total Length of weld (end long. + Transverse at the end) x 2 x width of memberTypes of welds in tension Two types: (i) Single sided (ii) Double sided Single side weld > eccentricity between the line of action of the load and the throat centroid > creates a moment on the weld throat > should be avoided in practice — SSF. (a) (b) § (a) Unsatisfactory and (b) satisfactory welds for tension connectionsSpecifications for Plug or Slot Welds If t= thickness of plate in which slot is made then Width or diameter of slot =-3t and also >>25mm Corners of slot made curved > Corner radius of slotted hole =1.5t and also 12 mm Clear distance between two holes (slots) =~2t and also 25 mm Stresses due to individual forces In case of beam column, joint are subjected to (i) axial force (tensile or compressive due to bending) as well as (ii) shear force. If a joint is subjected to axial force P and shear load Q, then Axial stress (compression or tension), f= — 2 and Shear Stress, g =Combination of normal and shear stresses For Fillet Weld When shear stress are in addition to tension or compression Equivalent stress, f.=1 f7+3q° < : Ynw If (normal stress + shear stress) < f,., (- Su ) => No Need to check Equivalent stress V3 Yaw For Butt Welds No Need to check for Equivalent stress Since: Butt welds joints are generally axially loaded In single or double bevel butt joints > (Normal stress + Shear Stress) < fyg Combination of bending normal, shear and bearing stresses If a joint is subjected to (i) bending stress; (ii) Shear stress; and (iii) bearing stress, then the equivalent stress are determined as fe +fhat fof +3@ < permissible stress for parent materialTENSION MEMBERS. Members subjected to axial force only (i.e. not eccentric loads) Examples of Tension Members> truss and tower members, tie member in bridges The fixidity at ends of truss > develops moment at ends > neglected in design or permissible stresses are reduced Self weight of members > bending moment in member > bending stresses > small > Neglected In case of bolted members> Holes are made for bolts > reduction in area > called Net area Net area = gross area — deduction of area due to holes QULLEEEZ _ Gusset plate \ Te seem | 10 mm ———>| \ + MMM Section a-a 16 mm a le Ar ‘ | Naso ISF8 Z a ae Section b-b Fig. 6.1 Gross area and net areaPreferably put one bolt in a line (vertical line) If force is large > More number of bolts > bolts may be arranged in (i) Chain and (ii) staggered To increase the net area > Staggered better choice (a) Chain bolting ~ (b) Staggered bolting Fig. 62 Chain and staggerd patterns Types of Tension Members : (i) Single Sections > Single flat bars, Single angle sections, Single channel sections, Single | sections (ii) Built-up Sections Built-up section are selected when Large cross-sectional area is required For given area > more moment of inertia is required Load reversal> Can resist tensile as well as compressive loadsIn built-up sections: *Tie plates are provided at regular interval to: +Minimize the slenderness ration and +To transfer any unequal load from one member to other +These plate are not considered to increase area of section ty ety t . te , =i LP ® © © © qn ll In © fa @ ” se sees eae ee | l c f et Liss = io | S. o o cc) o fig 67 Shapes of tension membersNet Sectional Area in Plates: Same as discussed in connection chapter A 5 , feo ol) +r7fe@e ey); bLt , °F oc oo ° ° ° + a er eats ° — a $ co. oa i tos oo | = = Net area for chain bolting A,=@—nd, i mt Da Netarea for Staggered bolting A,=| B—nd,, tae xt int 48; If pitch and gauge lengths are same for all bolts, then py=pz=......=p 2 and Qy= dp = ws... =g A,= B-nd,+m?— xt 4g where m = no. of staggered pitchesNet Sectional Area in Angle Sections Angles very common sections, angles have two legs Angles may be connected by (i) both legs or by (ii) Single Leg When angles are connected by both legs: - for the analysis angle is unfolded (developed) - now the section may be treated as flat (plate) - if g, and g, are the distance of first bolts from root and g, (in book g, ) is the distance of second bolt from first bolt, > then after unfolding the angle, the first gauge length will be gy =g, + Q,)-tWhen angles are connected by Single leg only: The leg connected to gusset plate > called connecting leg Other leg (not connected) > called outstanding leg Due to single leg connection > Non-Uniform stress distribution in connecting leg Non- uniform stress distribution due to following reasons: (i) Load transfer from connecting leg to plate along the CG > eccentricity (ii) strain at junction of connecting leg and outstanding leg > strain at free end of connecting leg> shear-lag Gusset plate (b)Net Effective Area of Section Net Effective Area of Section Depends on (i) Shear Lag effect (ii) Ductility of plate material (iii) Method used for hole formation (iv) Geometry factor Net effective Area of Plate =k, k, k, k, A, Where, A, = Net area of plate after making deduction for holes k, = factor to consider the Shear Lag effect k, = factor to consider influence of ductility of plate material k, = factor to consider influence of method used for hole formation k, = factor to consider the influence of geometry of connection Ductility factor (k,): Ductile material of plate > better stress re-distribution at bolt holes at higher loads No stress concentration > stress are distributed better on whole width of plate k, =0.82+0.0032 R For Ductile material > k,=1.0 and for brittle material, R = 1 > k, = 0.8232 For Common structural steels > assumed to have sufficient ductility > k, = 1.0Factor for method of fabrication or hole forming factor (k,): Methods of bolt hole formation (i) Punching, and (ii) Drilling Punching > Shear deformation in material around the hole > 10-15% reduction material strength than drilling In some Design Specifications: For Drilled holes k, = 1.0; For Punched holes k, = 0.85 As per IS 800:2007 > k, = 1.0 Provided diameter of hole is increased by 2 mm in calculation of net area Geometry factor (k3) Small bolt diameter > Less gauge can be provided if (g/d) less > less material between holes at critical section > force transferred to adjacent bolt > less deformation in material > more uniform stress in plate >more efficiency of joint k,=1.60-0.70@,,/4,_ K3 varies between 0.9 to 1.14; — As per IS 800: 2007 > k3 = 1.0Shear lag factor (k4): In angle- and T- sections subjected to axial force > non-uniform stress distribution near joint > shear lag Stress near the junction of connecting leg and outstanding leg > high as compared to at toes These non-uniform stresses > becomes uniform after some distance > called Transition Length Gusset plate \, Transition |«——_—___, | region (a) Angle connected with one leg to gusset plate (b) Stress transition range Failure of member occurs earlier than predicted > Due to shear lag Due to shear lag > more load is taken by connection leg and some by portion of outstanding leg near to junction > unequal angles are generally preferred (small outstanding leg) To incorporate shear lag factor, factor k, is used k, is calculated as ~ * k,=1- @/L_ X=distance from the face of the gusset plate to the centroid of the connected area L= Length of connectionThe length of the connection for bolted and welded connections is calculated as Gusset plate kt kL Tension member section (b) Welded Fig. 6.11 Length of connection L for bolted and welded connections Small value of X and large value of ‘L’ > large k, > large effective area > more strength of joint In the IS 800:2007: kj=kp=k3=1.0 andky=a > A,.=@A, a=0.6 forno.of bolts < 2 a=0.7 forno.of bolts < 3 a=0.8 for weldsDesign Strength of Tension Member: In Tension members, at the joint > holes in member, remaining length without hole Tension Members without holes (beyond the joint): As load is increased > yielding of material > due to strain hardening, strength more than yield strength But more elongation before fracture > unserviceable Tension Member with holes (within joint): Due to excessive load --: there may be (i) net area failure, and (ii) Block shear failure Thus, design strength of a tension member will be minimum of the following: (i) Gross-section yielding: more yielding > more displacements before the fracture failure (ii) Net Section Failure > failure at net cross-section (iii) Block shear failure > asegment of block of material at end of member shears out in smaller joints Thus there are two Limit States are to be considered: Limit state of yielding in the gross-section > to avoid excessive deformation in member > to control excessive deformation > stress in gross-section < fy Limit State of fracture in the net section > to avoid fracture in net section, stress in net section < tensile strength Limit State of block shear : combined shear and tension failure