INTRODUCTION

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural

environment that cause adverse change.[1] Pollution can take the
form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light.
Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign
substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution
is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. In 2015,
pollution killed 9 million people in the world.[2][3]
Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide,
according to Pure Earth, a non-profit environmental organization. In
some of the world's worst polluted places, babies are born with birth
defects, children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life expectancy
may be as low as 45 years because of cancers and other diseases

AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution occurs when harmful or excessive quantities of substances including gases, particles, and
biological molecules are introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies and even death to
humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the
natural or built environment. Both human activity and natural processes can generate air pollution.

Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the
2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1] According to the 2014 World Health
Organization report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide,[2] an estimate
roughly echoed by one from the International Energy Agency.[3][4]

An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The
substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made.
Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such
as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts
or sulphur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form
in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of secondary
pollutants. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed
from other primary pollutants.

Substances emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:

 Carbon dioxide (CO

2) – Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the leading pollutant"[5] and "the
worst climate pollution".[6] Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere, essential for
plant life and given off by the human respiratory system.[7] This question of terminology has practical
effects, for example as determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate CO
2 emissions.[8] CO
2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280
 ppm in pre-industrial times,[9] and billions of metric tons of CO
2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.[10] CO
2 increase in earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.[11]
 Sulfur oxides (SOx) – particularly sulphur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2
is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain
sulphur compounds, and their combustion generates sulphur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2,
usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of
the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high
temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can
be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical
compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air
pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) – CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas.[12] It is a product of
combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority
of carbon monoxide let into our atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been
linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals. In 2013, more
than half of the carbon monoxide emitted into our atmosphere was from vehicle traffic and burning
one gallon of gas will often emit over 20 pounds of carbon monoxide into the air.[13]
 Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are
categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient
greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also
significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of
methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs
benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged
exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.
 Particulate matter / particles, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric
particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In
contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating
from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human
activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial
processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic
aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for approximately 10 percent of our
atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart
disease,[14] altered lung function and lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and
can be particularly harmful to those already suffering from conditions like asthma.[15]
 Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary
disease.[16][17]
 Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are currently
banned from use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol
sprays, etc. On release into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere. Here they come in contact with
other gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's
surface. This can lead to skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause damage to plants.
 Ammonia – emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It
is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes
significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs
and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of
many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. In the
atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur to form secondary particles.[18]
 Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
 Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

  Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog
is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused
by a mixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from
vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the
sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form
photochemical smog.
 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the
troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly
known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the
chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high
concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a
pollutant and a constituent of smog.
 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5) – similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

 A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the
Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive
 A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation
through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist
in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue,
biomagnify in food chains, and to have potentially significant impacts on human health and the
environment.

Sources

There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for releasing pollutants into the
atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories.

Anthropogenic (man-made) sources

These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types of fuel.

 Stationary sources include smoke stacks of fossil fuel power stations (see for example environmental
impact of the coal industry), manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as
furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor countries,
traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood,
crop waste and dung.[19][20]
 Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft.
 Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a
technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas
abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool
for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus
renewing the forest.
 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents. These can be substantial;
emissions from these sources was estimated to account for almost half of pollution from volatile
organic compounds in the Los Angeles basin in the 2010s.[21]
 Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form
explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed
space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by
displacement.
 Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
 Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen oxides.[22]
Natural sources

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation
 Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally
occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a
health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined
areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette
smoking.
 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of actives wildfires, smoke from
uncontrolled biomass combustion can make up almost 75% of all air pollution by concentration.[23]
 Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—
specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds — to produce a seasonal haze
of secondary pollutants.[24] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that
can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to
eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.[25]
 Volcanic activity, which produces sulphur, chlorine, and ash particulates

GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

How the Greenhouse Effect Works

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an atmospheric constituent that plays several vital roles in the environment. It
absorbs infrared radiation in the atmosphere. It plays a crucial role in the weathering of rocks. It is the raw
material for photosynthesis and its carbon is incorporated into organic matter in the biosphere and may
eventually be stored in the Earth as fossil fuels.

Most of the sun's energy that falls on the Earth's surface is in the visible light portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This is in large part because the Earth's atmosphere is transparent to these wavelengths (we all
know that with a functioning ozone layer, the higher frequencies like ultraviolet are mostly screened out).
Part of the sunlight is reflected back into space, depending on the albedo or reflectivity of the surface. Part
of the sunlight is absorbed by the Earth and held as thermal energy. This heat is then re-radiated in the form
of longer wavelength infrared radiation. While the dominant gases of the atmosphere (nitrogen and oxygen)
are transparent to infrared, the so-called greenhouse gasses, primarily water vapor (H2O), CO2, and methane
(CH4), absorb some of the infrared radiation. They collect this heat energy and hold it in the atmosphere,
delaying its passage back out of the atmosphere.

Due in part to the warming effects of the greenhouse gases, the global average temperature is about 15°C
(59°F). Without the greenhouse gases the global average temperature would be much colder, about -18°C
(0°F).

Greenhouse Gas Induced Global Warming

Since the industrial revolution got into full swing in the 19th century we have been burning ever increasing
amounts of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gasoline, natural gas) in electric generating plants, manufacturing plants,
trains, automobiles, airplanes, etc. Burning releases CO2 into the atmosphere (much the same as respiration
does). These fossil fuels may have formed tens or hundreds of millions of years ago from the buried and
preserved remains of plant and animal matter whose carbon originated via photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis and respiration in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, etc. exchange carbon between the CO2 in
the atmosphere and carbon compounds in organisms. But humans are now putting this natural carbon cycle
out of balance. Because of the emission of CO2 long-stored in fossil fuels the percentage of CO2 in the
atmosphere has increased from about 289 parts per million before the industrial revolution to over 360 parts
per million and rising. Sometime during the 21st century the concentration of CO2 will be twice what it was
before the industrial revolution.

With higher CO2 concentrations come expectations of a stronger greenhouse effect and therefore warmer
global temperatures. This was originally proposed by a chemist named Arrhenius about a century ago.
Global average temperatures have risen by a small, but measurable amount in the past 100 years, apparently
in large part because of the higher level of atmospheric CO2. Global average temperatures are expected to be
on the order of 2-5°C (3.6-9°F) higher by the time CO2 doubles the pre-industrial concentration. The
temperature rise will be small in the tropics but much greater at high latitudes.

Consequences of Global Warming

A whole host of consequences will result. Some are probably already occurring.

Temperature measurements of the sea surface and deep ocean indicate that the oceans are warming. Rising
ocean temperature causes rising sea level from thermal expansion of the water. Rising temperature also
means melting glaciers and rising sea level through addition of meltwater to the oceans. Sea level rose about
1 foot during the last century, mostly from thermal expansion of the oceans. Sea level is expected to rise
closer to 3 feet during the coming century. Rising sea level will cause increasing coastal erosion, flooding,
and property damage during coastal storms on top of the potential for major loss of life from storms in low-
lying coastal countries like Bangladesh and island nations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Warmer sea surface temperatures will result in more and stronger tropical storms (hurricanes and typhoons).
Coastlines already ravaged by these storms will expect to see more strong storms than before, increasing the
loss of life and damage to infrastructure.

It is much more difficult to predict how regional and local weather patterns will change but there will
certainly be changes. While higher temperatures will produce more rainfall across the globe, the regional
rainfall patterns will likely change. Some areas will get more, some areas will get less. The timing of wet
and dry periods may change. But higher temperatures will also mean more evaporation. Higher temperatures
may also mean stronger storms with damaging winds. All of these mean new risks and changing conditions
for agriculture. Centuries old farming practices will have to change. Some areas may go from being
marginal to becoming a breadbasket region, while other regions may go from major agricultural production
to marginal.

Higher CO2 allows plants to grow faster (more CO2 enhances photosynthesis). That would sound good for
agriculture. However, weed species tend to grow even better than crop plants under enhanced CO2
conditions so improved crop growth may be nullified by weed competition.

Natural ecosystems will be hard pressed to keep up with the changing climate because the rate of change
will be faster than typical long-term natural climate change. Many species, especially plant species, will not
be able to migrate to cooler areas fast enough to keep up with the warming of their habitats. And arctic
species will have no place to go and may not be able to adapt to the new conditions.

Severe summer heat in areas not used to it can lead to deaths. Higher heat and expansion of tropical areas
may lead to increased incidence of malaria.

What Can We Do About Global Warming?

We can't realistically stop the rise of CO2 in the near term, but we can slow it and therefore reduce the
consequences that will occur. More fuel-efficient cars, less frivolous driving, more use of mass transit,
improved insulation to decrease the fuel burned to heat and cool our homes, more efficient appliances, use
of fluorescent rather than incandescent light bulbs, and careful monitoring of home electricity usage (turn off
the lights and TV when not using them) can reduce our energy needs. Conversion to alternatives like wind
and solar power which don't burn fossil fuels and emit CO2 into the atmosphere. Planting large areas with
trees will consume CO2 as the trees grow, until the forests mature. Stopping deforestation in the tropical
forests around the world, especially in the Amazon and Indonesian rain forests, will keep that carbon in the
forest rather than sending it back into the atmosphere as the trees are burned or decay and are not replaced
by more. Other techniques have also been proposed such as the chemical removal of CO2 from smokestacks
and burial in deep underground reservoirs, though only certain areas can benefit from this, or disposal in the
deep ocean where they will form a semi-stable compound under the cold temperatures and high pressures,
though the CO2 could too easily come bubbling back up. These latter solutions are not well studied and
wouldn't be especially cheap.

Moreover, leaders, societies, communities, local planners, farmers, health organizations, need to recognize
the changing climate and rising sea level as they make plans for the future. Our citizens need to be educated
as to likely changes and how best to deal with the changing conditions.

ACID RAIN

Acid rain is made up of water droplets that are unusually acidic because of atmospheric
pollution, most notably the excessive amounts of sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and
industrial processes. Acid rain is also called acid deposition because this term includes other
forms of acidic precipitation, such as snow.
Acidic deposition occurs in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of precipitation
that removes acids from the atmosphere and deposits them on Earth’s surface. Dry deposition
polluting particles and gases stick to the ground via dust and smoke in the absence of
precipitation. Even though dry, this form of deposition is dangerous as well, because
precipitation can eventually wash pollutants into streams, lakes, and rivers.
Acidity itself is determined based on the pH level (the amount of acidity or alkalinity) of the
water droplets. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with a lower pH being more acidic, while a
high pH is alkaline; seven is neutral. Normal rainwater is slightly acidic, with a pH range of
5.3-6.0. Acid deposition is anything below that range. It is also important to note that the pH
scale is logarithmic, and each whole number on the scale represents a 10-fold change.
Today, acid deposition is present in the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and
much of Europe, including portions of Sweden, Norway, and Germany. In addition, parts of
South Asia, particularly China, Sri Lanka, and southern India, and South Africa are all in
danger of being affected by acid deposition in the future.
Effects of Acid Rain
After studying the Hubbard Brook Forest and other areas, researchers found several important
effects of acid deposition on both natural and man-made environments. Aquatic settings are
the most clearly affected by acid deposition, though, because acidic precipitation falls directly
into them. Both dry and wet deposition also runs off from forests, fields, and roads and flows
into lakes, rivers, and streams.
As this acidic liquid flows into larger bodies of water, it is diluted, but over time, acids can
accrue and lower the overall pH of the body of water. Acid deposition also causes clay soils to
release aluminum and magnesium, further lowering the pH in some areas. If the pH of a lake
drops below 4.8, its plants and animals risk death. It is estimated that around 50,000 lakes in
the United States and Canada have a pH below normal (about 5.3 for water). Several hundred
of these have a pH too low to support any aquatic life.
Aside from aquatic bodies, acid deposition can significantly affect forests. As acid rain falls on
trees, it can make them lose their leaves, damage their bark, and stunt their growth. By
damaging these parts of the tree, it makes them vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and
insects. Acid falling on a forest’s soil is also harmful because it disrupts soil nutrients, kills
microorganisms in the soil, and can sometimes cause a calcium deficiency. Trees at high
altitudes are also susceptible to problems induced by acidic cloud cover as the moisture in the
clouds blankets them.
Damage to forests by acid rain is seen all over the world, but the most advanced cases are in
Eastern Europe. It’s estimated that in Germany and Poland, half of the forests are damaged,
while 30 percent in Switzerland have been affected.
Finally, acid deposition also has an effect on architecture and art because of its ability to
corrode certain materials. As acid lands on buildings (especially those constructed with
limestone), it reacts with minerals in the stones, sometimes causing them to disintegrate and
wash away. Acid deposition can also cause concrete to deteriorate, and it can corrode modern
buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below ground.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four
percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime
decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions.[1] The latter phenomenon is referred to as the
ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these
stratospheric events.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, especially manufactured
halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants and foam-blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs,
halons), referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere by turbulent mixing after being emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules can
settle.[2] Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the
breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2).[3] Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as
emissions of halocarbons increased.

Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased cancer risks and other
negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from
passing through the Earth's atmosphere. These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn and cataracts, which
were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals.
These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons
and other ozone-depleting chemicals.

The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s.
Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels
by around 2075.[4] The Montreal Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental
agreement to date

EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION

Impact on Humans

 Skin cancer: Exposure to ultraviolet rays poses an increased risk of developing several types of skin
cancers, including malignant melanoma, and basal and squamous cell carcinoma.
 Eye damage: Direct exposure to UV radiations can result in photokeratitis (snow blindness), and
cataracts.

 Immune system damage: Effects of UV rays include impairment of the immune system. Increased
exposure to UV rays weakens the response of the immune system.
 Accelerated aging of skin: Constant exposure to UV radiation can cause photo allergy, which
results in the outbreak of rashes in fair-skinned people.
  Other effects: Ozone chemicals can cause difficulty in breathing, chest pain, throat irritation, and
hamper lung functioning.

Effects on Amphibians
Ozone depletion is listed as one of the causes for the declining numbers of amphibian species. Ozone
depletion affects many species at every stage of their life cycle. Some of the effects are mentioned below.

 Hampers growth and development in larvae

 Changes behavior and habits
 Causes deformities in some species
 Decreases immunity. Some species have become more vulnerable to diseases and death
 Retinal damage and blindness in some species

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

Plankton (phytoplankton and bacterioplankton) are threatened by increased UV radiation. Marine
phytoplankton play a fundamental role in both the food chain as well as the oceanic carbon cycle. It plays an
important role in converting atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen. Ultraviolet rays can influence the
survival rates of these microscopic organisms, by affecting their orientation and mobility. This eventually
disturbs and affects the entire ecosystem.
Impact on Plants

 In some species of plants, UV radiation can alter the time of flowering, as well as the number of
flowers produced by a plant.
 Plant growth can be directly affected by UV-B radiation. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair
these effects, physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities. Water bodies
include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants
are introduced into the natural environment. For example, releasing inadequately treated wastewater into natural
water bodies can lead to degradation of aquatic ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for
people living downstream. They may use the same polluted river water for drinking or bathing or irrigation. Water
pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease, e.g. due to water-borne diseases.[1][2]

Water pollution can be grouped into surface water pollution. Marine pollution and nutrient pollution are subsets of
water pollution. Sources of water pollution are either point sources and non-point sources. Point sources have
one identifiable cause of the pollution, such as a storm drain, wastewater treatment plant or stream. Non-point
sources are more diffuse, such as agricultural runoff.[3] Pollution is the result of the cumulative effect over time.
All plants and organisms living in or being exposed to polluted water bodies can be impacted. The effects can
damage individual species and impact the natural biological communities they are part of.

The causes of water pollution include a wide range of chemicals and pathogens as well as physical parameters.
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Elevated temperatures can also lead to polluted
water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial
manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain
composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.[4][5]:375

Water pollution is measured by analysing water samples. Physical, chemical and biological tests can be done.
Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The infrastructure may
include wastewater treatment plants. Sewage treatment plants and industrial wastewater treatment plants are
 usually required to protect water bodies from untreated wastewater. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms,
and erosion control from construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Nature-based solutions are
another approach to prevent water pollution.[6] Effective control of urban runoff includes reducing speed and
quantity of flow. In the United States, best management practices for water pollution include approaches to
reduce the quantity of water and improve water quality.[7]

Causes of Water Pollution

 Sewage from domestic households, factories and commercial buildings Sewage that is treated in water

treatment plants is often disposed into the sea. Sewage can be more problematic when people flush

chemicals and pharmaceutical substances down the toilet.

 Dumping solid wastes and littering by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans. Littering items include

cardboard, Styrofoam, aluminum, plastic and glass.

 Industrial waste from factories, which use freshwater to carry waste from the plant into rivers, contaminates

waters with pollutants such as asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals.

 Oil Pollution caused by oil spills from tankers and oil from ship travel. Oil does not dissolve in water and

forms a thick sludge.

 Burning fossil fuels into the air causes the formation of acidic particles in the atmosphere. When these

particles mix with water vapor, the result is acid rain.

 An increase in water temperature is caused by global warming and thermal plants that use lakes and rivers

to cool down mechanical equipment.

Effects of Water Pollution

 Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within wildlife in ecosystems.

 Sewage, fertilizer, and agricultural run-off contain organic materials that when discharged into waters,

increase the growth of algae, which causes the depletion of oxygen. The low oxygen levels are not able to

support most indigenous organisms in the area and therefore upset the natural ecological balance in rivers

and lakes.

 Swimming in and drinking contaminated water causes skin rashes and health problems like cancer,

reproductive problems, typhoid fever and stomach sickness in humans. Which is why it’s very important to

make sure that your water is clean and safe to drink.

 Industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides that end up in aquatic environments can accumulate in fish

that are later eaten by humans. Fish are easily poisoned with metals that are also later consumed by

humans. Mercury is particularly poisonous to small children and women. Mercury has been found to

interfere with the development of the nervous system in fetuses and young children.
 Ecosystems are destroyed by the rising temperature in the water, as coral reefs are affected by the

bleaching effect due to warmer temperatures. Additionally, the warm water forces indigenous water

species to seek cooler water in other areas, causing an ecological damaging shift of the affected area.

 Human-produced litter of items such as plastic bags and 6-pack rings can get aquatic animals caught and

killed from suffocation.

 Water pollution causes flooding due to the accumulation of solid waste and soil erosion in streams and

rivers.

 Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil does not dissolve in

water so it causes suffocation in fish and birds.

LAND POLLUTION
Land Pollution can simply be defined as the contamination or degradation of earth surface. This
can be caused by several factors. Soil that is contaminated becomes less productive and this
reduces the value of land.

Land pollution can mean the misuse of land by human beings. Using this resource in the wrong
way would lead to a fall in its value. A common example is excessively farming on a piece of land
without allowing time for it to remain fallow and build up nutrients.

It also refers to the deterioration or degradation of land surfaces. When this happens, the affected
pieces of land become less productive and their maximum value cannot be realized.

Land pollution is also the process of introducing pollutants or contaminants into the surface
ecosystem. The natural environment, including land, is affected or polluted by these impurities.

Any type of destruction that is done to the surface of the earth is basically land pollution. This can
come in different forms and can be caused by various reasons.

Causes of Land Pollution

There are several factors that can lead to the pollution of land. Some occur naturally while others
come about as a result of human activities. Here are some of the common causes of land
degradation:

(i) Excessive Use of Pesticides: Some farmers use pesticides excessively and end up
contaminating the soil. This affects the quality of soil and also destroys the useful microorganisms
found in it. This happens because there are some farmers who believe that by using a large
quantity of these chemicals, they eliminate any possible threat from the destructive organisms.
What they forget is that by so doing, they destroy or degrade the very land that they expect to give
them a high yield of crops. When these chemicals are used excessively, they drip to the ground
and cause land pollution.

(ii) Indiscriminate cutting down of trees: Massive deforestation is another factor that causes
land pollution. Trees serve a very important purpose in improving the quality of soil and land. They
increase soil aeration, improve soil fertility, create water catchment zones and through their
decaying leaves, they form soil. So when deforestation occurs, soil is exposed to intense sunlight
that causes evaporation of water, death of useful bacteria in the soil and ultimately a reduction in
soil fertility. This degradation of soil is what is known as land pollution. The net effects are many
and far-reaching. Massive deforestation has contributed to many pieces of land being declared
unsuitable for agriculture because of the soil quality. Even when used for farming, the yield would
be awfully low.

(iii) Poor disposal of untreated waste: Some industries dispose untreated waste in a poor
manner and these leads to land pollution. Industrial wastes contain so many harmful chemicals
that degrade the quality of the soil. As we discussed earlier, some human activities, especially
those that are done intentionally, contribute so much to land pollution. Even human excreta that is
not disposed of properly leads to the pollution of land.

(iv) Acid Rain: Chemical pollutants such as greenhouse gases and emissions from motor
vehicles may cause acid rain. This type of rainfall affects the quality of soil and may cause crops to
die. Remember that the level of soil acidity plays a very important role in determining the quality of
soil and the type of crops that can thrive on it. An optimum level of pH is required for any piece of
land to be declared ideal for farming. Acidic rain leads to the introduction of so many harmfully
chemicals into the ground and renders that surface of the earth useless. It also gives rise to
contaminated underground water that is unfit for human consumption and not good for uptake by
plants.

(v) Poor Farming Techniques: A high crop yield can only be realized through smart farming
techniques. Poor farming methods cause soil degradation. What are some of these methods? A
common practice is where a farmer uses the land continuously without allowing it time to lie fallow
and increase fertility. Non-stop farming means that minerals found in a particular piece of land will
all be used up. Another poor farming method that causes land pollution is the lack of mixed
farming. It is known that legumes release nitrates into the soil and growing them together with
other crops such as corn can increase the fertility of the soil and lead to a higher yield. Lack of
crop rotation and use of chemical fertilizers also lead to soil degradation.

(vi) Economic activities: Land is a factor of production and a very important one at that. It is
therefore used for a lot of economic activities by human beings. One such economic activity is
mining. Even though mining has created several billionaires, it also destroys land. Underground
tunnels and dumping of mineral residues cause specific surfaces to be impossible to use for
human settlement or farming. This activity particularly reduces the quality of soil in a major way.
It’s also why very little agriculture goes on in mining towns. The quality of land is so poor that plant
life cannot be supported. The chemicals released into the atmosphere as a result of the machines
used also cause land degradation.

(vii) Accidental oil spills: This is another cause of land pollution. An accidental collapse of an oil
rig can cause spillage that affects a large surface of land. It can take up to several years before
the land is fit again for agricultural activities. Crude oil makes land unable to support plant life
because of the chemicals that it contains. Reclaiming such a piece land takes a lot of money and
in most cases, it’s usually left to lie fallow.

Effects of Land Pollution

Pollution, any type that is, has never been good. That’s why land pollution has many negative
effects that impact both plant, animal, and microorganisms lives as well as humans. These are
some of the effects of land pollution:

(i) Lack of Land For Agriculture: Farming is one thing that greatly depends on land fertility for
higher yields. Land pollution thus leads to less agriculture as most farmers find it increasingly
difficult to realize any meaningful harvest. Polluted land, like those with chemical wastes and oil
spills, can also not be used for farming unless they are first reclaimed. Most of the foods eaten by
humans are produced from the ground. Even those aren’t are made with substances that have
either been extracted from plants or animals. The importance of agriculture can therefore not be
stressed enough. Countries that experience food insecurity mostly suffer because of lack of ideal
land for farming. Since many forests have been massively destroyed, climate changes for the
worst and soil quality falls.

(ii) Loss of Biodiversity: Land pollution affects the ecosystem negatively by causing loss of
biodiversity. This then triggers a chain reaction that upsets the environment in many different
ways. An ecosystem with high biodiversity thrives and most of the living organisms within it enjoy
good health. When this is lost, several chains are interrupted and continuity is affected. Land is a
very important part of the environment and when it’s polluted, it becomes less productive and
leads to loss of biodiversity. The future generation is, therefore, likely to inherit a more hostile
earth.

(iii) Health Problems: Eating crops harvested from polluted farms can cause many health
complications. Introducing these chemicals into the body system can result into diseases such as
cancer. Also coming into contact with such materials when farming can cause irritation to the skin
as well as breathing complications. It’s necessary to watch the type of food that we eat but that
alone is not enough. One should also be aware of where that particular food was grown because
these chemicals are still contained in the crop even after harvesting.

(iv) Expensive Process of Land Reclamation: Reclaiming polluted land is not a walk in the park.
It is a complicated process and quite expensive. Turning a polluted piece of land into a productive
one will thus set you back financially. That means that money that would have otherwise been
used elsewhere is channeled to this process. There is also no guarantee that it will be as
productive as it were before it was affected.

(v) Contaminated ground water: Most of the ground water comes from rain. When rain falls,
water drains into the ground and is stored within the earth. Land pollution, especially from
chemical spills and contaminated material, may cause this water to be contaminated.
Underground water is used in many ways. It is taken up by plants and also used by humans
domestically. As a result of these chemicals, the water is rendered unfit for human consumption
and the plants that use it are also likely to whither and die. The quality of soil will be affected too
because chemicals reduce soil fertility and the resulting acidity or alkalinity may not be conducive
for plant growth. This is how mindless human actions can seriously affect the environment.

(vi) The emergence of tough weeds: Pollution may weaken the growth of food crops and result
in the emergence of tough weeds that hamper their growth and affect the overall yield. This
happens when land cannot sustain the growth of native plants and weeds take the opportunity to
thrive.

(vii) Related Pollution: The pollution of land can give rise to pollution of other areas of the
ecosystem. For example, contaminated dust can lead to air pollution while acidic ground water can
result in acidic rain. This happens because several parts of the ecosystem are interdependent.
Pollution in one part, can, therefore, result in pollution of several other components.
How to Solve the Menace that is Land Pollution
Since most of the causes of land pollution are as a result of human activities, a lot of the solutions
should also be geared towards changing the actions of people. These are some of the solutions to
this problem:

(i) Recycling of Waste Material: Instead of throwing out waste material that causes land
pollution, it would be prudent to recycle them and make new products. This reduces the
degradation of land and also the pollution of air and water bodies. It’s a practice that is very
sustainable and great for the environment. It would cut manufacturing costs and keep the
environment clean. The main focus should be on materials that are not biodegradable because
they are the ones that mostly pollute land. Households can have separate waste collection bins
that are specifically meant for recyclable material. Industries should also make it a part of their
operations strategy to do recycling wherever possible.

(ii) Organic Farming: This is a smart farming method that is highly necessary in the modern
world. The use of chemical fertilizers leads to land pollution and several other health
complications. Some of these fertilizers can also alter the soil pH and make the farm unable to
support plant growth. Organic farming is a great way to increase the fertility of soil and improve
crop yield. Some of the practices that are often adopted with this type of farming include using
organic manure such as animal waste and compost. They do not contain any chemicals and are
therefore good for farming and for the conservation of land quality. Crops grown through organic
farming are also very healthy and ideal for human consumption.

(iii) Waste Treatment: Industries should make it their responsibility to treat any waste material or
substances before disposing of them. In this way, they prevent the introduction of harmful
chemicals into the soil. The problem with industries that dispose of untreated chemical wastes is
that they do it continuously and therefore cause a lot of damage to the environment. It is never
really a one-off operation. When they take the initiative and treat these wastes, they do a lot of
good to the environment.

(iv) Education and Awareness: What does the earth mean to you? How much do you value your
planet? Pollution affects everyone, even the bystanders, so it’s much better when you take the
initiative to do something about it. In your own small way, you can work towards having a clean
planet. Some people are just naturally environmentally conscious, while others require a little
prodding to do what is necessary. This is where education comes in. Teaching people about the
effects of land pollution and what can be done to reduce it is a job that cannot be left to just the
government alone. Yes, the government can do its bit by introducing it into the school curriculum
and running media ads as well as organizing for grassroots awareness campaigns, but the civil
societies and families can also play their parts in creating awareness. Family heads can impact
into their households good values so that environmental conservation becomes their way of life.
When people are knowledgeable enough, they tend to do what is right. A change in mindset
definitely goes a long way in reducing land pollution.

(v) Introducing Appropriate Legislation: Policy makers should introduce appropriate legislation
that would deter those who would want to pollute the environment. Sometimes people act out of
fear, especially when the consequences of their bad actions are dire. This would stop companies
from carelessly disposing of their wastes, encourage the establishment of good agricultural
practices and set standards for different products that are manufactured and sold. Having a
national policy on land pollution and the use of land itself as a resource would play an important
role in reducing or eliminating this problem. Global policies that deal with the issues of land
pollution on a global scale would also help.
(vi) Using Spill-Proof Containers to Store Chemicals: To prevent pollution from chemical
spillage, spill-proof containers can be used. These specially designed containers provide a safe
way to store chemicals and reducing the chances of land pollution.

(vii) Reforestation: This helps to increase forest cover and improve the quality of soil. The
restoration of forests is an important part of the process of improving soil quality and the value of
land. When we cut down trees and fail to plant new ones, we are actually doing the environment
much disservice. It really doesn’t take much effort. Improving the forest cover also increases
biodiversity in the ecosystem and this has so many benefits.

(viii) Using Resources Efficiently: When we use resources more efficiently, we reduce the
amount of waste material that is introduced into the environment. Some of the best practices
include using less paper, less plastic and printing out emails only when there is no other option.
One can always reuse some of these materials instead of throwing them away after only using
them once. A plastic bag, for example, can be used so many times before being disposed of.
Individuals can also consider using biodegradable materials to avoid accumulation of waste matter
on the surface of the earth. The next time you see that simple statement at the end of an email
that says, “Do not print this email, conserve the environment,” you should actually take it seriously.
Every little action counts because collectively, the impact is much bigger.