UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

THEORIES OF EMOTION

SUBMITTED BY:

CIARA ANNE M. PANGANIBAN

AR21FA1
 SUBMITTED TO:

PROF. JOE FAUSTINO

American psychologist William James (1884) and Danish physiologist Carl Lange
(1887) independently proposed the oldest theories of emotion at approximately
the same time. Their two theories were later combined into what is presently
known as the James-Lange Theory of Emotion.

Both James and Lange proffer the same point that emotions are results of
physiological reactions to external events. James’ research gave more attention to
emotion as a consequence of a physiological change, while Lange’s theory
emphasized emotion as the demonstration of a physiological change.
Nevertheless, both scientists presented the idea that emotion does not start with
conscious experience of an affect.

The James-Lange theory of emotion states that emotion is equivalent to the range
of physiological arousal caused by external events. The two scientists suggested
that for someone to feel emotion, he/she must first experience bodily responses
such as increased respiration, increased heart rate, or sweaty hands. Once this
physiological response is recognized, then the person can say that he/she feels
the emotion.

People experience situations and events that result in physiological reactions

such as muscular tension, heart rate increase, perspiration, dryness of the mouth,
and many others, which are created by the autonomic nervous system. The
James Lange theory of emotion suggests that emotions are a result of these
physiological responses, and not their cause.

When stimuli that can induce emotions are received and comprehended by the
cortex of the brain, the visceral organs and the skeletal muscles are triggered by
the autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system, respectively. The
autonomic and somatic systems will then stimulate the brain, which will be
interpreted as an experience of emotion.

The James-Lange theory inverted the typical common-sense way of thinking

about the cause and effect relation between the experience of emotion and its
manifestation. James and Lange emphasized that the autonomic activity and
actions that are induced by emotional stimuli generate the feeling of emotion, not
the other way around.

Here’s a James Lange theory example: when someone sees an angry bull:
Common-Sense View
Perception of the angry bull → Feeling of fear → Physiological reactions

James-Lange View
Perception of the angry bull → Physiological reactions → Feeling of fear

The perception of emotion-arousing stimuli is followed by specific physiological

reactions such as release of adrenaline and flight reaction. The brain interprets the
specific physiological changes as the emotion, “I’m scared because my heart is
racing and I am running away.”

Criticism of the James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A study done by Maranon in 1924 found that physiological arousal is not enough
to cause emotion. Only around two thirds of participants who were injected with
adrenaline reported physical symptoms. In addition, there are studies that indicate
that not all emotions, save for the strongest and most basic ones, have been found
to occur with specific physiological changes.

Walter Cannon, one of the most important critics of the James-Lange theory,
believed that for this theory to adequately describe emotion, different physiological
responses for every emotion must be defined. He added that since emotion is the
 physiological response in this theory, one way to differentiate the emotions from
each other is to determine the different reactions for each emotion.

Some of the reasons highlighted by Cannon as to why he rejects the

James-Lange theory of emotion:

 Physiological experience of emotion does not appear to differ from each

other to the extent that would be essential to discriminate one emotion from
another based only on our bodily reaction.
 Physiological aspect of emotion shadows our subjective experience of the
emotion, at times.
 Physiological responses that are made artificially do not result in emotions.

Support of the James-Lange Theory of Emotion

In 1953, Ax found that different physiological changes related to particular

emotions. Fear seemed to be associated with physiological effects of adrenaline
while anger appeared to be associated with the effects of noradrenaline. Another
study done by Schwatz et al in 1981 also found distinct physiological reactions for
anger, fear, happiness, and sadness.

In the 1990s, advances in technology allowed psychologists to study bodily

reactions, shedding more light on the James-Lange theory of emotion and
addressing the first among the compelling criticisms presented by Cannon. Using
modern tools, researchers were able to demonstrate that some emotions involve
differing patterns of autonomic nervous system arousal and other bodily
reactions.
In a study done by Levenson et al in 1990, participants were asked to make facial
expressions for the emotions of fear, anger, happiness, disgust, sadness, and
surprise and to hold these expressions for 10 seconds. Researchers then
measured the participants’ physiological reactions and found that there were
slight but noticeable differences in heart rate, skin temperature, and other
physiological reactions for the different emotions.

All emotions caused changes in heart rate and skin temperature, but they were
able to find that the degree of change is actually the measure that distinguished
emotions from each other. Although this finding did not support the whole theory,
it did give some merit to the James-Lange theory of emotion.

https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/jameslangetheoryofemotion/
In the early 1900’s, Walter Bradford Cannon (1871 – 1945), a physiologist at
Harvard University, was one of the scientists who proposed a number of criticisms
against James-Lange Theory of Emotion, the dominant theory of emotions at that
time. He emphasized the role of the brain in producing physiological responses
and feelings through his experiments, which then gave substantial support to his
own theory of emotion.

In his experiments, Cannon discovered that it was still possible to experience

emotion even if the brain was excised from the signals of bodily responses. He
added that it was not reliable to depend on bodily responses to know the type of
emotion a person experiences as different emotions may be formed by the same
bodily responses. For instance, a person with a racing heart could either mean
that the person is angry or excited. Cannon’s doctoral student, Philip Bard (1898
– 1977) agreed with this idea and continued developing, together with Cannon,
their theory called Cannon-Bard Theory.

Cannon-Bard Theory declares that the experience of emotion does not merely
rely on bodily inputs and how the body responds to stimuli. Both of these occur at
the same time autonomously. People recognize the emotions and simultaneously
undergo physiological responses such as perspiring, trembling and tensing of
muscles.

Model of the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Walter Cannon supported his argument that individuals are able to feel emotions
even before the body responds to the emotion-arousing stimulus by surgically
removing the sympathetic nervous system of a cat. Even though the somatic
signals of stimulation were removed, he found that the cat still displayed anger,
fear and pleasure.
In addition, he recommended that the experience of emotions involves two
separate processes in the nervous system – autonomic nervous system as being
responsible for the arousal and the cortex as being responsible for the production
of the subjective sensation of emotion. This simply suggests that autonomic
stimulation and mental construal of emotions happen simultaneously. This is not
the same as what James-Lange theory claims in which the autonomic sensation
results in the subjective state. Cannon added that bodily responses happen too
slowly to be acknowledged by the brain before the experience of emotion
happens.
Bard advanced Cannon’s research further. He conducted some studies to identify
the parts of the brain that may be accountable for the generation of emotion. He
found that it is the cerebral cortex that had been associated with emotional
activities based on Phineas Gage’s study, which tends to prevent emotion and
aggression. When Bard detached the cortex of a cat, it was shown that the
decorticate cat exhibited “sham rage” (called such because during those times
when James-Lange theory was the dominant theory on emotions, it was stated
that emotions could never be felt without connections to the brain) and became
highly emotional and aggressive. When the cat was provoked, it demonstrated
erect hair, growling, and baring of teeth.

Specifically, the hypothalamus, the thalamus and the cortex of the brain play
essential roles in this model. The model starts with the emotion-arousing stimulus
triggering receptors. Activation of the receptors will then send impulses to the
cortex. Once the signals arrive in the cortex, these will then be associated with
conditioned progressions which regulate the flow of the succeeding response.
This response activates thalamic processes and will be prepared to discharge
impulsively and strongly. Certain combinations of discharged neurons determine
the emotions that the individual will express.

It was stated in the theory that within the thalamus and area around it, neurons
accountable for emotional expression are placed near the relay in the sensory
path from the periphery to the cortex. These neurons, when released in certain
amounts, innervate viscera and muscles and activate afferent tracks by direct
connection or irradiation to the cortex. Thalamic processes also send signals to
the hypothalamus to trigger a general “flight or fight” bodily response.

Support for the Cannon-Bard theory of Emotion

There are studies that have concluded that physiological changes do not play an
important role in the experience of emotions. Studies found that animals
displayed normal emotional reactions even when their spinal cord had been
removed, as in the case of dogs in the study done by Sherrington in 1900, and
even when the nervous system of cats were severed, as in the case of Cannon’s
study in 1927. Dana’s research in 1921 also showed the same results in which he
studied an individual with spinal cord damage but who still demonstrated a range
of emotions.

Criticisms of the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Cannon and Bard assumed that bodily responses have no influence on emotion,
but other studies showed otherwise. In addition, Cannon and Bard used their
studies on animal and case studies as evidence for their theory, which can be
unreliable as it can be doubtful whether findings generated by these can be
generalized to human behavior. Moreover, the theory over-estimated the function
of the thalamus in emotional processes, as there are other parts of the brain that
are involved in emotions.

https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/cannon-bard-theory-of-emotion/

Origin of the Theory

During the time of Cannon, the James-Lange theory was one of the most
prominent theories of emotion. To test the theory, Cannon experimented on cats
by severing the afferent nerves of the ANS’ sympathetic branch. He believed that
doing this would test whether emotion expression could emerge without a
visceral afferent feedback (through the afferent nerves), as what the
James-Lange theory implied. The results of his experiments in 1915 challenged
the James-Lange theory by proposing that arousal and emotions emerge at the
same time after the perception of a stimulating occurrence.

The Theory
Event ==> Simultaneous Arousal and Emotion

The above sequence summarizes the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. In

essence, the theory is backed up by neurobiological science. In a stimulating
event, sensory signals are transmitted to the brain’s relay center, the thalamus.
Once the thalamus receives the signal, it relays the information to two structures:
the amygdala and the brain cortex. The amygdala is responsible for the
instantaneous response in the form of emotions, whereas the brain cortex is for
the slower response. At the same time, the autonomic nervous system or ANS
sends signals to muscles and other parts of the body, causing them to tense,
increase in rate, change in rhythm, and more. Therefore, this theory views
stimulation/arousal and emotion as a combined response to a stimulating event.

For instance, when a person sees a venomous snake, he feels afraid and his
muscles get tensed at the same time, preparing to run away from the dangerous
animal. One can observe the person’s emotion based on the physiological
signals that his body displays.
https://explorable.com/cannon-bard-theory-of-emotion

Examples of Cannon-Bard
Cannon-Bard can be applied to any event or experience that causes an
emotional reaction. The emotion can be positive or negative. The scenarios
described below show how this theory is applied to real-life situations. In all these
scenarios, the Cannon-Bard theory states the physical and emotional reactions
happen simultaneously, rather than one causing the other.

A job interview
Many people find job interviews stressful. Imagine you have a job interview
tomorrow morning for a position you really want. Thinking about the interview
might leave you feeling nervous or worried. You might also feel physical
sensations such as tremors, tense muscles, or a rapid heartbeat, especially as
the interview approaches.

Moving into a new home

For many people, moving into a new home is a source of happiness and
excitement. Imagine you’ve just moved into a new home with your partner or
spouse. Your new home is larger than the apartment you lived in before. It has
enough space for the children you hope to have together. As you unpack boxes,
you feel happy. Tears well in your eyes. Your chest is tight, and it’s almost difficult
to breathe.

Divorce of parents
Children also experience physical and emotional effects in response to significant
events. An example is the separation or divorce of their parents. Imagine you’re 8
years old. Your parents just told you that they’re separating and will probably get
a divorce. You feel sad and angry. Your stomach is upset. You think you might be
sick.
https://www.healthline.com/health/cannon-bard#examples

Also known as the “Two-Factor Theory of Emotion”, the Schachter and Singer
theory of emotion is a cognitive approach to understanding how emotional states
are determined by cognitive factors.

Origin of the Theory

From the late 1950s, the so-called cognitive revolution became prominent among
psychologists. Following this trend, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
proposed that there are cognitive factors that influence the varied states of
emotions, moods and feelings. They took account of the physiological-based
theories such as the James-Lange Theory and the Cannon-Bard Theory, and
came with a conclusion that the various visceral or physiological patterns do not
match the wide variety of emotional states of individuals. The theory was formally
introduced by Schachter and Singer in 1962.
https://explorable.com/schachter-singer-theory-of-emotion
The Schachter–Singer two-factor theory views emotion as resulting from the
interaction of two factors: physiological arousal and cognition.
For example, if you were to see a venomous snake in your backyard, the
Schachter–Singer theory argues that the snake would elicit sympathetic nervous
system activation (physiological arousal) that would be cognitively labeled as fear
(cognition) based on the context. What you would actually experience, then,
would be the feeling of fear.

In their research, Singer and Schachter injected participants with adrenaline

(epinephrine), which causes a number of physiological effects, such as increased
blood flow to the muscles and increased heart rate. They found that injecting the
drug did not lead participants to experience any given emotion. Contrary to the
James–Lange theory, therefore, which asserts that emotions arise from
physiological arousal, this theory argues that bodily changes can support
conscious emotional experiences but do not necessarily cause them. Rather, the
interpretation of a certain emotion depends on both the individual's physiological
state as well as their circumstances, a relationship mediated by cognitive
processing.

http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks
/boundless-psychology-textbook/emotion-13/theories-of-emotion-410/schachter-
singer-theory-of-emotion-two-factor-theory-507-16764/index.html