ANALOG CIRCUITS

For
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 ANALOG CIRCUITS
SYLLABUS
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Small Signal Equivalent circuits: diodes, BJTs, MOSFETs and analog CMOS. Simple diode
circuits: clipping, clamping, rectifier. Biasing and bias stability: BJT and FET amplifiers.
Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage, differential and operational, feedback, and power.
Frequency response of amplifiers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters. Sinusoidal oscillators;
criterion for oscillation; single-transistor and op-amp configurations. Function
generators and wave-shaping circuits, 555 Timers. Power supplies.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Characteristics of diodes, BJT, FET; amplifiers– biasing, equivalent circuit and frequency
response; oscillators and feedback amplifiers; operational amplifiers–characteristics
and applications; simple active filters; VCOs and timers
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Characteristics of diode, BJT, JFET and MOSFET. Diode circuits. Transistors at low and
high frequencies, Amplifiers, single and multi-stage. Feedback amplifiers. Operational
amplifiers, characteristics and circuit configurations. Instrumentation amplifier.
Precision rectifier. V-to-I and I-to-V converter. Op-Amp based active filters. Oscillators
and signal generators.
ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS

ELECTRONICS ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTATION

1 Mark 2 Mark 1 Mark 2 Mark 1 Mark 2 Mark
Exam Year Ques. Ques. Total Ques. Ques. Total Ques. Ques. Total
2003 5 8 21 3 4 11 4 7 18
2004 4 7 18 3 6 15 3 8 19
2005 3 10 23 2 6 14 2 8 18
2006 2 7 16 2 3 8 2 8 18
2007 2 8 18 3 3 9 2 13 28
2008 1 8 17 1 6 13 3 4 11
2009 6 12 2 3 8 1 5 11
2010 3 3 9 3 1 5 1 4 9
2011 2 4 10 2 2 6 1 6 13
2012 2 3 8 2 2 6 1 2 5
2013 2 6 14 2 3 8 4 4 12
2014 Set-1 5 1 7 2 2 6 3 5 13
2014 Set-2 3 3 9 2 2 6 - - -
2014 Set-3 3 2 7 1 1 3 - - -
2014 Set-4 3 2 7 - - - - - -
2015 Set-1 2 5 12 3 1 5 3 5 13
2015 Set-2 3 4 11 4 1 6 - - -
2015 Set-3 3 4 11 - - - - - -
2016 Set-1 3 2 7 1 - 1 4 3 10
2016 Set-2 2 4 10 1 1 3 - - -
2016 Set-3 3 3 9 - - - - - -
2017 Set-1 3 4 11 3 2 7 4 4 12
2017 Set-2 3 4 7 0 3 6 - - -
2018 3 4 7 0 3 6 - - -
 CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1.1 Introduction 01
1.2 Inverting & Non-Inverting Amplifier 02
1.3 Summing & Difference Amplifier 03
1.4 Voltage Follower 04
1.5 Current to Voltage Converter 05
1.6 Voltage to Current Converter 05
1.7 Instrumentation Amplifier 05
1.8 Integrator & Differentiator 06
1.9 Log & Antilog Amplifier 06
1.10 Filters 08
1.11 Comparators 10
1.12 Zero Crossing Detector 10
1.13 Schmitt Trigger 11
1.14 Multivibrators 12
1.15 Slew Rate 14
1.16 CMRR 14
1.17 Parameters Related To Op-Amp 15

2. DIODE APPLICATIONS

2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Rectifiers 16
2.3 Clippers 21
2.4 Clamper 24
2.5 Voltage Doubler 25
2.6 Voltage Regulator 26

3. BJT BIASING

3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Operating Regions of Transistor 30
3.3 Modes of Operation of BJT 33
3.4 Load Line 34
3.5 Biasing 35

4. SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF BJT

4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Transistors at Low Frequency 39
 4.3 Transistors at High Frequency 46
4.4 T-Model of BJT 49

5. FET ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction 50
5.2 JFET Common Source Amplifier 50
5.3 JFET Self Bias Configuration 51

6. MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

6.1 Introduction 54
6.2 Lower Cut-Off Frequency 55
6.3 Cascode Amplifiers 57
6.4 Current Mirror 58
6.5 Darlington Amplifier 58

7. FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

7.1 Introduction 60
7.2 Types of Amplifiers 62
7.3 Types of Negative Feedback 63
7.4 Oscillators 66
7.5 Audio Frequency Oscillators 66
7.6 Radio Frequency Oscillators 67

8. POWER AMPLIFIERS

8.1 Introduction 71
8.2 Classification of Power Amplifiers 71
8.3 Collector Efficiency 72
8.4 Distortions 72

9. 555 TIMER

9.1 Introduction 74
9.2 Astable Multivibrator 75
9.3 Monostable Multivibrator 76

10. GATE QUESTIONS (ELECTRONICS) 79

11. GATE QUESTIONS (ELECTRICAL) 121

12. GATE QUESTIONS (INSTRUMENTATION) 155

13. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 180

 7 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

A practical amplifier has a gain of nearly

one million i.e. its output is one million
times the input. Also if there is any
disturbance or noise at the input, it will
appear in the amplified form in the output.
There is a strong tendency in amplifiers to The positive feedback increases the
introduce hum due to sudden temperature gain of the amplifier. However, it has
changes or stray electric and magnetic the disadvantages of increased distortion
fields. Therefore, every high gain amplifier and instability. Therefore, positive
tends to give noise along with signal in its feedback is rarely employed in amplifiers.
output. The noise in the output of an One important use of positive feedback
amplifier is undesirable and must be kept is in oscillators. As we shall see in this
to as small a level as possible chapter, if positive feedback is sufficiently
The noise level in amplifiers can be reduced large, it leads to oscillations. As a matter
considerably by the use of negative feedback of fact, an oscillator is a device that
i.e. by injecting a fraction of output in phase converts DC power into AC power of
opposition to the input signal. any desired frequency. The gain with
positive feedback is
7.1.1 FEEDBACK Av
A vf 
1  A vβ
The process of injecting a fraction of output
energy of some device back to the input is 2) Negative feedback:
known as feedback. Depending upon whether
the feedback energy aids or opposes the When the feedback energy (voltage or
input signal, there are two basic types of current) is out of phase with the input
feedback in amplifiers viz positive feedback signal and thus opposes it, it is called
and negative feedback. negative feedback. This is illustrated in
Fig. As you can see, the amplifier
1) Positive feedback: introduces a phase shift of 180° into the
circuit while the feedback network is so
When the feedback energy (voltage or designed that it introduces no phase
current) is in phase with the input shift (i.e. 0°phase shift). The result is
signal and thus aids it, it is called that the feedback voltage Vf is 180° out
positive feedback. This is illustrated in of phase with the input signalVin .
Fig. Both amplifier and feedback
network introduce a phase shift of 180°.
The result is a 360° phase shift around
the loop, causing the feedback voltage
Vf to be in phase with the input signal
Vin .

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60

Negative feedback reduces the gain of
the amplifier. However, the advantages
of negative feed-back are: reduction in
distortion, stability in gain, increased
bandwidth and improved input and
output impedances. It is due to these
advantages that negative feedback is
frequently employed in amplifiers. The
Voltage gain with negative feedback is
Av
A vf 
1  A vβ
Where, A v  gain without
feedback β  gain of feedback network
feedback factor
7.1.2 ADVANTAGES OF
FEEDBACK
The following are the advantages of
negative voltage feedback in amplifiers:
1) Gain tability:
An important advantage of negative
voltage feedback is that the resultant
gain of the amplifier can be made
independent of transistor parameters
or the supply voltage variations. For
negative feedback in an amplifier to be
effective, the designer deliberately
makes the product A vβ much greater
than unity. Therefore the gain with
feedback can be written as
Av 1
A vf   Consequently, the circuit stability is
A vβ β
It may be seen that the gain now
depends only upon feedback fraction β
i.e. on the characteristics of feedback
circuit. As feedback circuit is usually a
voltage divider (a resistive network),
therefore, it is unaffected by changes in
temperature, variations in transistor
parameters and frequency. Hence, the
gain of the amplifier is extremely stable.
2) Reduces non-linear distortion:
A large signal stage has non-linear
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Feedback Amplifiers
distortion because its voltage gain
changes at various points in the cycle.
The negative voltage feedback reduces
the nonlinear distortion in large signal
amplifiers. It can be proved
mathematically that:
D
Df 
1  A vβ
Where, Df  distortion with feedback
D→ distortion without feedback
Note:
D is sometimes also called as harmonic
distortion.
3) Increases circuit stability:
NEGATIVE
The output of an ordinary amplifier is
easily changed due to variations in
ambient temperature, frequency and
signal amplitude. This changes the gain
of the amplifier, resulting in distortion.
However, by applying negative voltage
feedback, voltage gain of the amplifier is
stabilized or accurately fixed in value.
This can be easily explained. Suppose
the output of a negative voltage feedback
amplifier has increased because of
temperature change or due to some
other reason. This means more negative
feedback since feedback is being given
from the output. This tends to oppose
the increase in amplification and
maintains it stable. The same is true
when the output voltage decrease.
considerably increased.
4) Increases Bandwidth:
For an amplifier its gain bandwidth
product is always constant.
Gain  Bandwidth  constant
With negative feedback gain of amplifier
decreases hence band width increases.
5) Decreased Noise:
The noise level in amplifiers can be
reduced considerably by the use of
61
 Feedback Amplifiers
negative feedback. It can be proved For a current amplifier the input is
mathematically that current & the output is also current. The
N current gain of the current amplifier is
Nf 
1  Aβ given by
Where, Nf  noise in amplifier with  R S  R o 
Ai  A I   
feedback  R S  R i  R o  R L 
N = noise in amplifier without feedback Where, A i is practical current gain
It is clear that by applying negative A i is ideal current gain
feedback to an amplifier, noise is
reduced by a factor 1  Aβ . For A i to be equal to A I , the output
resistance R o   & R i  0 . Therefore
7.2 TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS for ideal current amplifier Ro   &
Ri  0 .
1) Voltage amplifier:
3) Transconductance amplifier:

For a voltage amplifier the input is

For a transconductance amplifier the
voltage & the output is also voltage. The
input is voltage & the output is current.
voltage gain of the voltage amplifier is
The transconductance gain of the
given by
transconductance amplifier is given by
 R i  R L 
Av  AV     R i  R o 
 R i  R S  R L  R o  Gm  GM   
 R i  R S  R o  R L 
Where, A v is practical voltage gain Where,
A v is ideal voltage gain G m is practical transconductance gain
For A v to be equal to A v , the output G M is ideal transconductance gain
resistance R o  0 & R i   . Therefore For G m to be equal to G M , the output
for ideal voltage amplifier Ro  0 & resistance R o   & R i   . Therefore
Ri   . for ideal transconductance amplifier
Ro   & R i   .
2) Current amplifier:
4) Transresistance amplifier:

For a transresistance amplifier the

input is current & the output is voltage.
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62
 Feedback Amplifiers
It is also called as series-shunt
feedback. In Voltage Series Feedback
Amplifiers, output voltage is sampled
and connected in series with the
external input signalat the input
port of the amplifier. The voltage
gain of the amplifier decreases by a
factor (1  A vβ)
Av
i.e. A vf 
1  A vβ
Also the input impedance of the 1) Current-Series feedback:
amplifier increases & output
impedance decreases by a factor
(1  Aβ)
i.e. R if  R i (1  Avβ)
Ro
and R of 
1  A vβ
It is also called as series-series
2) Voltage-Shunt feedback:
feedback. In current series feedback
amplifiers, the output current is sampled
and the feedback output signal from the
feedback network is connected in series
with input signal. The transconductance
gain of the transconductance amplifier
decreases by a factor (1  G mβ)
Gm
i.e. G mf 
1  G mβ
It is also called as shunt-shunt feedback.
In voltage shunt feedback amplifiers, Also the input impedance & output
the output voltage is sampled and the impedance of the amplifier increases by
feedback output signal from the a factor (1  G mβ)
feedback network is connected in shunt i.e. R if  R i (1  G mβ)
across input signal. The transresistance and R of  R o (1  G mβ)
gain of the transresistance amplifier
decreases by a factor (1  R mβ)
2) Current-Shunt feedback:
Rm
i.e. R mf 
1  R mβ
Also the input impedance & output
impedance of the amplifier decreases
by a factor (1  R mβ)
Ri
i.e. R if 
1  R mβ
Ro
and R of  It is also called as shunt-series
1  R mβ feedback. In current shunt feedback
amplifiers, the output current is

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64
 Feedback Amplifiers
sampled and the feedback output signal Av
 A vf 
from the feedback network is connected 1  A vβ
in shunt across input signal. The 140
current gain of the current amplifier  17.5 
decreases by a factor (1  Aiβ)
1  140β
 1  140β  8
Ai
i.e. Aif   β  0.05  5%
1  A iβ
Also the input impedance decrease & Therefore 5% of the output is feedback to
output impedance of the amplifier the input.
increases by a factor (1  Aiβ)
Ri Example
i.e. R if 
1  A iβ An amplifier has a voltage gain of 250 and a
bandwidth of 400 KHz without feedback. If
and R of  R o (1  Aiβ)
negative feedback (β=0.01) is applied, what
is the bandwidth of the amplifier?
Note: Solution
1) The gain of the amplifier can be written Gain bandwidth product for an amplifier is
as A  dA always constant & we know that with
Where, A is gain of the amplifier and d A negative the voltage gain of amplifier
is absolute change in gain decreases b (1  Aβ) , hence the bandwidth
2) The gain of the amplifier can also be
increases by (1  Aβ)
written as A  %dA
Where, A is gain of the amplifier and BWf  BW(1  Aβ) 
% dA is percentage change in gain BWf  400 1  250  0.01  1.4MHz
3) If absolute gain is know, the % change
can be calculated as Example
dA Calculate the closed-loop gain for the
% dA  100%
A negative feedback amplifier with
4) The percentage change in gain with Av  100,000
feedback is given by and β  1/100 .
%dA
% dAf  Also calculate the closed-loop gain when
1  Aβ the open-loop gain is changed by ±50%.
5) If D is harmonic distortion in the Solution
amplifier without feedback, the The closed loop gain is
harmonic distortion with feedback is Av 100000
D A vf  
Df  1  A vβ 1  100000  0.01
1  Aβ
 A vf  99.9
%dA
Example Now, %dA f 
The overall gain of a multistage amplifier is 1  Aβ
140. When negative voltage feedback is 50
 %dAf 
applied, the gain is reduced to 17.5. Find 1  100000  0.01
the fraction of the output that is feedback  %dAf  0.05%
to the input. Therefore the gain with feedback is
Solution 99.9  0.05%
Given A v  140 , A vf  17.5
We know that,

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65
 Feedback Amplifiers
7.4 OSCILLATORS undamped oscillations can be obtained
at the output immediately after
Many electronic devices require a source of connecting the necessary power supplies
energy at a specific frequency which may
range from a few Hz to several MHz. This is 7.5 AUDIO FREQUENCY OSCILLATORS
achieved by an electronic device called an
oscillator. Oscillators are extensively used An oscillator is composed of an amplifier and
in electronic equipment. For example, in a frequency selective element, a filter. An
radio and television receivers, oscillators oscillator circuit which uses an RC network,
are used to generate high frequency wave a combination of resistors and capacitors,
(called carrier wave) in the tuning stages. for its frequency selective part is called
Audio frequency and radio frequency an RC oscillator & it generates oscillation in
signals are required for the repair of radio, audio frequency range. There are two types
television and other electronic equipment. of audio frequency oscillators:
Oscillators are also widely used in radar,
electronic computers and other electronic 7.5.1 RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
devices. Oscillators can produce sinusoidal
or non-sinusoidal (e.g. square wave) waves. This circuit uses the property of RC filters
In this chapter, we shall confine our to cause a phase shift, and by using
attention to sinusoidal oscillators i.e. those multiple filters, a feedback circuit with
which produce sine-wave signals. An exactly 180° phase shift can be produced.
electronic device that generates sinusoidal When used with a common emitter
oscillations of desired frequency is known amplifier, which also has a phase shift of
as a sinusoidal oscillator. 180° between base and collector, the filters
Although we speak of an oscillator as produce positive feedback to cause
“generating” a frequency, it should be oscillation to take place. The RC network
noted that it does not create energy, but commonly used is that of a high pass filter,
merely acts as an energy converter. It which produces a phase shift of between 0°
receives DC energy and changes it into AC and 90° depending on the frequency of the
energy of desired frequency. The frequency signal used, although low pass filters can
of oscillations depends upon the constants also be used.
of the device.

7.4.1 BARKHAUSEN’S CRITERION

Barkhausen criterion is that in order to

produce continuous undamped oscillations
at the output of an amplifier, the positive
feedback should be such that: The frequency of oscillation for a BJT RC
1) The total gain provided to the signal in phase shift oscillator is
1
loop must be equal to unity. fo 
| Aβ | 1 R 
2πRC 6  4  C 
2) The total phase around the loop must  R 
be integral multiple of 360o . The minimum value of h fe required for
Aβ  n  360o sustained oscillations is h femin  44.5 and if
Where, n  0,1, 2,3, 4...
h fe is less than the said value the circuit
Once these conditions are set in the
won’t oscillate.
positive feedback amplifier, continuous

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66
 Feedback Amplifiers
circuit. The Wien Bridge Oscillator is a two
stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has
good stability at its resonant frequency,
low distortion and is very easy to tune
making it a popular circuit as an audio
frequency oscillator but the phase shift of
the output signal is considerably different
The frequency of oscillation for an OP-AMP from the previous phase shift RC Oscillator.
RC phase shift oscillator is The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback
1
fo  circuit consisting of a series RC circuit
2πRC 6 connected with a parallel RC of the same
For sustained oscillation, the gain of the component values producing a phase delay
amplifier must be atleast 29 or phase advance circuit depending upon
| A | 29 the frequency. At the resonant
We know that for an oscillator frequency f o the phase shift is 0° hence the
| Aβ | 1 amplifier is used in non-inverting mode.
1 The frequency of oscillation is given by
 β
29 1
fo 
In the oscillator shown in the figure, the 2πRC
amplifier used in inverting mode & its gain is For sustained oscillation, the gain of the
R R amplifier must be atleast 3
A f And | A | f
R1 R1 | A | 3
We know that, | A | 29 We know that for an oscillator
Rf | Aβ | 1
  29  R f  29R1 1
R1  β
3
In the Wien bridge oscillator shown in the
7.5.2 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
figure, the amplifier is used in non-
inverting mode & its gain is
R R
A  1 f and A  1 f
R1 R1
We know that, | A | 3
R
 1 f  3
R1
 R f  2R1

7.6 RADIO FREQUENCY OSCILLATORS

A circuit which produces electrical

oscillations of any desired frequency is
known as an oscillatory circuit or tank
circuit. A simple oscillatory circuit consists
of a capacitor (C) and inductance coil (L) in
parallel as shown in Fig. This electrical
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called system can produce electrical oscillations
because the circuit is based on a frequency- of frequency determined by the values of L
selective form of the Whetstone bridge and C. To understand how this comes about,

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67
 Feedback Amplifiers
suppose the capacitor is charged from a The energy is alternately stored in the
D.C. source with a polarity as shown in Fig. electric field of the capacitor (C) and the
magnetic field of the inductance coil (L).
This interchange of energy between L
and C is repeated over and again resulting
in the production of oscillations.

7.6.1 COLPITT’s OSCILLATOR

1) In the position shown in Fig.1, the
upper plate of capacitor has deficit of
electrons and the lower plate has excess
of electrons. Therefore, there is a
voltage across the capacitor and the
capacitor has electrostatic energy.
2) When switch S is closed as shown in
Fig.2, the capacitor will discharge
through inductance and the electron
flow will be in the direction indicated
by the arrow. This current flow sets up Figure below shows a Colpitt's oscillator. It
magnetic field around the coil. Due to uses two capacitors and placed across a
the inductive effect, the current builds common inductor L and the centre of the
up slowly towards a maximum value. two capacitors is tapped. The tank circuit is
The current in the circuit will be made up of C1 , C 2 and L. The frequency of
maximum when the capacitor is fully oscillations is determined by the values of
discharged. At this instant, electrostatic C1 , C 2 and L and is given by;
energy is zero but because electron 1
motion is greatest (i.e. maximum fo 
2π LC
current), the magnetic field energy
CC
around the coil is maximum. This is Where, C 1 2
shown in Fig.2. Obviously, the C1  C2
electrostatic energy across the capacitor
is completely converted into magnetic Circuit operation:
field energy around the coil.
3) Once the capacitor is discharged, the When the circuit is turned ON, the
magnetic field will begin to collapse and capacitors C1 & C 2 are charged. The
produce counter e.m.f. According to capacitors discharge through L, setting up
Lenz's law, the counter e.m.f. will keep oscillations of frequency determined by exp
the current flowing in the same given above. The output voltage of the
direction. The result is that the capacitor amplifier appears across C1 and feedback
is now charged with opposite polarity,
making upper plate of capacitor negative voltage is developed across C 2 . The voltage
& lower plate positive as shown in Fig.3. across it is 180° out of phase with the
4) After the collapsing field has recharged voltage developed across C1 (Vout ) as shown
the capacitor, the capacitor now begins in Fig.
to discharge; current now flowing in the
opposite direction. Fig.4 shows capacitor
fully discharged and maximum current
flowing. The sequence of charge and
discharge results in alternating motion
of electrons or an oscillating current.
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68
 Feedback Amplifiers
It is easy to see that voltage feedback across L1 and feedback voltage acrossL2 .
(voltage across C 2 ) to the transistor The voltage across L 2 is 180° out of phase
provides positive feedback. A phase shift of with the voltage developed across L1 (Vout )
180° is produced by the transistor and a
further phase shift of 180° is produced by as shown in Fig.
C1  C2 voltage divider. In this way,
feedback is properly phased to produce
continuous undamped oscillation.
The amount of feedback voltage in Colpitt’s
oscillator depends upon feedback factor β
of the circuit. For this circuit, It is easy to see that voltage feedback (i.e.,
V XC C voltage across L 2 ) to the transistor
β f  2  1 provides positive feedback. A phase shift of
Vout X C1 C2
180° is produced by the transistor and a
further phase shift of 180° is produced by
7.6.2 HARTLEY’S OSCILLATOR
L1  L2 voltage divider. In this way,
feedback is properly phased to produce
continuous undamped oscillations. The
amount of feedback voltage in Colpitt’s
oscillator depends upon feedback factor β
of the circuit. For this circuit,
V XL L
β f  2  2
Vout X L1 L1
The Hartley oscillator is similar to Colpitt’s
oscillator with minor modifications. Instead Example
of using tapped capacitors, two inductors In the Wien bridge oscillator shown in
L1 and L 2 are placed across a common figure, R1  R 2  220kΩ & C1  C2  250pF .
capacitor C and the centre of the inductors Determine the frequency of oscillations.
is tapped as shown in Fig. The tank circuit
is made up of L1 , L 2 and C. The frequency
of oscillations is determined by the values
of L1 , L 2 and C and is given by:
1
fo 
2π LC
Where, L  L1  L2  2M
M = mutual inductance between L1 and L 2

Circuit operation:
Solution
The frequency of oscillations is
When the circuit is turned on, the capacitor
1
is charged. When this capacitor is fully fo  
charged, it discharges through coils L1 and 2πRC
1
L 2 setting up oscillations of frequency fo   2.893KHz
2π  220 103  250 1012
determined by above expression. The
output voltage of the amplifier appears 7.6.3 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
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69
 Feedback Amplifiers
In order to use crystal in an electronic Resonant frequencies:
circuit, it is placed between two metal
plates. The arrangement then forms a 1) The frequency at which the vibrating
capacitor with crystal as the dielectric as crystal behaves as a series-resonant
shown in figure. circuit is called series-resonant
frequency f s . Its value is given by:
1
fs 
2π LC
2) The frequency at which the vibrating
crystal behaves as a parallel-resonant
crystal will start vibrating at the frequency circuit is called parallel-resonant
of applied voltage. However, if the frequency f p .
frequency of the applied voltage is made
1
equal to the natural frequency of the fp 
crystal, resonance takes place and crystal 2π LCT
vibrations reach a maximum value. This C  Cm
natural frequency is almost constant. Where, CT 
C  Cm
Effects of temperature change can be
eliminated by mounting the crystal in a Figure shows the transistor crystal
temperature-controlled oven as in radio oscillator. Note that it is a Colpitt’s
and television transmitters. The natural oscillator modified to act as a crystal
frequency f of a crystal is inversely oscillator. The only change is the
proportional to crystal thickness & is given addition of the crystal (Y) in the
by: feedback network. The crystal will act
K as a parallel-tuned circuit. As you can
f see in this circuit that instead of
t
resonance caused by L and  C1  C2  , we
Where, K is a constant that depends upon
the cut and t is the thickness of the crystal. have the parallel resonance of the
crystal.
Equivalent circuit:

When the crystal is not vibrating, it is A phase shift of 180° is produced by the
equivalent to capacitance Cm because it transistor. A further phase shift of 180°
plates separated by a dielectric. This is produced by the capacitor voltage
capacitance is known as mounting divider. This oscillator will oscillate
capacitance. only at f p . Even the smallest deviation
When the crystal is vibrating, its equivalent
electrical circuit is as shown in figure. L is from f p will cause the oscillator to act as
the electrical equivalent of crystal mass, C an effective short.
is the electrical equivalent of elasticity and
R is electrical equivalent of mechanical
friction. has two metal

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