CHAPTER 24: HUMAN IMPACTS, BIODIVERSITY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ▪ Deforestation

Pollutants impair air quality ▪ Removing trees from big areas of land
• air we breathe is primarily nitrogen (79%) and oxygen (21%) ▪ Due to indiscriminate logging for wood and widespread burning of forests to create
• Air contains trace amounts of thousands of chemicals or particles that have adverse effects on living organisms, new cropland
collectively known as pollution ▪ Fewer trees to absorb CO2 from atmosphere
• Major concerns regarding air pollution ▪ Deforestation by burning is doubly damaging—fewer trees to absorb CO2, carbon
o Global warming in burned wood is release into atmosphere
o Destruction of ozone layer o Excessive production of greenhouse gases is increasing greenhouse effect and raising average global
o Acid rain temperature, aka global warming
o Smog • CFCs Deplete the Ozone Layer
• Excessive Greenhouse Gases Lead to Global Warming o Ozone: two different atmospheric locations
o Greenhouse gases in the stratosphere trap heat and keep it from escaping the atmosphere ▪ Pollutant in troposphere (near Earth’s surface)
o Cause atmosphere to heat up and warm earth, a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect ▪ Formed by reaction of O2 with automobile exhaust and industrial pollution
▪ Protective shield in the stratosphere
▪ Shields earth’s surface from UV light
o 1980s: stratospheric ozone was suffering significant damage due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
▪ Migrate to stratosphere and decompose
▪ Release Cl atoms
▪ Cl atoms combine with O3 and destroy it, producing O2
▪ Single Cl atom may destroy 10,000 O3 molecules
▪ CFCs: group of chemicals used in refrigerators, air cons, aerosol sprays.
o 1985: stratospheric ozone layer had thinned noticeably in S. Hemisphere over Antarctica
▪ UN: skin cancer rates will rise
o 1987: agreement was signed to phase out CFCs
o Mid 1990s: size of hole in ozone layer had stabilized
• Pollutants produce Acid rain
o Major source of acid in atmosphere is from sulfur dioxide from burning high sulfur coal and oil
o Nitrogen oxides from car exhaust
o Sulfur dioxide + nitrogen oxide + water vapor = sulfuric acid + nitric acid
o Solar radiant energy reaches Earth’s atmosphere
o Acid precipitation damage includes:
o Solar radiant energy is reflected back into space, most of it strikes Earth
▪ Corrosion of metal and stone
o After hitting Earth, small fraction of olar radiant energy is reflected out to space, most becomes heat at
Earth’s surface or is radiated back from Earth’s surface as infrared radiation (heat)
▪ Disruption of forest and aquatic ecosystem
o Infrared radiation is reflected back to Earth by clouds, some escapes toto space
o North America, the Northeastern US and parts of Canada have been affected
o Remaining infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases in stratosphere, reradiated in all o Acid precipitation is decreasing due to pollution abatement measures
directions o 1970s: coal burning power plants are required to install sulfur removal and capture systems (scrubbers)
to reduce SO2 emissions
o Results in increase of Earth’s surface temperature
o Maintains normal surface temperature of Earth o 1985: deposition of sulfur in rainwater has declined by 33% in the US
o Greenhouse gases • Smog Blankets Industrial Areas
▪ water vapor (60%) o Smoke + fog = smog
▪ CO2 o Components
▪ CH4 ▪ Nitrogen oxides
▪ N2O ▪ Hydrocarbons
▪ CFCs: used as refrigerants ▪ Eye and respiratory irritants
▪ halons: contain bromine, used in fire extinguishers ▪ Small oil droplets, wood particles, coal ash. Asbestos, lead, animal waste, dust
o Most of CO2 accumluated over millions of years from respiration, volcanoes, fires, plant decay o Components react with each other in the presence of sunlight
o In modern times, human activities increased the levels of CO2 o They form hazy brown or gray layer of smog
▪ Burning of fossil fuels o Major source: burning of fossil fuels and automobile exhausts
o Smog contains chemicals that irritate eyes and lungs
▪ Carbon from fossil fuels came from decayed plant material that was buried
underground by sedimentary processes
▪ Lead to chronic respiratory illnesses (asthma, emphysema)
o May also contain small oil droplets, particles of wood or coal ash, asbestos, lead, dusts, animal waste
▪ Burning fossil fuels releases carbon into air as CO2
 o Thermal inversion: warm, stagnant upper layer of air traps a cooler air mass containing smog beneath it ▪ Excess nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers in the water in agribusiness in the
o California passed strict automobile antipollution laws Midwest result in regular deadzones
o Regions in the US require use of cleaner-burning, oxygenated automobile fuels containing ethanol or o Toxic pollutants
methanol ▪ Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
o Use of lead as fuel additive has been reduced ▪ Oil and gasoline
o Cairo and Mexico city have not yet solved their smog problems ▪ Pesticides
Pollution Jeopardizes Scarce Water Supplies ▪ Herbicides
o Human activities ▪ Heavy metals
▪ Excessive usage of water depletes water supplies ▪ Cannot be degraded by biological decomposition
▪ Replacement of natural vegetation with buildings and roads in urban areas prevents rainwater ▪ Remain in environment for a long time
from soaking in, causing runoff ▪ Biological magnification: the concentration of toxic pollutants is higher in the tissues of
▪ Pollute sources of water organisms higher on the food chain
• Water is Scarce and Unequally Distributed ▪ Ex: mercury emitted from coal burning, gold production, smelters for nonferrous
o Distribution of Earth’s Water metal production, and cement production. When released into air or land, it often
▪ Fresh water in aquifers: <1% ends up in aquatic ecosystems
▪ Salt water: >97% ▪ Accumulates by biological magnification in tertiary consumers (sharks, tuna,
▪ Glaciers/polar ice caps: 2% whales)
o Water is unevenly distributed ▪ Mercury exposure can result to loss of coordination, decreased memory and
o Industrialized countries use 10 to 100 times more water than less industrialized countries intellect, poor immune system function
o Some desert and semiarid countries have reached carrying capacity with regard to water supplies ▪ Preganant women and children are at risk
o Diversion of water impact other human population and other species
• Urbanization increases storm water runoff
o Shift from woodlands and fields to impermeable roads and buildings has caused major stormwater
problems
o In US East Coast, stormwater combines with sewage, leading to combined sewage overflow (CSO)
o CSOs are a major source of pathogens
▪ Causes gastroenteritis, eye and ear infections, skin rashes, repiratory infections, hepatitis
o Use of pipes to transport stormwater from building and roads to streams leads to stream overflows and
insufficient water levels
▪ Erosion of stream beds and loss of aquatic life
o Restoration of urban streams seeks to stabilize stream channels, reduce channel erosion, and restore
aquatic wildlife populations
• Human Activities Pollute Freshwater
o Untreated sewage, chemicals from factories, pesticide and fertilizer runoff, rubber and oil degrade and
decompose or end up in water or soil o Disease causing organisms
o Organic pollutants ▪ In human sewage
▪ From sewage treatment plants and industries ▪ sediments from soil erosion that clog waterways
▪ Nutrients are degraded by bacteria ▪ Excess nitrogen fertilizers
▪ Rapid bacterial growth depletes water’s oxygen supplies ▪ Heat pollution from power plants
o Inorganic Pollutants ▪ Reduces amount of oxygen that water can carry. Increases oxygen demand by
▪ Nitrates aquatic organisms
▪ Phosphate fertilizers • Groundwater Pollution May Impair Human Health
▪ Sulfates from detergents o Contaminates drinking water supplies
▪ Cause algal growth, which die and decomposed by bacteria o Very slow exchange of the groundwater pool: cleans slowly
o May result in eutrophication o Common contaminants
▪ In a shallow body of water, rapid growth of plants life leads to death of animal life resulting ▪ Organic solvents (CCl3, pesticides, fertilizers such as nitrates)
from excessive organic or inorganic nutrients o Can contribute to miscarriages, skin rashes, nervous disorders, birth defects
▪ Part of the normal process whereby freshwater ponds become marsh and then dry land o Disposal of radioactive water
▪ However, human activities accelerate the process ▪ Used in nuclear power plants and in the diagnosis and treatment of human disease
o Oil pollution sources
 ▪ 50% natural seepage o Desertification: transformation of marginal lands into near-desert conditions unsuitable for future
▪ 30% runoff runoff from land agriculture
▪ 20% accidents at sea o Every year, 15M acres of land become desert
▪ 2010: This fraction will likely be larger due to the Deepwater Horizon explosion • Wars
and spill o In Iraq, draining of marshlands of the Euphrates/Tigris resulted in the loss of farmland
▪ Ultimate fate of oil released at sea: o Oil spill ate the Jiyyeh power station during Israeli-Hezbollah conflict resulted in damage to 150 km of
▪ 25% evaporates Lebanese and Syrian coastline
▪ 50% degraded by bacteria • Garbage disposal
▪ 25% sediments o Landfills—contribute to ground and water pollution
• Oil Pollution and Garbage Are Damaging Oceans and Shorelines o Chose to recycle
o 2010: oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico
▪ Deepwater Horizon drilling facility was destroyed Energy: many options, many choices
▪ Largest oil spill in US history • Non renewable energy sources: cannot be replenished
▪ Oil ended up on beaches, coastal estuaries, wetlands o Fossil fuels: coal, oil, gas
o Several million tons of oil enter ocean ▪ Burning them contributes to global warming, acid rain, smog
▪ 50% from natural seepage • Renewable energy sources
▪ 30% from oil disposal on land o Nuclear energy
▪ 20% from sea accidents ▪ Can supply a lot of power with little starting raw material
o When oil is spilled at sea, 25% evaporates, nearly 50% is degraded by bacteria, remaining settles to ▪ Expensive—safety, disposal issues
ocean floor ▪ Generates radioactive waste
o Oil may coat living organisms o Biomass fuels (biofuels)
o Shoreline ecosystems may be damaged for years ▪ Use of plant materials for fuels
▪ Loss of breeding ground for shrimp and fish ▪ Wood and dung of herbivores
o Cleaning up oil spill may sift some to the pollution to land (if oil is buried) or air (if oil is burned) ▪ Pollute the air and not easily transported
o Garbage ▪ Ethanol is used for automobiles
▪ Plastic does not degrade quickly ▪ Biodiesel from plant oils for trucks and buses
▪ Styro cups may not degrade fully for 5o years ▪ Large scale production can only take place where biofuel crops can be grown (US cornfields
▪ Plastic cups may take over 400 years or sugar plantations in Brazil)
▪ Floating garbage ends up on shorelines or accumulates as giant rafts in certain regions of the ▪ Land use issues (food or fuel?)
ocean o Hydroelectric power
▪ Great Pacific garbage patch or Pacific Trash Vortex ▪ Where flowing water is readily available
▪ Hydroelectric power plants use kinetic energy of water to turn turbines that drive electric
Pollution and Overuse Damage the Land generators
• Problem lies in how we use land ▪ Incur environmental costs—damming rivers, which disrupts valley and river ecosystems
• Humans consume a lot and alter environmental landscape o Wind farms and Geothermal energy
o Dam rivers (hydroelectric power), strip mountaintops (coal), cut down forests (lumber and crops) ▪ No need for cooling water
• US economy accounts for direct consumption of 22 tons of fuels, metals, minerals, and biomass for every person ▪ Wind farms allow rural areas to retain jobs and to transmit energy via utility grids
each year ▪ Geothermal energy is plentiful near active volcanoes (5% of California’s energy, 25% of El
o Amounts to 88 tons per US citizen if we take into account the amount of earth moved to infrastructures Salvador’s energy)
plus the erosion of soil by agricultural and forestry activities o Solar power
• 1/3 of Earth’s landmass has been altered by human activity ▪ Can be harnesses to generate energy
• 50% of forests have been removed ▪ Photovoltaic panels convert light directly into energy
▪ Panels absorb photons and release electrons as direct current
• Migration to cities
o footprint of cities expands, consuming productive land and and increasing water runoff issues ▪ When only a small amount of power is needed
o Cities expand into nearby farmland ▪ Powerful mirrors
o Cities require large amounts of water and power ▪ To create electricity on commercial scale
o Generate waste and pollution in relatively small area ▪ Mirrors are used to focus sunlight in a fluid, heating the water to produce steam
• Rural land use ▪ Steam is used to run turbines to generate electricity for the electrical grid
o >50% of the world lives in rural poverty, many rely on local environment to survive ▪ 30% efficiency, impractical to meet all current energy demands
▪ However, efficiency improves each year
 ▪ They contribute to <1% of world’s energy needs o GDP: total market value of all goods and services produced within a country in a year
Environmental change and loss of biodiversity o Genuine progress indicator (GPI): alternative measure. Makes adjustments to the total market value of
• Biodiversity: species richness, assortment of living organisms on Earth. goods and services to account for environmental costs as well as negative economic and social costs
o Can be measured by number of species (we have 1.75M) associated with increased production. Quality of life is taken into account. It weighs the value of all
o Variety of all forms of life (species to ecosystems) goods and services produced against enjoyment of life
o Measure of ecological health • Strategies to support sustainable development
• Humans alter and destroy habitats o Consume less
o Pollution and overexploitation of natural resources are destroying habitats and driving many species of ▪ Use fewer resources, generate less garbage, cause less pollution
plants and animals toward extinction o Recycle more
o Farming, monoculture: reduces species variability ▪ Recycle reusable materials (paper, metal, plastic) to reduce manufacturers’ need for raw
o Intensive farming practices: lead to soil erosion materials and consumption of resources
o Modern farming practices: crop rotation and no-till farming correct these ▪ Collect, compost, recycle leave and organic material
o Deforestation: in rainforests, trees are cut down to make way for subsistence farming—farmers grow o Encourage sustainable agriculture
food to feed themselves and their families ▪ Current agriculture is based on industrial model referred to as agribusiness
▪ Rain forests do not make good farmland ▪ Emphasized high production
▪ Intensive subsistence farming depletes soil’s nutrients ▪ Food is abundant and cheap but at the expense of nature
▪ Farmers routinely clear a fresh section of rainforest, starting another destructive cycle ▪ Develop systems to raise crops and livestock following the principles found in nature
▪ Clear-cut areas are slow to recover ▪ Avoid depleting earth’s resources
o Commercial logging ▪ Planting coffee plants under shade trees
▪ European and M. Eastern countries harvest 800-yr-old hardwood trees in Africa and ship ▪ Rotating crops between nitrogen fixers can reduce use of synthetic fertilizers
them to other continents ▪ Buy local
▪ 5-7M acres are left from 70M acres of the Ivory Coast o Support green roofs
o Exploitation of scarce resources ▪ Replace conventional roof with vegetated roof system
▪ Poachers cut down 100-yr-old palm trees for the heart of the palm, a gourmet product ▪ Increase energy efficiency of buildings
▪ Illegal hunting of elephants for ivory and monkeys and antelopes for meat ▪ Evaporative cooling from plant material and soil
▪ Complete extinction of passenger pigeon and near extinction of the American bison in the US ▪ Help restore natural water cycle
• Urbanization is a major force for environmental change ▪ Filters and retains stormwater
o Cities are responsible for 78% of carbon emissions, 60% of residential water usage, 76% of wood for ▪ Absorb airborne pollutants
industrial purposes ▪ Convert nitrogen oxide to organic nitrates
o Fewer species, decrease native species, uneven plant coverage, more invasive and exotic plants ▪ Use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
o Shrinks biodiversity of animals o Lower fertility rates
▪ Shift predominantly to insects and birds ▪ Fewer people, less resource consumption, less environmental degradation
o Reduce native species o Reduce rural poverty
▪ Urban sprawl (spread of urban development) reduces populations of migratory birds in S. ▪ Marginalized people think of their immediate needs, not future environmental impacts
latitudes ▪ People need a viable economic alternative to destruction of their own habitat
• Biodiversity in healthy for humans, too o Conserve energy in your home
▪ We depend on plants for healthy atmosphere ▪ opt for renewable energy
▪ Through photosynthesis, plants consume CO2 and produce O2 ▪ Photovoltaic panels
▪ We depend on other species for clothingm shelter, food, medicine ▪ Energy efficient appliance
▪ 25% of all prescription drugs are based on substances derived from <50 species ▪ Install low emittance glass windows
of plants ▪ Switch incandescent bulbs to compact fluorescent
▪ By increasing biodiversity, we maintain the potential to discover new medicines o Use environmentally preferable products
▪ Food supply must be diverse ▪ Paints low in volatile organic compounds (VOC), composite wood from recycled materials,
▪ Varied diet is essential for optimal health carpets low in VOC and high in recycled content
o Protect ecosystems that provide beneficial services
Toward Sustainable Development ▪ Losing ecosystems equates to losing crucial sources of food and medicines
• Development that meets the neds of the people without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
economic needs
• Measuring sustainability and quality of life
o Economic progress is measured by gross domestic product (GDP)