Manufacturing Science

and
Technology (ME361 A)
Instructors:

Dr. Supratik Mukhopadhyay

(smukh@iitk.ac.in)
Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar
(jrkumar@iitk.ac.in)
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Introduction to Manufacturing
What is manufacturing?
 The term manufacture comes from two Latin words, ‘manus’ meaning hand
and ‘factus’ meaning make.
 Formally, it is a value addition process in which raw materials of lower value
are converted into high-utility and valued products with proper shape, form,
dimensions, finish and imparting some functional ability.
Process

Input Output
(Product)

Value added

Manufacturing as a value addition process

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Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing
Processes

Mass-conserving 𝑑𝑚~0 Mass-reducing 𝑑𝑚 < 0 Mass-adding 𝑑𝑚 > 0

Machining Welding
Forming

Casting Additive
manufacturing
Non-
processes
traditional/
Advanced
Powder machining
metallurgical
processes

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Bulk Deformation Processes

Dr. Supratik Mukhopadhyay
(smukh@iitk.ac.in)

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Reference Books

 A. Ghosh and A.K. Mallick, Manufacturing Science,

EastWest Press
 S. Kalpakjian, S.C. Schmid, Manufacturing
Processes for Engineering Materials, Pearson
Education.
 W.F. Hosford, R.M. Caddell, Metal Forming:
Mechanics and Metallurgy, Prentice Hall PTR.

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Preliminaries
Stress-strain behavior of metals

(a) Perfectly elastic (b) Rigid, perfectly plastic (c) Elastic, perfectly plastic

(d) Rigid, linear strain hardening (e) Elastic, linear strain hardening

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Preliminaries
Yield criterion
 Tresca maximum shear stress criterion (1865).
1
𝜎 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥

 Von-Mises maximum distortion energy criterion (1913)

2 2 2
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 =𝐶

Tresca and von-Mises yield locus under plane stress, 𝜎2 =0

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Preliminaries
1
Plane stress vs Plane strain 𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 )
𝐸 𝑥𝑥
1
𝜀𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 )
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧𝑧 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )
𝐸

 Plane stress (very thin in z dimension)

𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0

 Plane strain (very thick in z dimension)

𝜀𝑧𝑧 = 0
1
∴ 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜈 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 since 𝜈 is 1 due to incompressibility.
2 2

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Rolling

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Overview
 Process and types
 Mechanical Analysis
 Worked examples
 Rolling defects

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Rolling Process

In this process, the job is drawn by

means of friction into the regulated
opening between two power-driven
rolls.
 The final shape and size of the product
decided by gap between the rolls and their
contours.
 Used mainly for making plates and sheets.
 Accounts for more than 90% of all products
resulting from metal forming process.

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Rolling Process

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZND0hDUjJU0

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Common rolling mill types

It is rarely possible to achieve the final cross-section in one step. Hence rolling is
carried out in multiple steps, in a continuous manner, each using a different
rolling equipment.

Two-high rolling mill Three-high rolling mill Four-high rolling mill

Tandem rolling mill Cluster rolling mill

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Grain structure in hot rolling

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Other types of rolling operation

Thread rolling Roll forging

Tube piercing

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Mechanical Analysis
Objective:
 To determine the roll separating forces.
 The torque required to drive the rolls and rolling power.

Assumptions:
 The rolls are straight and rigid cylinders.
 The width of the strip is much larger than thickness and no significant
widening  plane strain problem.
 The coefficient of friction is 𝜇 is low and constant over the entire roll-job
interface.
 The yield stress of the material remains constant for the entire operation, its
value being the average of the values at the start and end of rolling.

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Contd...
 Strip of initial thickness ℎ𝑜 is rolled down to
a final thickness ℎ𝑓 .
 Both rolls have equal radius 𝑅 and rotate
with same circumferential velocity 𝑉𝑟 .
 Velocity at inlet = 𝑉𝑜 , velocity at exit =𝑉𝑓 .
Since volume rate is constant, exit velocity
is greater than inlet velocity ( similar to
fluid flow through a converging channel)
 𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉𝑟 > 𝑉𝑜 . At a particular point in the
working zone, velocity of the strip is equal
to 𝑉𝑟 and this point in known as neutral
point

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Friction for unaided bite

 Since 𝑉𝑜 < 𝑉𝑟 , from entry until neutral point
friction helps in dragging the strip into the
𝑝∆𝑙
gap between rolls. 𝜃𝑜
ℎ𝑓
 𝑉𝑟 < 𝑉𝑓 , after the neutral point, velocity of ℎ𝑜
strip is more than roll, direction of friction
is reversed and friction opposes the motion
of strip.
 For unaided bite:
𝜇𝑝∆𝑙 sin 𝜃𝑜 ≥ 𝑝∆𝑙 sin 𝜃𝑜 𝜇 ≥ tan 𝜃𝑜 𝜇 ≥ 𝜃𝑜 (for small 𝜃𝑜 )

 Also,
ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑓 ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
𝜃𝑜 = = 𝜇≥ ∆ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇2 𝑅 (Maximum draft
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 possible for given 𝜇)

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Roll pressure and it’s distribution

Slab method of analysis under plane strain assumption 𝜃
𝑂1
𝑝
𝑑𝜃
𝑅 𝜇𝑝
ℎ𝑜
ℎ𝑓
𝜎𝑥𝑜 𝜃𝑜 𝜎𝑥𝑓
𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑓
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑂2 𝜇𝑝
𝑝

Considering horizontal equilibrium of forces on strip of length 𝑑𝑥

2 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 − 2𝑦𝜎𝑥 − 2𝜇𝑝𝑅 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃 + 2𝑅𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 0 (Before NP)
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Roll pressure and it’s distribution

Neglecting higher order terms and rearranging:
𝜃
𝑑(𝜎𝑥 𝑦) 𝑝
− 𝜇−𝜃 =0
𝑑𝜃 𝜇𝑝
𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Friction is low (see assumptions) so plane on 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
which 𝑝 acts can be assumed to be a principal
plane. Applying von-Mises criterion: 𝜇𝑝

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2
+ 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2
+ 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2
= 2 𝜎𝑌 2
= 6𝐾 2 𝑝

2 2
1 1 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑝 + 𝜎 −𝑝 +𝑝 + −𝑝 − 𝜎𝑥 = 6𝐾 2
2 2 𝑥

𝑝 + 𝜎𝑥 = 2𝐾

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Roll pressure and it’s distribution

𝑑(𝜎𝑥 𝑦) 𝑑((2𝐾 − 𝑝)𝑦)
− 𝜇 − 𝜃 𝑅𝑝 = 0 − 𝜇 − 𝜃 𝑅𝑝 = 0
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

After NP (neutral point), the direction of friction is reversed. We indicate this

by changing sign of 𝜇 and generalizing the above equation to:

𝑑((2𝐾 − 𝑝)𝑦)
− ±𝜇 − 𝜃 𝑅𝑝 = 0 Applicable to the entire working region
𝑑𝜃
Shear yield strength 𝐾 increases while y decreases due to rolling. The product 𝐾𝑦
remains approximately constant.
𝑝
𝑑(1 − )
2𝐾y 2𝐾 + ∓𝜇 + 𝜃 𝑅𝑝 = 0
𝑑𝜃

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Roll pressure and it’s distribution

Any thickness can be expressed in terms of final thickness and angle subtended at
the roll centre:
2𝑦 = ℎ𝑓 + 2𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃)
ℎ𝑓 𝑅𝜃 2
𝑦= + For small 𝜃
2 2

Substituting 𝑦 in previous equation and rearranging:

𝑝
𝑑
2𝐾 = 2𝑅 𝜃 ∓ 𝜇 𝑑𝜃
𝑝 ℎ𝑓 + 𝑅𝜃 2
2𝐾

Integrating:
𝑝 𝑦 𝑅 𝑅
= 𝐶 𝑒 ∓𝜇𝜆 Where: 𝜆 = 2 tan−1 𝜃
2𝐾 𝑅 ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓

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Roll pressure and it’s distribution

Before Neutral Point After Neutral Point

𝑝 −
𝑦 −𝜇𝜆 𝑝 +
𝑦 +𝜇𝜆
=𝐶 𝑒 =𝐶 𝑒
2𝐾 𝑅 2𝐾 𝑅
At beginning of rolling After neutral point
𝑝𝑜 𝜎𝑥𝑜 ℎ𝑜 −𝜇𝜆 𝑝𝑓 𝜎𝑥𝑓 ℎ
+ 𝑓
=1− = 𝐶− 𝑒 𝑜 =1− =𝐶
2𝐾 2𝐾 2𝑅 2𝐾 2𝐾 2𝑅
−
2𝑅 𝜎𝑥𝑜 𝜇𝜆 +
2𝑅 𝜎𝑥𝑓
𝐶 = 1− 𝑒 𝑜 with, 𝐶 = 1−
ℎ𝑜 2𝐾 ℎ𝑜 2𝐾

𝑅 𝑅
𝜆𝑜 = 2 tan−1 𝜃
ℎ0 ℎ𝑓 𝑜

Finally, Finally,
𝑝𝑜 2𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑜 𝜇(𝜆−𝜆 ) 𝑝𝑜 2𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑓 𝜇𝜆
= 1− 𝑒 𝑜 = 1− 𝑒
2𝐾 before ℎ𝑜 2𝐾 2𝐾 after ℎ𝑜 2𝐾

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Roll pressure and it’s distribution

𝑝
2𝐾

Effect of 𝜇 on rolling Pressure distribution as function of front and

pressure distribution. With
𝜇=0, there would be
slippage and neutral point
will completely shift to
exit.
back tension. As the front tension increases,
neutral point shifts and area of curve
decreases  reduction of roll-force.

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Determination of neutral point

 At neutral point (NP), velocity of the work is same as velocity of the roll.
 Pressure profiles from before and after the neutral point also meet at this point.
Hence we equate the two pressure profiles pertaining to before and after NP:
2𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑜 𝜇(𝜆 −𝜆 ) 2𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑓 𝜇𝜆
1− 𝑒 𝑛 𝑜 = 1− 𝑒 𝑛
ℎ𝑜 2𝐾 ℎ𝑜 2𝐾

𝜎𝑥𝑜
1 1 ℎ𝑓 1−
𝜆𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 2𝐾 + 𝜆𝑜
2 𝜇 ℎ𝑜 𝜎𝑥𝑓
1−
2𝐾

Finally,

ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 𝜆𝑛
𝜃𝑛 = tan
𝑅 𝑅 2

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Rolling force, torque and power

 The total force trying to separate the rolls are obtained by integrating the
vertical component of the forces acting on the interface.
 Angle 𝜃𝑜 is very small, vertical component of friction neglected.

𝜃𝑜 𝜃𝑜 𝜃𝑛 𝜃𝑜

𝐹= 𝑝𝑅 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃 ≈ 𝑝𝑅𝑑𝜃 ≈ 𝑝after 𝑅𝑑𝜃 + 𝑝before 𝑅𝑑𝜃

0 0 0 𝜃𝑛

 The above integrations are generally computed numerically.

 Rolling torque for each roll is given by:

𝜃𝑜 𝜃𝑜 0

𝑇= 𝜇𝑝𝑅2 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜇𝑝before 𝑅2 𝑑𝜃 − 𝜇𝑝after 𝑅2 𝑑𝜃

0 𝜃𝑛 𝜃𝑛

Negative sign due to friction direction reversal after neutral point.

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Rolling force, torque and power

The previous expression is prone to numerical errors due to subtraction of two
large terms.
𝑝
𝐹𝑒
 An alternate method

𝜎𝑥𝑜 ℎ𝑜 𝜎𝑥𝑓 ℎ𝑓

𝑝 𝐹𝑒

Considering equilibrium of the working area , an effective frictional force 𝐹𝑒 is

established:
1 𝜃𝑜 1 𝜃𝑜
𝐹𝑒 = 𝜎𝑥𝑜 ℎ0 − 𝜎𝑥𝑓 ℎ𝑓 + 2 0
𝑝𝑅 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 ≈ 𝜎𝑥𝑜 ℎ0 − 𝜎𝑥𝑓 ℎ𝑓 + 2 0
𝑝𝑅𝜃𝑑𝜃
2 2

𝜃𝑜
1
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑅 = 𝜎𝑥𝑜 ℎ0 − 𝜎𝑥𝑓 ℎ𝑓 𝑅 + 𝑝𝑅2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 Power 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
2 0

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Worked examples

1.

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2.

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Rolling Defects

Wavy edges Cracks Alligatoring

 Result of roll bending,  Result of poor metal  Due to presence of defects
strip is thinner and ductility at the rolling in the original cast material
elongate more than at temperature. or due to nonuniform bulk
the centre. deformation

Roll-bending and its solution using cambered rolls

(a) (b)
Residual stress in rolling (a) small rolls/ small thickness
reduction(b) large rolls/large thickness reduction

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