Foundation

Engineering
Engr. Gabriel Gamana

1.0 Stresses, Strains and Elastic

Deformations of Soil
2.0 Compressibility of Soil
3.0 Shear Strength of Soil
4.0 Lateral Earth Pressure
Table of Contents 5.0 Slope Stability
6.0 Shallow Foundation – Soil Bearing
Capacity
7.0 Deep Foundation – Pile Capacity
8.0 Foundation Design

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 5.1 Introduction
5.0 Slope 5.2 Types of Slope Failure
5.3 Causes of Slope Failure
Stability 5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes
5.5 Finite Slopes

5.1 Introduction

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5.1 Introduction
• Slopes in soils and rocks are ubiquitous in nature and in man-
made structures. Highways, dams, levees, canals, and
stockpiles are constructed by sloping the lateral faces of the
soil because building slopes is generally less expensive than
constructing walls.
• Geotechnical engineers have to pay particular attention to
geology, surface drainage, groundwater, and the shear
strength of soils in assessing slope stability. However, we are
handicapped by the geological variability of soils and methods
for obtaining reliable values of shear strength. The analyses
of slope stability are based on simplifying assumptions, and
the design of a stable slope relies heavily on experience and
careful site investigation. The failed soil mass can move very
quickly over large distances. Your job is to prevent such
failure.
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5.2 Types of Slope Failure

• Slope failures depend on the soil type, soil stratification,
groundwater, seepage, and the slope geometry.
• Failure of a slope along a weak zone of soil is called a
translational slide. The sliding mass can travel long
distances before coming to rest. Translational slides are
common in coarse-grained soils.

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5.2 Types of Slope Failure
A common type of failure in homogeneous fine-grained soils is a
rotational slide that has its point of rotation on an imaginary axis
parallel to the slope. Three types of rotational failure often occur.
One type, called a base slide, occurs by an arc engulfing the
whole slope. A soft soil layer resting on a stiff layer of soil is
prone to base failure.

5.2 Types of Slope Failure

The second type of rotational failure is the toe slide, whereby
the failure surface passes through the toe of the slope

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5.2 Types of Slope Failure
The third type of rotational failure is the slope slide, whereby
the failure surface passes through the slope

5.2 Types of Slope Failure

A flow slide occurs when internal and external conditions force
a soil to behave like a viscous fluid and flow down even shallow
slopes, spreading out in several directions. The failure surface is
ill defined in flow slides. Multiple failure surfaces usually occur
and change continuously as flow proceeds. Flow slides can
occur in dry and wet soils.

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5
5.2 Types of Slope Failure
Block or wedge slides occur when a soil mass is shattered
along joints, seams, fissures, and weak zones by forces
emanating from adjacent soils. The shattered mass moves as
blocks and wedges down the slope.

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5.2 Types of Slope Failure

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6
5.3 Causes of Slope Failure
Erosion - Water and wind continuously erode natural and man-
made slopes. Erosion changes the geometry of the slope
(Figure a), ultimately resulting in slope failure or, more aptly, a
landslide. Rivers and streams continuously scour their banks,
undermining their natural or man-made slopes (Figure b).

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5.3 Causes of Slope Failure

Rainfall - Long periods of rainfall saturate, soften, and erode
soils. Water enters into existing cracks and may weaken
underlying soil layers, leading to failure, for example, mud slides.

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5.3 Causes of Slope Failure
Earthquakes - Earthquakes induce dynamic forces especially
dynamic shear forces that reduce the shear strength and
stiffness of the soil. Porewater pressures in saturated coarse-
grained soils could rise to a value equal to the total mean stress
and cause these soils to behave like viscous fluids—a
phenomenon known as dynamic liquefaction. Structures
founded on these soils would collapse; structures buried within
them would rise.

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5.3 Causes of Slope Failure

Geological Features - Many failures commonly result from
unidentified geological features. A thin seam of silt (a few
millimeters thick) under a thick deposit of stiff clay can easily be
overlooked in drilling operations, or one may be careless in
assessing borehole logs only to find later that the presence of
the silt caused a catastrophic failure. Sloping, stratified soils are
prone to translational slide along weak layers. You must pay
particular attention to geological features in assessing slope
stability.

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8
5.3 Causes of Slope Failure
External Loading - Loads placed on the crest of a slope (the
top of the slope) add to the gravitational load and may cause
slope failure. A load placed at the toe, called a berm, will
increase the stability of the slope. Berms are often used to
remediate problem slopes.

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5.3 Causes of Slope Failure

Construction Activities - Construction activities near the toe of
an existing slope can cause failure because lateral resistance is
removed. We can conveniently divide slope failures due to
construction activities into two cases. The first case is excavated
slope and the second case is fill slope.

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9
5.3 Causes of Slope Failure
Excavated slope - When excavation occurs, the total stresses
are reduced and negative porewater pressures are generated in
the soil. With time the negative porewater pressures dissipate,
causing a decrease in effective stresses and consequently
lowering the shear strength of the soil. If slope failures were to
occur, they would most likely take place after construction is
completed.

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5.3 Causes of Slope Failure

Fill slope - are common in embankment construction. Fill (soil)
is placed at the site and compacted to specifications, usually
greater than 95% Proctor maximum dry unit weight. The soil is
invariably unsaturated, and negative porewater pressures
develop. The soil on which the fill is placed, which we will call
the foundation soil, may or may not be saturated. If the
foundation soil is saturated, then positive porewater pressures
will be generated from the weight of the fill and the compaction
process. The effective stresses decrease, and consequently the
shear strength decreases. With time the positive porewater
pressures dissipate, the effective stresses increase, and so does
the shear strength of the soil. Thus, slope failures in fill slopes
are most likely to occur during or immediately after construction.

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10
5.3 Causes of Slope Failure
Rapid Drawdown - Reservoirs can be subjected to rapid
drawdown. In this case the lateral force provided by the water is
removed and the excess porewater pressure does not have
enough time to dissipate. The net effect is that the slope can fail
under undrained condition. If the water level in the reservoir
remains at low levels and failure did not occur under undrained
condition, seepage of groundwater would occur and the
additional seepage forces could provoke failure.

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5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes

An ‘infinite slope’ is one which represents the boundary surface
of a semi-infinite soil mass inclined to the horizontal. In practice,
if the height of the slope is very large, one may consider it as an
infinite one. It is assumed that the soil is homogeneous in its
properties. If different strata are present the strata boundaries
are assumed to be parallel to the surface. Failure tends to occur
only along a plane parallel to the surface.

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5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes
Let us consider an infinite slope in cohesionless soil, inclined at
an angle β to the horizontal.

𝑊 cos 𝛽 tan Φ tan Φ 𝜏

𝐹 = = =
𝑊 sin 𝛽 tan 𝛽 𝜏
where; 𝐹 = factor of safety with respect to strength
𝜏 = average shear strength of soil
𝜏 = average shear stress develop along the
potential failure surface. 23

5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes

The shear strength of a soil consists of two components,
cohesion and friction.
𝜏 = 𝑐 + 𝜎 tan Φ
where; 𝑐 = cohesion
Φ = angle of friction
𝜎 = normal stress on the potential surface

therefore,
𝜏 𝑐 + 𝜎 tan Φ
𝐹 = =
𝜏 𝜏

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12
5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes
Factor of safety with respect to sliding
𝜏 𝒄′ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜱
𝐹 = = 𝟐
+
𝜏 𝜸𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜷 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷

Factor of safety with respect to cohesion

𝑐 𝒄′ 𝑯𝒄𝒓
𝐹 = = =
𝑐 𝜸𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜷 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜱 𝑯

Factor of safety with respect to friction

tan Φ
𝐹 =
tan Φ

25

5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes

If there is steady state seepage through the soil and the ground
water table coincides with the ground surface, as shown in
Figure below, the factor of safety against sliding can be
determined as.

𝝉𝒇 𝒄′ 𝜸 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜱
𝑭𝒔 = = 𝟐
+
𝝉𝒅 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝑯 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜷 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷 26

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5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes
Problem 5-1
An infinite slope is shown in the figure. The shear strength
parameters at interface of soil and rock are 𝑐 = 18 kPa and Φ =
25°.
a. Determine the factor of safety against sliding, H = 8 m and
β = 20°.
b. Determine the critical height if β = 30°.

Answer
a. 𝑭𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓𝟕
b. 𝑯𝑪𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟏 𝒎 27

5.4 Stability of Infinite Slopes

Problem 5-2
An infinite slope is shown in the figure. Assume that the angle of
friction and cohesion is constant for different soil condition.
a. Determine the factor of safety against sliding if there is
seepage through the soil and the groundwater table
coincides with the ground surface, H = 4 m and β = 20°.
b. Determine the critical height.

Answer
a. 𝑭𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟔
b. 𝑯𝑪𝒓 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟒 𝒎 28

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5.5 Finite Slopes
When the value of 𝐻 approaches the height of the slope, the
slope generally may be considered finite. For simplicity, when
analyzing the stability of a finite slope in a homogeneous soil, we
need to make an assumption about the general shape of the
surface of potential failure. Although considerable evidence
suggests that slope failures usually occur on curved failure
surfaces,

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5.5 Finite Slopes

5.5.1 Plane Failure Surfaces (Culmann’s Methods)
Culmann’s analysis is based on the assumption that the failure
of a slope occurs along a plane when the average shearing
stress tending to cause the slip is more than the shear strength
of the soil. Also, the most critical plane is the one that has a
minimum ratio of the average shearing stress that tends to
cause failure to the shear strength of soil.

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15
5.5 Finite Slopes
Factor of Safety
𝜏 𝑐 + 𝜎 tan Φ 𝟐𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜱
𝐹 = = = +
𝜏 𝜏 𝜸𝑯 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜷 − 𝜽) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
Cohesion at any angle
𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 − 𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜱
𝒄 𝒅 = 𝜸𝑯
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
Critical angle
𝜷+𝜱
𝜽𝒄𝒓 =
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜷 − 𝜱
𝒄 𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝜸𝑯
𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜱
Stability number
𝒄 𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜷 − 𝜱
=
𝜸𝑯 𝟒 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜱 31

5.5 Finite Slopes

Causes the sliding
1 sin 𝛽 − 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝛾𝐻 sin 𝜃
2 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃
Resisting the sliding
1 sin 𝛽 − 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝛾𝐻 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 tan 𝛷
2 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃

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5.5 Finite Slopes
Problem 5-3
A cut is to be made in a soil having 𝛾 = 18 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 , 𝑐 = 20 kPa
and Φ = 25°. The side of the cut slope will make an angle of 60°
with the horizontal.
a. If the depth of the cut is 16 m and the failure plane makes an
angle of 40°, what is the factor of safety?
b. If the factor of safety is 2.0 what is the angle of failure plane
and the maximum depth of cut?

Answer
a. 𝑭𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎𝟑
b. 𝜽𝒅 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟓𝟔𝟐° & 𝑯𝒄𝒓 = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟐𝟑 𝒎 33

5.5 Finite Slopes

Problem 5-4
A 9 m high slope having 𝛾 = 17 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 , 𝑐 = 24 kPa, Φ = 20°,
β = 30°, and θ = 15°.
a. Determine the force tend to cause the slide.
b. Determine the resistance to sliding force.
c. Determine the factor of safety against sliding.

Answer
a. 𝑷𝒅 = 𝟑𝟓𝟔. 𝟑𝟗𝟒 𝒌𝑵
b. 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟖. 𝟔𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑵
b. 𝑭𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟎𝟎 34

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5.5 Finite Slopes
5.5.2 Circular Failure Surfaces
5.5.2.1 Modes of Failure with respect to stability analysis
When the failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding
intersects the slope at or above its toe, it is called a slope circle
failure. The failure circle is referred to as a toe circle failure if it
passes through the toe of the slope and as a slope circle if it
passes above the toe of the slope. Under certain circumstances,
a shallow slope failure can occur,

35

5.5 Finite Slopes

When the failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding
passes at some distance below the toe of the slope, it is called a
base failure. The failure circle in the case of base failure is called
a midpoint circle failure.

Shallow Slope Failure

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5.5 Finite Slopes
5.5.2.2 Types of Stability Analysis
• Mass Procedure - In this case, the mass of the soil above the
surface of sliding is taken as a unit. This procedure is useful
when the soil that forms the slope is assumed to be
homogeneous, although this is not the case in most natural
slopes.
• Method of Slices - In this procedure, the soil above the
surface of sliding is divided into a number of vertical parallel
slices. The stability of each slice is calculated separately. This
is a versatile technique in which the nonhomogeneity of the
soils and pore water pressure can be taken into consideration.
It also accounts for the variation of the normal stress along
the potential failure surface.

37

5.5 Finite Slopes

5.5.2.2.1 Mass Procedure (𝜱 = 𝟎)
To perform the stability analysis, we choose a trial potential
curve of sliding, AED, which is an arc of a circle that has a radius
r. The center of the circle is located at O.

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19
5.5 Finite Slopes
Note that it is valid for
slopes of saturated
clay and is applicable
to only undrained
conditions (Φ = 0).

39

5.5 Finite Slopes

• For 𝜷 < 𝟓𝟑°, the critical circle may be a toe, slope, or midpoint
circle, depending on the location of the firm base under the
slope. This is called the depth function, which is defined as
Vertical distance from top of slope to form base
D=
Height of slope
• The maximum possible value of the stability number for failure
as a midpoint circle is 0.181.

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20
5.5 Finite Slopes
When the critical circle is a midpoint circle (i.e., the failure
surface is tangent to the firm base), its position can be
determined with the aid of figure below.

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5.5 Finite Slopes

For a slope angle 𝜷 > 𝟓𝟑°, the critical circle is always a toe
circle. The location of the center of the critical toe circle may be
found with the aid of figure below.

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5.5 Finite Slopes
Fellenius (1927) also investigated the case of critical toe
circles for slopes with 𝜷 < 𝟓𝟑°. The location of these can be
determined with the use of Figure and Table below. Note that
these critical toe circles are not necessarily the most critical
circles that exist.

43

5.5 Finite Slopes

Problem 5-5
A cut slope was excavated in a saturated clay. The slope made
an angle of 30° with the horizontal. Slope failure occurred when
the cut reached a depth of 10 m. Previous soil explorations
showed that a rock layer was located at a depth of 15 m below
the ground surface. Assuming an undrained condition and 𝛾 =
18 kN/𝑚 , find the following.
a. Determine the undrained cohesion of the clay
b. With reference to the toe of the slope, at what distance did
the surface of sliding intersect the bottom of the excavation?

Answer
a. 𝒄𝒅 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟕𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂
b. 𝒙 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎 44

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5.5 Finite Slopes
Problem 5-6
A cut shape in saturated clay makes an angle of 56° with the
horizontal, 𝛾 = 15.70 kN/𝑚 , 𝑐 = 24 𝑘𝑃𝑎 , Φ = 0° , and 𝑚 =
0.185.
a. Determine the maximum depth to which the cut could be
made.
b. Determine the distance of the point of intersection of the
critical failure circle from the top edge of the slope if the
failure plane makes an angle of 33° from the horizontal.
c. How deep should the cut be made if a factor of safety of 2 is
required.
Answer
a. 𝑯 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟔𝟑 𝒎
b. 𝒙 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒎
c. 𝑯 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒎 45

5.5 Finite Slopes

5.5.2.2.2 Mass Procedure (𝜱 ≠ 𝟎)
A slope in a homogeneous soil is shown in figure below. The
shear strength of the soil is
𝜏 = 𝑐 + 𝜎 tan Φ

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5.5 Finite Slopes
The values of m for various
values of Φ and 𝛽 are given in
figure below, which is based on
Taylor (1937). This can be used
to determine the factor of safety,
𝐹 , of the homogeneous slope.
𝑐
= 𝑓 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝜃, Φ =𝑚
𝛾𝐻

47

5.5 Finite Slopes

Plot of 𝐹 versus 𝐹 to determine 𝐹

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5.5 Finite Slopes
Problem 5-7
A slope with 𝛽 = 45° is to be constructed with a soil that has
Φ = 20°and 𝑐 = 20 kPa. The unit weight of the compacted soil
will be 19 kN/m .
a. Find the critical height of the slope.
b. If the height of the slope is 12 m, determine the factor of
safety with respect to strength.

Answer
a. 𝑯𝒄𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟏𝟒𝟗 𝒎
b. 𝑭𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑𝟎 49

5.5 Finite Slopes

5.5.2.2.3 Method of Slices (Bishop’s Method)
Stability analysis by using the method of slices can be explained
with the use of figure below, in which an arc of a circle
representing the trial failure surface. The soil above the trial
failure surface is divided into several vertical slices. The width of
each slice need not be the same.

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5.5 Finite Slopes
For Effective Stress Analysis
1
𝑚 =
tan Φ sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝑆

∑ 𝑊 1−𝑟 𝑚 tan Φ
𝐹𝑆 =
∑ 𝑊 sin 𝜃

For Total Stress Analysis

𝑏
∑ 𝑠
𝜏 cos 𝜃
𝐹𝑆 = =
𝜏 ∑ 𝑊 sin 𝜃

51

5.5 Finite Slopes

Problem 5-8
Use Bishop’s simplified method to estimate the factors of safety
of the slope shown in figure below. Assume the soil above the
phreatic surface to be saturated. Consider no tension crack.

Answer
a. 𝑭𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎𝟑
b. 𝜽𝒅 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟓𝟔𝟐° & 𝑯𝒄𝒓 = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟐𝟑 𝒎 52

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5.5 Finite Slopes

Answer
𝑭𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟏 53

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