S.NO.

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. NEED FOR NUCLEAR POWER

3. INDIAN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

4. PRINCIPLE OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTION

5. CLASSIFICATION OF A POWER REACTOR

6. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION RAPS

7. METHODS OF MEASURING DOSE

8. RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

9. RADIATION SAFETY

10. CONCLUSION

1
 1. INTRODUCTION

Nuclear energy has turned out to be the achievement of the past century. The most
clean environmental friendly and of less running cost mode of power generation is now in our
hand.

At present it is estimated that our natural reserves of U 3O8 is about 70,000 tones, but
the long run potentials depends upon the large reserves of Thorium which is about 3,60,000 tones.
The optimum usage of the available resources takes place via three stages namely:-

 The first stage and perhaps used widely is using natural uranium as fuel.

 The plutonium thus yield by first stage along with thorium is fed in Fast Breeder Reactors.

 The third stage would employ the U-233 obtained from second stage together with
thorium is employed. Perhaps the third stage could either be a fast reactor or a thermal
reactor.

In fact reactors high energy neutrons are required to bring about fission. It is most
common with element having even number of mass number.

In thermal reactors, thermal neutrons i.e. slow moving neutrons are required to being
about the fission. Those having mass number as an odd number possess this type of property.

2. NEED FOR NUCLEAR POWER:

The exploration of natural resources for generation of electricity has been an
evolutionary process. Over the years, it has progressed from tapping the potential energy of falling
water to burning of fossil fuels. But the quest for more sources of electricity, which is the cleanest
and most efficient form of energy, is unending and the limits of the conventional sources have
served to heighten man’s anxious efforts in this regard. The discovery of fission and the promise
of abundance which nuclear energy came to hold subsequently turned man’s attention to utilize
the potential of this source.

Considering the current population growth which has already crossed 100 crores in the

2
21st century and improvements in standard of living of the forth coming generations, there will be
a large increase in the need of MACHANICAL energy particularly from clean, green and safe
energy sources. The MACHANICAL energy will play a vital role in sustainable development of
the country. Among all the available conventional and non conventional energy sources, the
nuclear energy is most efficient, abundantly available, sustainable and cost effective energy
sources. It does not emit obnoxious gases that cause global warming, ozone hole and acid rain.

SO THE NUCLEAR POWER:-

It is thus evident that some new from of energy, such as nuclear, which is a large addition to
our energy resources, has to be developed in a big way. The currently known uranium reserves in
the country can support a PHWR programme of 10,000MW for a design life of 30 years. Even
though there is every reasons can support an ultimate capacity of 350,000 MW(e) by fast
breeder .the long range potential of so, on thorium resources which exceed 360,000tonnes.when
used in the breeder reactors, the thorium reserves would be equivalent to 600 billion tones of coal.
This is explained below.

NUCLEAR POWER IS SAFE:-

Improving the quality of life has been the driving force for making to push ahead with the use
of modern technology. That these benefits carry along with them some risks, has been known for
sometimes and one has also to recognize that there is nothing like an absolutely safe technological
products be it the automobile, aircraft, chemical industry, or for that matter, a nuclear reactor. If
mankind had decided to take a” zero-risk approach”, we would not have undertaken space
exploration or developed nuclear technology. They would have burnt more coal and oil, resulting
in more acid rain, pollution and scarce oil.

3. INDIAN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

The Headquarters of Indian Nuclear Power Projects are located at Mumbai It is

the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) which covers all the aspects of R&D and power
production. It is at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre where all the research works regarding
the new technologies and nuclear science.

Other than the power production plants there are various other institutions
that come under DAE like, Nuclear Fuel Compels (NFC) at Hyderabad, Mines at
Jadugura, and Centre for Advance Technology, Indo session re etc.

The first nuclear power plant was constructed at Tarapur in 1969. It was a Boiling
Water Reactor. The purpose of this reactor was to give the ground for development of Pressurized

3
Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). The two unit’s setup on turnkey basis by G.E., America is still
working successfully.

The list of various Nuclear Power Plants in India is as follows:-

Station Rated Capacity Year of Criticality

(Mwe)
TAPS-1&2 2 x 160 1969
RAPS-1 100 1972
RAPS-2 200 1980
RAPS-3 235 1999
RAPS-4 235 2000
RAPS-5 235 2010
RAPS-6 235 2010
MAPS-1 220 1983
MAPS-2 220 1985
NAPS-1 220 1989
NAPS-2 220 1991
KAPP-1 220 1992
KAPP-2 220 1993
KAIGA-1 235 1996
KAIGA-2 235 1996
KAIGA-3 235 2010
KAIGA-4 235 Project under construction
TAPS-3 540 2006
TAPP-4 540 2005
MADRAS 500 Fast breeder reactor Project under construction
Kk project 1 1000 Light water reactor under construction
Kk project 2 1000 Light water reactor under construction

The list of proposed sites in India-

KAPP3&4 740X2 Pressurized HeavyWater Reactor

RAPP7&8 740X2 Pressurized HeavyWater Reactor

Jetapur(Maharastra) 740X4 Pressurized HeavyWater Reactor

4
 RAJASTHAN ATOMIC POWER STATION

INTRODUCTION
PHYSICAL LOCATION
Rawatbhata is located at the bank of river Chambal near the Rana Pratap Sagar Dam. The
nearest city is Kota situated at a distance of 60 KMs from the plant.

There are four units of 220 MWe each and two units of 235 MWe newly constructed. There is
lush greenery around the site. For employees various colonies are constructed with all the
domestic facilities.

4. PRINCIPLE OF NUCLEAR REACTION:

When a heavy nucleus split into smaller nuclei, a small amount of mass is converted into
energy. The amount of energy produced is given by Einstein’s mass energy relation (E=m*c2) .this
breaking up of nuclei is called nuclear fission. Natural uranium has two type s of isotopes, U 238
and U235 isotope in the ratio of 139:1. The less abundant U235 isotopes that fissions when a U235
atom is struck by allows (or thermal) neutron, it splits into two or refragments. This splitting is a
compiled by release of energy in the form of heat, radio-ability and two or there atom at high
speed, are made to slow down in the split atom at high speed, are made to slow down in a
moderation, i.e. heavy water, so that they have a high probability of hitting other U 235 atoms which
in turn release more energy and further sets of neutrons. Attenuation of self sustained stage of
spilling of uranium atom is called chain reaction. There is a particular size of fissionable material
for which the neutron production by fission is exactly balanced by leakage and absorption. This is
called the critical size at which the chain reaction is self sub staining the size of a reaction.

5
 Principle Of Heat Generation
“Fission Reaction”

Sr90

1 U235 U236
n
 - Ray

144
n1
Xe

ENERGY RELEASE DURING FISSION

In the above equation, (1) the total mass before fission, is the sum of the masses of
In theand
U235 above
the equation, (1) theafter
neutrons. Mass totalfission
mass before fission,
is the sum is the sum
of fission of the and
fragments masses of U235 and
neutrons.
the neutrons. Mass after fission is the sum of fission fragments and neutrons.

Since loss of mass of 1 a.m.u is equivalent to an energy release of 931 MeV. Therefore
energy release in the above reaction could be calculated as follows. Since
Since loss of mass of 1 a.m.u is equivalent to an energy release of 931 MeV. Therefore
energy release in the above reaction could be calculated as follows. Since

6
5. Classification of power reactors:
Each fission process produces 2.5 new neutrons and, at least one of these must produce a
further fission for a chain reaction to be maintained. So for every 100 neutrons, produced in
one neutron generation, at least 40 must cause further fissions so as to produce 40 x 2.5 or
100 neutrons in the next generation. Now the neutrons produced at fission are fast neutrons
with an average energy of 2 MeV. If the fissions occur in natural uranium fuel, 99.3% of the
nuclei are U- 238 which will only fission with neutrons having energies greater than 1.2
MeV. Therefore only half the fission neutrons can cause U-238 fissions. So out of the 100
neutrons produced at fission, only 50 can cause U-238 fissions. The inelastic scattering cross-
section of U-238 is 10 times greater than the fission cross-section at these neutron energies.
So, out of these 50 neutrons 5 will be able to cause fission and remaining 45 will be scattered
and lose so much energy that they can no longer cause U-238 fission. The fast fission cross
section in U-235 is only 1.44 barns and U-235 fast fissions can be ignored with so little U-
235 in natural uranium, Therefore, out of the 100 fast neutrons produced at fission only 5 will
cause further fissions and produce 5 x 2.5 or 12.5 new neutrons. Thus, even if leakage and
radiative capture are ignored the chain reaction can not be maintained by fast neutrons in
natural uranium. One of two alternatives is available which lead to a power reactor
classification as follows:

7
Fast Reactors:

The U-235 content of the fuel can be increased, i.e., the fuel is highly enriched in U-235 with
a substantial decrease in U-238. The U-235 fast fissions are thus, considerably increased in a
fast reactor. Some reduction in neutron energy does occur due to inelastic collisions of
neutrons with nuclei of the fuel and structural material but most of the fissions are caused by
neutrons of energies greater than 0.1Mev.The mass of U-235 required for the reactor to be
critical varies with a mount of U-235 enrichment. In all cases the critical mass of fissile
material required increases rapidly below 15% to 20% U-235 enrichment. To avoid large fuel
inventories a practical fast reactor, such as case C above, would require fuel containing at
least 20% U-235 by volume. Incidentally the critical mass of U-235 in a fast reactor is
considerably greater than in a thermal reactor with the same fuel composition. The highly
enriched fuel and absence of moderator results in a small core. Therefore, fast reactors have
high power density cores. The average power density in a Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is 500
MW/m3 compared with 100 MW/ m3 for a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR). It is therefore
essential that a heat transport fluid with good thermal properties be used. The choice is also
limited to a non-moderating fluid and liquid metals seem to satisfy both requirements. The
capture cross-sections of most elements for fast neutrons are small and since there is a
relatively large mass of U-235 in the reactor, the macroscopic capture cross-sections of
structural material and fission products are small compared with the macroscopic fission
cross-section of the U-235. Consequently there is more flexibility in the choice of materials
and stainless steel can be used instead of aluminum or zirconium. Fission product poisoning
is not significant and for this reason, (and the fact that temperature coefficient of reactivity is
low), the excess reactivity required in a fast reactor is small.

Thermal Reactors:

Since a chain reaction can not be maintained with fast neutrons without considerable enrichment,
the alternative is to reduce the neutron energy until the fission cross-section of U-235 is
sufficiently increased. If the neutrons are reduced to thermal energies, the U-235 fission cross-
section is 580 barns whereas the radioactive capture cross-section is 106 barns. Thus, even
allowing for the low percentage of U-235 in natural uranium, the thermal neutron fission cross-
section in natural uranium is 4.2 barns whereas the radioactive capture cross-section is 3.5 barns.
Thus, for every 77 neutrons captured in natural uranium about 40 will cause fission and produce
40 x 2.5 or 100 new neutrons. For 77 neutrons out of every 100 to be captured, fewer than 23
neutrons can be lost by escape or radioactive reaction could be sustained. In thermal reactors the
fission neutrons are thermalised by slowing them down in a moderator. Most of the power
reactors in existence are thermal reactors.

8
Types of Heterogeneous Reactors:

The classification of heterogeneous reactors may be based on the type of moderator used or
on the heat transport system employed. The basic requirements and properties of moderators
and heat transport systems will be discussed at length later. It is sufficient, for the moment to
list the moderators and heat transport fluids in general use.

The moderator may be:

1. Light water
2. Heavy water
3. Graphite

The heat transport system may be:

1. Pressurized light water

2. Pressurized heavy water
3. Boiling light water
4. Boiling heavy water
5. Gases such as CO2 or helium
6. Liquid metals
7. Steam or fog
8. Organic liquids

Heavy Water Moderated Reactors:

Heavy water has a much lower neutron capture cross section than both light water and graphite.
The principal advantage of using heavy water as a moderator is, therefore, the neutron economy
that can be achieved with it. The thermal utilization factor, f, in the four factor formula, is
increased because of lower neutron capture in the moderator. Neutron economy is so much
improved that not only can natural uranium fuel be used, but that this fuel can be used in oxide or
carbide form. Thus, there is no longer any need for an enrichment plant. In addition oxide or
carbide fuel improve the fuel integrity and the fuel in less susceptible to distortion.

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

PHWRs have established over the years a record for dependability, with load factors in
excess of 90% over extended periods. In the PHWR, the heavy water moderator is contained
in a large stainless steel tank (calandria) through which runs several hundred horizontal
zircaloy calandria tubes. The D2O moderator is maintained at atmospheric pressure and a
temperature of about 70°C. Concentric with the calandria tube, but separated by a carbon
dioxide filled annulus which minimizes heat transfer from fuel to the moderator, is the
zircaloy pressure tube containing the natural UO2 fuel assemblies and the heavy water

9
coolant at a pressure of about 80 kg/cm² and a temperature of about 300°C. The term
pressurized refers to the pressurized D2O coolant which flows in opposite directions in
adjacent tubes and passes its heat to the secondary coolant via the steam generators. System
pressure is maintained by a pressuriser on one of the legs of a steam generator.

Graphite Moderated Reactors:

With a graphite moderator, a liquid or a gas must be used as the coolant. Although there are
water cooled graphite-moderated reactors, e.g., the Soviet Union’s RBMK series of power
stations, of which Chernobyl is one, only gas cooled reactors will be referred to here. Whilst
the United States and Canada pioneered, respectively, the light and heavy water moderated
designs, France and United Kingdom undertook the early development of the graphite
moderated reactor, selecting carbon dioxide as the coolant because of its relative chemical
inertness and low neutron activation. France abandoned this approach in favor of an
extensive PWR programme. The UK continued to be heavily committed to gas cooled
reactors in the form, initially, of magnox and subsequently the advanced gas cooled reactor.

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6. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF RAPS
The Nuclear Power plant works on two cycles:-

1. Secondary Cycle (Rankine Cycle)

2. Primary Cycle (Primary Heat Transport)

Rankine Cycle.

Rankine cycle is a vapour power cycle having two basic characteristics:

The cycle consists of a succession of steady flow processes, with each process carried out in
a separate component specially designed for the purpose. The working fluid used in the plant,
i.e. water substance, when passes through the cycle of operation undergoes changes in
pressure and temperature (enthalpy). It receives heat in various feed heaters and undergoes
pressure change by pumps in the circuit. The preheated water is converted into saturated
steam inside steam generators and finally supplied to the turbine, in which it undergoes a fall
in pressure and increase in volume and gives up a certain amount of energy to the turbine
shaft. On reaching the lowest pressure in the system, in the condenser, heat is extracted from
it by the cooling water and it is thus restored to its original conditions as condensate. In the
simplest possible form of heat cycle for a steam turbine power plant, the process thus
comprises four steps.
1) Increase of pressure of the condensate in the feed pump, with a resultant very small
absorption of work.
2) The supply of heat by the combustion of fuel to produce steam in the steam generator.
3) The expansion of the steam in the turbine, with the production of work.
4) The rejection of heat by the steam to the cooling water at constant pressure in the
condenser, and the return of the water to its original condition. The cycle is rarely as simple
as this and is often complicated by such devices as regenerative feed heating and reheating.
Under ideal conditions of expansion in the turbine the above cycle is known as the Rankine
cycle .The cycle shown in figure represents a power station cycle without feed heating. 1-2-
3-4-5-6 Feed water receives the sensible heat 6-7.Feed water receives the latent heat 7-8
Adiabatic expansion of steam through high pressure turbine 8-9 Moisture removal and
reheating 9-10 Adiabatic expansion of steam through the low pressure turbine.10-1
Condensation of steam in condenser at constant pressure.

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 THE PRIMARY HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM
a) Principle operation
The PHT system provides continuous circulation of coolant through the reactor at all times
by various modes as listed below:
i) Normal operation - By primary coolant pump.
ii) Sudden loss of power to pumps - By inertia of pump flywheels to avoid a sudden drop in
coolant flow.
iii) Thermo siphoning - By placing main equipment above the elevation of reactor core.
iv) Loss of primary coolant - By receiving emergency injection of heavy water from
moderator system after depressurization of primary heat transport system. In case of
paucity of heavy water from moderator system light water injection is initiated.

b) Description
The heavy water runs through the feeders into 306 coolant tubes, through the end fittings and
feeders to the reactor outlet headers. The reactor utilizes restriction orifices in selected inlet
feeders to achieve the flow required by the reactor channel ratings, commensurate with equal
temp. from all channels. The reactors outlet headers distribute the flow through 8 boiler inlet
valves, 4 on the north and 4 on the south, to the respective 8 boilers (in new PHWR it is only
4 boilers 2 on each side). From the boilers through the boiler outlet valve the heavy water
arrives at the pumps. Each pump is associated with a respective boiler through an individual
suction line. The pumps discharge the flow through pump discharge valves into the reactor
inlet header. No common suction header has been provided and pumps are attached directly
to the boilers, the only common connection being reactor inlet and outlet headers. This
arrangement allows the isolation of any of the circulating pumps and leads to the loss of a
boilers, the circuit has no spare pump. This situation is acceptable in view of the expected
high reliability of the heat transport pumps and also that the loss of a pump and a boiler does
not result in a substantial loss of plant capacity. From the reactor inlet headers the heavy
water flows through the feeders and end fittings to the reactor coolant tubes. Corrosion
products and fission products are removed from the system by purification circuit.
Purification circuit also helps to achieve a pH value between 9.5 to 10.5 and to maintain the
conductivity of heavy water between 20 to 30 micromoh/cm. In addition it reduces radiolysis
decomposition of heavy water by controlling ionic impurities. The operating design pressure
in the reactor outlet headers is controlled at 87 Kg/cm 2 (1237.5 psig). The pressure is
controlled by a feed and bleeds system. In the event of a leak in the primary system, no
matter how large it is, cooling of the fuel can be maintained or restored by the emergency
injection system which is designed to pump heavy water from the moderator system into the
primary system. For cooling the system below 300F and for holding the system at low
temp. during plant maintenance, an auxiliary cooling system is provided which is known as
standby cooling system or shutdown cooling system. The system is connected between
reactor outlet and inlet header at each end of the reactor. If normal heat removal fails and
normal pressure control fails or their capacities are exceeded, the increase in coolant volume
caused by the reactor heat would be passed out of the primary system by relief valves. One
relief line connects the pressurized end of the north standby cooling loop, to the bleed
condenser through these instrumented safety relief valves in parallel. Isolated boilers are

12
protected against accidental high pressure by system relief valves. The PHT pumps are
provided with flywheels to provide better flow coast down after pump trip. The system layout
as discussed above assures adequate flow for decay heat removal from reactor during
shutdown by thermosyphoning action. A separate shutdown cooling system is provided to
remove reactor decay heat during cold shutdown conditions. This mode of cooling permits
the draining of the steam generators and pumps in the PHT system for maintenance. An
emergency core cooling system provides adequate coolant flow to prevent overheating of the
fuel in the unlikely event of loss of coolant accident.

7. METHODS OF MEASURING DOSE:

For measuring dose absorbed by a person, devices known as dosimeters are used.
Generally there are two types of dosimeters these are:

1. Direct Reading Dosimeters (DRD).

2. Thermo Luminescence dosimeter (TLD).

Direct Reading Dosimeters (DRD):

This device measures the dose directly and is used for day to day
dose control. It is a pen shaped device and lenses are fitted on both the ends. On bigger lens,
a scale is marked which directly tells about the dose absorbed. For reading the DRD it is so
held that the bigger lens should face the light source and it is seen from the smaller lens. This
dosimeter is used in Third and Fourth Zone only.

Thermo Luminescence dosimeter (TLD):

This is a badge type device and is used to dose absorbed
during one month’s time. TLD badge consists of a TLD CARD loaded in a CASSETTE. The
dose measured by TLD is based on the phenomenon of THERMOLUMINISCENSE. TLD
cassette has a dual metallic filter and an open window to distinguish between doses received
due to different type of radiation (alpha, beta & gamma) and provides energy dependence
correction. Personal data such as Name, TLD No., Service months etc. are written on it.
The person has to wear his TLD badge at his chest level when entering the operating island.
After one month, the TLD card is sent to the TLD laboratory where the absorbed dose is
measured.

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DOSE CLASSIFICATION:

ABSORBED DOSE: Absorbed dose is simply the dose absorbed by a person and is
measured by using the dosimeters. It is denoted by ‘D’.

EQUIVALENT DOSE: for calculating equivalent dose the type of radiation is also taken
into account and the absorbed dose is multiplied by a factor ‘wr’.

EFFECTIVE DOSE: For effective dose despite of type of radiation the effective area of the
body is also taken into account, and the absorbed dose is multiplied by factors ‘wr & wt’.

EMERGENCY DECLARATION:

To declare an Emergency in a plant a blinking siren is blown. After the declaration of

emergency, each person in the plant is supposed to assemble in the assembly area.
To terminate the Emergency a continuous siren of 2 min. is blown. This siren indicates the
termination of the Emergency

8. RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

GENERAL
Operation of a nuclear facility like nuclear power station inevitably leads to the production of
low level radioactive wastes which are collected segregated to select best processing method,
and conditioned for either interim site storage or for disposal. The design of facilities is such
that the average public exposure from radioactive materials at the exclusion boundary is a
small fraction of the recommended AERB limits. The radioactive wastes produced at the site
may belong to one of the following categories:
Spent Fuel, Solid Wastes, Liquid Wastes & Gaseous Wastes.

Spent fuel is stored in a pool of water until it is ready for shipping for reprocessing at special
facilities.

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 SOLID RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Solid radioactive waste in segregated into three general categories based on contact dose.

Category -1 wastes. : Largely originates

Protective clothing, contaminated metal parts and miscellaneous items. As it may contain no
radioactivity. This waste will be collected in unshielded standard drums.

Category-II & III Wastes. : Filter cartridges and ion exchanges resins typically this waste
has an unshielded radiation fielded greater than 1 R/hr. on contact. These require additional
shielding and greater precautions than for category-I during transportation, handling and
storage operation.

LIQUID RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Liquid Radioactive Waste Management System provides for collection, storage,
sampling and necessary treatment and dispersal of any liquid waste produced by the station.
The system is designed to control the release of radioactivity in the liquid effluent streams so
that radiations dose to members of the public is with in those stipulated by the regulatory
board. This system handles radioactive wastes that are carried in liquid streams from the
laundry active floor drains, decontamination center and chemical laboratories.

GASEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

An extensive ventilation system collects potentially active exhaust air from such areas as the
Reactor Building. The spent fuel handling and storage area, the decontamination center and
the heavy water management area. The active and potentially active exhaust air and gases
are all routed to a gaseous effluent exhaust duct. This exhaust flow is monitored for noble
gases, tritium, iodine and active particulate before being released. Facilities for filtration are
provided. Signals from the iodine, wide range beta-gamma and particulate monitors are
recorded in the control center. Tritium monitoring is carried out by laboratory analysis.

15
 SAFETY

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY
By Industrial safety we mean that the measures adopted as a whole in a industry so that
occurrence of the accidents can be reduced to bare minimum.
Factors responsible for Safety:

 Plant layout
 Design of machinery
 Safety Gadgets and equipments
 Protective aids
 Safety culture & Respect for Safety
 Attitude of the management/ employer - Caution Boards
 Display of Good practices about Safety
 Safety meetings, Open discussion and other motivation about Safety
 Safety Manual
 Enforcement
 Unsafe Act & Unsafe conditions

Causes of Accidents:
Hazards are the risks and perils or dangers that contribute to accidents and injuries.

"HAZARDS DO NOT CAUSE ACCIDENTS, PEOPLE DO".

Kinds of Hazards:
 Fire
 Heat
 Material Handling
 Floors
 Ladders
 Tools
 Machinery
 Walking and Working surfaces
 Process
 Chemicals
 Electricity
 Unsafe Act
 Unsafe Condition

16
9. RADIATION SAFETY

In a Nuclear reactor the Radiation is produced in following ways:

i) Directly in fission reaction
ii) By decay of fission products

Following types of radiations are encountered:

i) Alpha radiation
ii) Beta radiation
iii) Gamma radiation
iv) Neutron radiation
Out of the above types of radiations Alpha radiation is practically zero, whereas Beta and
Gamma radiation fields may be present almost everywhere inside the reactor building and in
negligible amount even outside the reactor building. Neutron radiations are mainly present
inside the reactor vault. It is worth noting that the secondary side of the plant i.e. feed water
and steam cycle etc. are completely separate from the nuclear systems and are therefore not
supposed to be and neither they are to carry any sort of radioactive particle and therefore free
of contamination and radiation. It is also wroth noting that all radiations are emited from the
nucleous of every radioactive nuclide which will always have a tendency to become stable
by emitting radiations through disintegration.
The following reactions show the emmision of Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Neutron.

92 U238  2He4  92U234 + (alpha)

It has very low penetrating power and can be stopped by simple paper.
1H  2He (18 Kev) +beta
3 3

It also does not have good penetrating power and in human skin it can penetrate up to about
half mm. It can be very easily shielded
92U
235
+ 0n1  92U236  Xe + Kr + 0n1 + gamma + Heat
Following methodologies are used to control the exposure to the radiation and therefore
resive of the radiation dose.

(1) Administrative Control

(2) Zoning Technique
(3) Design Control
(4) Operation Control
(5) Maintenance and house keeping
Exposure to any kind of radiation can be controlled by an individual by following methods:
(1) Distance
(2) Shielding
(3) Decay (Time to Decay)

17
 10. CONCLUSION
The practical training at R.A.P.S. has proved to be quite faithful. It proved an
opportunity for encounter with such huge components like 220MW generators,
turbines, transformers and switchyards etc. The architecture of the NPP (Nuclear
Power Plant):

The way various units are linked and the way working of whole plant is
controlled make the students realize that engineering is not just learning the
structure description and working of various machines, but the greater part is of
planning, proper management.
It also provides an opportunity to learn technology used at proper place and
time can save a lot of labor for example almost all the controls are computerized
because in running condition no any person can enter in the reactor building.

But there are few factors that require special mention. Training is not carried
out into its tree spirit. It is recommended that there should be some projects
specially meant for students where the presence of authorities should be ensured.
There should be strict monitoring of the performance of students and system of
grading be improved on the basis of the work done.

However training has proved to be quite faithful. It has allowed as an

opportunity to get an exposure of the practical implementation to theoretical
fundamental.

Ashutosh Jain
II-YEAR
Modi institute of technology
Kota,rajasthan.

18