Unit 1

THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International

Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international
standards. An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was
first introduced in the late 1970s.
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McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
The OSI Model
 An ISO (International standard Organization) standard

that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
 An open system is a model that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying
architecture (hardware or software).
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is model for
understanding and designing a network architecture that
is flexible, robust and interoperable.

 The OSI model is a layered framework for the
design of network systems that allows for
communication across all types of computer
systems.
 The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
1. (layer 1) physical layer
2. (layer 2) data link
3. (layer 3) network layer
4. (layer 4) transport layer
5. (layer 5) session layer
6. (layer 6) presentation layer
7. (layer 7) application layer

Application A Application B
Application Application
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer
Session Session
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
Layer Communication Network Layer
Network Network Network Network

Layer Layer Layer Layer
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Electrical and/or Optical Signals
Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 2.6
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Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 2.9
Application A Application B
data
Application Application
Layer data ah Layer
Presentation Presentation
Layer data ph Layer
Session Session
Layer data sh Layer
Transport Transport
Layer data th Layer
Network Network
Layer data nh Layer
Data Link Data Link

Layer dt data dh Layer
Physical Physical
Layer bits Layer
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Peer-to-Peer Process
 Within a single machine, each layer calls upon
services of the layer just below it.
 Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by
layer 2 and provides services for layer 4.
 Between machines, layer x on one machine
communicates with layer x on another machine, by
using a protocol (this is Peer-to-Peer Process).
 Communication between machines is therefore a
peer-to-peer process using protocols appropriate to
a given layer.

Interfaces between Layers
 There is an interface
between each pair of
adjacent layers.
This interface defines what
information and services a
layer must provide for the
layer above it.

Physical Layer
 The physical layer

coordinates the functions
required to transmit a bit
stream over a physical
medium. It also defines the
procedures and functions
that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform
for transmission occur.
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits

from one node to the next.

Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:
The physical layer defines the characteristics of the
interface between devices and the transmission
media, including its type.
 Representation of the bits: the physical layer data
consist of a stream of bits without any
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals –electrical or optical-. The
physical layer defines the type of encoding.
 Data rate: The physical layer defines the
transmission rate, the number of bits sent each
second.

Physical Layer
 Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned
with the connection of devices to the medium.
 Physical topology
 Transmission Mode

Data Link Layer
 The data link layer

transforms the physical
layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link and
is responsible for node-to-
node delivery. It makes the
physical layer appear error
free to the upper layer
(network layer).
The data link layer is responsible for transmitting

frames from one node to the next.

Node-to-node delivery

Functions of the data link layer:
 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of
bits received from the network layer into data units
called frames.
 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed

to different systems on the network, the data link
layer adds a header to the frame to define the
physical address of the sender (source address)
and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame.
 If the frame is intended for a system outside the

sender’s network, the receiver address is the
address of the device that connects one network to
the next.

 Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are
absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes
a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming
the receiver.
 Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to
the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect
and retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control
is normally achieved through a trailer to the end of
the frame.
 Access Control. When two or more devices are

connected to the same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control
over the link at any time.

Network Layer
•The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-

destination delivery of a packet possible across multiple
networks.
•If two systems are connected to the same link, there is

usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two
systems are attached to different networks, there is often a
need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-
destination delivery.

Network Layer
Functions:
•Logical addressing.
•Routing
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the
original source to the final destination.

Source-to-destination delivery

 Logical addressing. The physical addressing
implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally.
 The network layer adds a header to the packet
coming from the upper layer, among other things,
includes the logical address of the sender and
receiver.
 Routing. When independent networks or links are

connected together to create an internetwork (a
network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or gateways) route
or switch the packets to their final destination.

Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery of the entire message.
 The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery
of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.
 The transport layer ensures that the whole message
arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control
and flow control at the process-to-process level.

Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a

message from one process to another.

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a
message

Functions of the transport layer
 Port addressing:computer often run several processes

(running programs) at the same time. Process-to-
process delivery means delivery from a specific process
on one computer to a specific process on the other.
 The transport layer header include a type of address
called port address.
 The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.

 Segmentation and reassembly: a message is

divided into transmittable segments, each having a
sequence number. These numbers enable the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arrival at the destination.
 Connection control: The transport layer can be
either connectionless or connection-oriented.
 A connectionless transport layer treats each segment
as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine.
 A connection-oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packets. After all
the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
 Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow

control end to end. The data link layer performs flow
control across a single link.
 Error control: the transport layer performs error

control end to end. The data link layer performs
control across a single link.

 The session layer is the network dialog controller.
It was designed to establish, maintain, and
synchronize the interaction between communicating
devices.
 The presentation layer was designed to handle

the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems. It was
designed for data translation, encryption, decryption,
and compression.
 The application layer enables the user to access

the network. It provides user interfaces and support
for services such electronic email, remote file access,
www, and so on.
Session layer
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Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
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Application layer
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
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2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do

not exactly match those in the OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and
application. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
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Figure 2.16 TCP/IP model
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OSI versus TCP/IP
Figure 1-21. The TCP/IP reference model.
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Dominant commercial protocol architecture
 Specified and extensively used before OSI
 Developed by research funded US
Department of Defense
 Used by the Internet
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HTTP Request
Header contains source and TCP

destination port numbers
Header
Header contains source and

destination IP addresses; IP
transport protocol type
Header
Header contains source

and destination physical Frame
Ethernet Check
addresses; network
protocol type Header Sequence
Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 2.15
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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture(1)
 Application Layer
 Communication between processes or applications
 End to end or transport layer (TCP/UDP/…)
 End to end transfer of data
 May include reliability mechanism (TCP)
 Hides detail of underlying network
 Internet Layer (IP)
 Routing of data
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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture(2)
 Network Layer
 Logical interface between end system and network
 Physical Layer
 Transmission medium
 Signal rate and encoding
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ALOHA
 ALOHA protocol is developed for packet radio networks, but
applicable to any shared transmission medium.
 A number of stations share the transmission medium. Two or more
simultaneous transmissions will cause a collision.
 Sender
 When station has frame, it sends
 Station listens for an amount of time
 If its hears an ACK, fine. If not, it retransmits the frame after a
random time
 If no ACK after several transmissions, it gives up
 Frame check sequence can be used for error detection
 Receiver
 If frame is OK and address matches receiver, sends ACK
 Otherwise, ignores this frame and does nothing
 Frame may be damaged by noise or by another station transmitting
at the same time (collision). Overlap of frames also causes collision.
 ALOHA is simple, but very inefficient
 Assuming random traffic, the maximum channel utilization is only
about 18%
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ALOHA
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Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times.

Slotted ALOHA
 To improve efficiency, a modification of ALOHA,

known as slotted ALOHA, was developed.
 Time is organized into uniform slots whose size
equals the frame transmission time
 Need a central clock (or other sync mechanism)
 Transmission begins only at a slot boundary
 Consequence: frames either miss or overlap totally
 Maximum channel utilization can be improved to
about 37%
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Slotted ALOHA
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Random Access – Slotted ALOHA

CSMA
 Why ALOHA and slotted ALOHA are so inefficient?
 Stations don’t check the channel status. They just send out
frames without considering whether the channel is free or not,
which creates too many collisions.
 In fact, it is not difficult for a station to “sense” the
channel status (free or not).
 CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access
 Stations listen to the channel (carrier sense)
 Stations “know” whether the channel is free or not
 Stations transmit only if the channel is free
 Collisions become rare
 Only if two or more stations attempt to transmit at about the same
time, collisions could happen.
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CSMA (Cont.)
 In traditional LANs, propagation time is much less than
frame transmission time
 Remark: this may not be true for 1Gbps and 10Gbps Ethernet
 All stations know that a transmission has started almost
immediately by “carrier sense”
 Details of CSMA
 Stations first listen for clear medium (carrier sense)
 If medium is idle, transmit the frame
 If two or more stations start at about the same instant, there
will be a collision.
 To account for this, a station waits for an ACK
 If no ACK after a reasonable time, then retransmit
 What should a station do if the medium is found busy?
 Three different approaches: nonpersistent CSMA, 1-persistent
CSMA, and p-persistent CSMA
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Nonpersistent CSMA
 A station wishing to transmit listens to the medium and
obeys the following rules:
1. If medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2
2. If medium is busy, wait an amount of time drawn from a
probability distribution and repeat step 1
 The use of random delays reduces probability of
collisions
 Consider two stations become ready to transmit at about the
same time while another transmission is in progress
 If both stations delay the same amount of time before retrying,
both will attempt to transmit at same time  collision
 Drawback:
 Capacity is wasted because medium will generally remain idle
following the end of a transmission, even if there are one or
more stations waiting to transmit.
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1-persistent CSMA
 To avoid idle channel time, 1-persistent protocol can be
used
 A station wishing to transmit listens to the medium and
obeys the following rules:
1. If medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2
2. If medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is
sensed idle; then transmit immediately.
 1-persistent stations are selfish
 Drawback:
 If two or more stations are waiting to transmit, a collision is
guaranteed.
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p-persistent CSMA
 p-persistent CSMA is a compromise that attempts to
reduce collisions, like nonpersistent, and reduce idle
time, like 1-persistent
 Rules:
1. If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay one
time unit with probability (1 – p)
 The time unit is typically equal to the maximum propagation delay
2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is
idle and repeat step 1
3. If transmission is delayed one time unit, repeat step 1
 Question:
 What is an effective value of p?
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Value of p?
 Assume n stations are waiting to transmit while a transmission is
taking place
 At the end of transmission, the expected number of stations
attempting to transmit is the number of stations ready (i.e., n)
times the probability of transmitting (i.e., p): np
 If np > 1, on average there will be a collision
 Repeated attempts to transmit almost guarantee more collisions
 Retries compete with new transmissions from other stations
 Eventually, all stations try to send
 Continuous collisions; zero throughput
 So np should be less than 1 for expected peaks of n
 Drawback of p-persistent:
 If heavy load is expected, p should be small such that np < 1.
However, as p is made smaller, stations must wait longer to attempt
transmission, which results in very long delays.
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CSMA/CD:
CSMA with Collision Detection
 The problem of CSMA:
 A collision occupies medium for the duration of a frame transmission,
which is not good for long frames.
 Collision Detection:
 Stations listen whilst transmitting. If collision is detected, stop
transmission immediately.
 Rules of CSMA/CD:
1. If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2
2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle,
then transmit immediately
3. If a collision is detected during transmission, transmit a brief
jamming signal to assure that all stations know that there has
been a collision and then cease transmission
4. After transmitting the jamming signal, wait a random amount of
time, referred to as backoff, then attempt to transmit again
(repeat from step 1)
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CSMA/CD
Operation
C detects a collision!
A detects a collision! 54
Collision Detection
The amount of time that it takes to detect a collision is no greater than twice the end-to-
end propagation delay.
Frames should be long enough to allow collision detection prior to the end of
transmission. If shorter frames are used, then collision detection does not occur.
For 10 and 100Mbps Ethernet, the frame length is at least 512 bits.
For 1Gbps Ethernet, the frame length is at least 4096 bits, using carrier extension or
frame bursting.
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Which Persistence Algorithm?
 IEEE 802.3 uses 1-persistent
 Both nonpersistent and p-persistent have
performance problems
 1-persistent seems to be more unstable than p-
persistent, due to the greed of the stations
 But wasted time due to collisions is short (if
frames are long relative to propagation delay)
 With random backoff, stations involved in a
collision are unlikely to collide on next tries
 To ensure backoff maintains stability, IEEE 802.3 and
Ethernet use binary exponential backoff
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Binary Exponential Backoff
 Rules of binary exponential backoff:
 A station attempts to transmit repeatedly in the face of repeated
collisions
 For the first 10 attempts, the mean value of the random delay is
doubled
 The mean value then remains the same for 6 additional attempts
 After 16 unsuccessful attempts, the station gives up and reports an
error
 As congestion increases, stations back off by larger and larger
amounts to reduce the probability of collision.
 1-persistent algorithm with binary exponential backoff is efficient
over a wide range of loads
 At low loads, 1-persistence guarantees that a station can seize channel
as soon as the channel goes idle
 At high loads, it is at least as stable as the other techniques
 Problem: Backoff algorithm gives last-in, first-out effect
 Stations with no or few collisions will have a chance to transmit before
stations that have waited longer
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Control Access Protocols/
Collision free protocols
 Provides in order access to shared medium so that every
station has chance to transfer (fair protocol)
 Eliminates collision completely

 Three methods for controlled access:
 Reservation
 Polling
 Token Passing

1-Reservation access method
 Stations take turns transmitting a single frame at a
full rate ( R ) bps
 Transmissions are organized into variable length cycles
 Each cycle begins with a reservation interval that consists of
(N) minislots. One minislot for each of the N stations
When a station needs to send a data frame, it makes a
reservation in its own minislot.
By listening to the reservation interval, every station knows
which stations will transfer frames, and in which order.
The stations that made reservations can send their data
frames after the reservation frame.

2- Polling
 Stations take turns accessing the medium

 Two models: Centralized and distributed polling
 Centralized polling
 One device is assigned as primary station and the others as secondary
stations
 All data exchanges are done through the primary
 When the primary has a frame to send it sends a select frame that
includes the address of the intended secondary
 When the primary is ready to receive data it send a Poll frame for each
device to ask if it has data to send or not. If yes, data will be transmitted
otherwise NAK is sent.
 Polling can be done in order (Round-Robin) or based on predetermined
order
 Distributed polling
 No primary and secondary
 Stations have a known polling order list which is made based on some
protocol
 station with the highest priority will have the access right first, then it
passes the access right to the next station (it will send a pulling message
to the next station in the pulling list), which will passes the access right
to the following next station, …
Figure 12.19 Select and poll functions in polling access method
Primary is sending to
Secondary Secondary is sending
to Primary

3- Token-Passing network
Implements Distributed
Polling System
bits are copied to the output bits with a one

bit delay Bits are inserted by the station
listen mode transmit mode

input 1 bit delay output
from to delay
ring ring
to station from station to station from station
Station Interface is in two states:
Listen state: Listen to the arriving bits and check the destination address to
see if it is its own address. If yes the frame is copied to the station otherwise
it is passed through the output port to the next station.
Transmit state: station captures a special frame called free token and
transmits its frames. Sending station is responsible for reinserting the free
token into the ring medium and for removing the transmitted frame from the
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medium. ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Figure 13.13 Token-passing procedure

12-3 CHANNELIZATION
Channelization is a multiple-access method in which

the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between different stations.
In this section, we discuss three channelization
protocols.
Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Figure 12.21 Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

12-3 CHANNELIZATION - FDMA
 FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access:

 Transmission medium is divided into M separate frequency bands
 Each station transmits continuously on the assigned band at an average rate of
R/M
 A node is limited to an average rate equal R/M (where M is number of nodes)
even when it is the only node with frame to be sent

Figure 12.22 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

12-3 CHANNELIZATION - TDMA
 TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access

 The entire bandwidth capacity is a single channel with its capacity shared in
time between M stations
 A node must always wait for its turn until its slot time arrives even when it is
the only node with frames to send
 A node is limited to an average rate equal R/M (where M is number of nodes)
even when it is the only node with frame to be sent

12-3 CHANNELIZATION - CDMA
 CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

 In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously
 Each station codes its data signal by a specific codes before transmission
 The stations receivers use these codes to recover the data for the desired
station

Figure 12.23 Simple idea of communication with code
12.70
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
PROJECT 802
IEEE started the project 802 to set
standards to enable interconnection
between equipment from a variety of
manufacturers. It covers the physical
layer, datalink layer and a part of network
layer of the OSI Model.

The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into
two sublayers: logical link control(LLC) and
medium access control(MAC).

LLC: Logic Link Control (IEEE 802.2)
Logic Link Control (LLC) is the IEEE 802.2 LAN protocol that
specifies an implementation of the LLC sublayer of the data link
layer. IEEE 802.2 LLC is used in IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and
IEEE802.5 (Token Ring) LANs to perform these functions:
a. Managing the data-link communication
b. Link Addressing
c. Defining Service Access Points (SAPs)
d. Sequencing

LLC defines three types of operation for data communication
Type 1: Connectionless
The connectionless operation is basically sending but no
guarantee of receiving.
Type 2: Connection Oriented.
The connection-Oriented operation for the LLC layer provides
these 4 services:
Connection establishment;
Confirmation and acknowledgement that data has been
received;
Error recovery by requesting received bad data to be resent;
Sliding Windows which is a method of increasing the rate of
data transfer.
Type 3: Acknowledgement with connectionless service.

Ethernet: IEEE 802.3 Local Area
Network (LAN) protocols
The term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network
(LAN) products covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines
2 categories:
•Broadband (analog signal, PSK encoding)
•Baseband (digital signal, manchester encoding)
Three data rates are currently defined for operation over optical
fiber and twisted-pair cables:
10 Mbps—10Base-T Ethernet
100 Mbps—Fast Ethernet
1000 Mbps—Gigabit Ethernet
It uses carrier sense multiple access collision detection
(CSMA/CD) protocol for LANs

Ethernet has survived as the major LAN technology because
its protocol has the following characteristics:
Is easy to understand, implement, manage,
and maintain
Allows low-cost network implementations
Provides extensive topological flexibility for
network installation
Guarantees successful interconnection and
operation of standards-compliant products,
regardless of manufacturer

Ethernet Network Elements
Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting
media. The network nodes fall into two major classes:
Data terminal equipment (DTE)—Devices that are either
the source or the destination of data frames. DTEs are typically
devices such as PCs, workstations, file servers, or print servers
that, as a group, are all often referred to as end stations.
Data communication equipment (DCE)—Intermediate
network devices that receive and forward frames across the
network. DCEs may be either standalone devices such as
repeaters, network switches, and routers, or communications
interface units such as interface cards and modems.

IEEE 802.3 Frame Format
≥ ≥
Preamble: 7 octets of 10101010

SFD: 10101011
Length: the maximum frame size is 1518 octets, excluding the preamble and SFD.
Pad: octets added to ensure that the frame is long enough for collision detection
FCS: 32-bit CRC, based on all fields except preamble, SFD, and FCS
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Preamble (PRE)—Consists of 7 bytes. The PRE is an
alternating pattern of ones and zeros that tells receiving
stations that a frame is coming, and that provides a means
to synchronize the frame-reception portions of receiving
physical layers with the incoming bit stream.
Start-of-frame delimiter (SOF)—Consists of 1 byte. The
SOF is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros, ending with
two consecutive 1-bits indicating that the next bit is the left-
most bit in the left-most byte of the destination address.
Destination address (DA)—Consists of 6 bytes. The DA
field identifies which station(s) should receive the frame.

Source addresses (SA)—Consists of 6 bytes. The SA field
identifies the sending station.
Length—Consists of 2 bytes. This field indicates the number
of data bytes that are contained in the data field of the frame
Data—Is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less
than or equal to 1500. If the length of the Data field is less
than 46, the Data field must be extended by adding a filler (a
pad) sufficient to bring the Data field length to 46 bytes.
Frame check sequence (FCS)—Consists of 4 bytes. This
sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
value.

10Mbps Specification (Ethernet)
 IEEE 802.3 defined a number of physical configurations.
 The nation follows the rule of
 <data rate in Mbps><Signaling method><Max segment length
in hundreds of meters>
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IEEE 802.3 10Base5 (Thick Ethernet)
10Base5 Specifications :
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable uses double-shielded 0.4 inch diameter RG8
coaxial cable (about the size of a garden hose). The cable is
not flexible, and difficult to work with. Connection to the
workstation is made with a MAU - Medium Attachment Unit
(or Transceiver). The MAU physically and electrically attaches
to the coaxial cable by a cable tap. The cable is pierced, and
a connection is made (by a screw) to the center conductor.
The MAU is connected to the NIC (Network Interface Card)
by the AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) cable.

•On any single cable segment, the maximum allowed number of
nodes or MAUs is 100.
•Minimum distance between nodes, or MAUs, is 2.5 m (or 8
feet).
•The Maximum Data Transfer Rate for IEEE 802.3 is 10 Mbps

Physical Bus / Logical Bus
IEEE 802.3 is a Physical Bus - the cable is physically laid out as
1 long cable with the network nodes attached to it. It is also
treated as a Logical Bus - electronically and logically, it appears
as one long cable, with the network nodes attached to it.

IEEE 802.3a 10Base2 (Thin Ethernet)
Coaxial Cable
Uses RG-58A/U coaxial cable, 0.2 inch in diameter. The
cable is flexible and easy to work with. Connection to the
workstation is made with either a MAU - Medium
Attachment Unit / Transceiver, or directly to the NIC using
a BNC TEE.

•On any 1 cable segment, the maximum allowed number of
nodes is 30.
•Minimum distance between nodes is 0.6 m (2 feet).
•The maximum segment length is 185 m (600 ft.),
•The Maximum Data Transfer Rate for IEEE 802.3a is 10
Mbps
•IEEE 802.3a is a Physical Bus . It is also treated as a Logical
Bus

10-Mbps Ethernet—10Base-T
(Twisted Pair Ehernet)
10Base-T provides 10-Mbps communication over two unshielded
twisted-pair cables in a star topology LAN. Stations are linked
into the hub by four pair RG-45 cable and terminated at each
NIC with an 8-pin RJ-45 connector.
The weight, flexibility and convenience of using the RG-45 cable
makes 10 base T the easiest of the 802 LANs to install and
reinstall.

10BaseT
Twisted Pair Cable
10BaseT uses unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable. The cable
is flexible and easy to work with. There are 2 pairs of twisted
wires used with 10BaseT: separate Rx (receive) and Tx
(transmit) pairs.
The nodes are connected to a Hub. The cables are wired as
straight-through cables: this means that the Node's Rx & Tx
lines connect directly to the Hub's Rx & Tx lines respectively.

For 10BaseT, the maximum allowed number of nodes is 128
(on one segment).
The maximum distance between nodes & Hub is 100 m.
The maximum segment length is 100 m,
The Maximum Data Transfer Rate is 10 Mbps

100Mbps Fast Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet refers to a set of specifications developed by IEEE 802.3 committee to
provide a low-cost, Ethernet-compatible LAN operating at 100 Mbps.
 Use IEEE 802.3 MAC protocol and frame format
 100BASE-X refers to a set of options that use two physical links between nodes: one
for ttransmission and one for reception
 100BASE-TX for twisted pair
 100BASE-FX for optical fiber
 100BASE-T4 can use Category 3 UTP cable
 Uses four twisted-pair lines between nodes
 Data transmission uses three pairs in one direction at a time
 Star-wire topology
 Similar to 10BASE-T
90
100 Mbps—Fast Ethernet
Increasing the Ethernet transmission rate by a factor of ten over
10Base-T was not a simple task, and the effort resulted in the
development of three separate standards for 100 Mbps over UTP
cable: 100Base-TX ,100Base-FX and 100Base-T4.
100Base-TX
Uses 5 Unshielded twisted pair(UTP) or 2 shielded twisted pair
(STP) to connect a station to the hub.One pair to carry frames
from station to hub and the other pair to carry frames from hub
to station.
100Base-FX
Two optical fibres. One to carry frames from station to hub and
the other to carry frames from hub to station.

100Base-T4
Designed to avoid rewiring. Uses 4 pairs of UTP already
available for telephone service. Two of the 4 pairs is
bidirectional and two are unidirectional. Therefore in each
direction, there are 3 pairs to carry data at a time.

Gigabit Ethernet Technology
1000 BASE SX fiber - short wavelength

1000 BASE LX fiber - long wavelength
1000 BASE CX copper - shielded twisted pair
1000 BASE T copper - unshielded twisted pair
* Based on Fiber Channel physical signaling technology.

Gigabit Ethernet
 The Gigabit Ethernet uses the same CSMA/CD frame
format and MAC protocol as used in the 10Mbps and
100Mbps version of IEEE 802.3.
 For shared-medium hub operation, there are two
enhancements to the basic CSMA/CD
 Carrier extension
 Appends a set of special symbols to the end of short MAC frames so
that the resulting block is at least 4096 bit-times in duration (512
bit-times for 10/100Mbps)
 Frame bursting
 Allows for multiple short frames to be transmitted consecutively (up
to a limit) without giving up control for CSMA/CD between frames.
It avoids the overhead of carrier extension when a single station
has a number of small frames ready to send.
 Not necessary for Ethernet switches because there is no
contention for a shared medium.
94
Gigabit Ethernet Configuration
95
10-Gbps Ethernet
 10-Gbps Ethernet can be used to provide high-speed, local
backbone interconnection between large-capacity switches.
 Our departmental Ethernet uses 10-Gbps Ethernet at the backbone.
96
10-Gbps Ethernet Configuration
10-Gbps Ethernet also
targets at Metropolitan
Area Networks (MANs)
and WANs.
97
Token Ring: IEEE 802.5 LAN Protocol
Token Ring is a LAN protocol defined in the IEEE 802.5
where all stations are connected in a ring and each station
can directly hear transmissions only from its immediate
neighbor. Permission to transmit is granted by a message
(token) that circulates around the ring.
Token-passing networks move a small frame, called a token,

around the network. Possession of the token grants the right
to transmit. If a node receiving the token has no information
to send, it passes the token to the next end station. Each
station can hold the token for a maximum period of time.

If a station possessing the token has information to transmit, it
seizes the token, alters 1 bit of the token (which turns the
token into a start-of-frame sequence), appends the information
that it wants to transmit, and sends this information to the
next station on the ring. While the information frame is circling
the ring, no token is on the network, which means that other
stations wanting to transmit must wait. Therefore, collisions
cannot occur in Token Ring networks.
The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the
intended destination station, which copies the information for
further processing. The information frame continues to circle
the ring and is finally removed when it reaches the sending
station. The sending station can check the returning frame to
see whether the frame was seen and subsequently copied by
the destination.

Priority System
Token Ring networks use a priority system that permits certain
stations to use the network more frequently. Token Ring frames
have two fields that control priority: the priority field and the
reservation field.
Only stations with a priority equal to or higher than the priority
value contained in a token can seize that token. After the token
is seized and changed to an information frame, only stations with
a priority value higher than that of the transmitting station can
reserve the token for the next pass around the network.
•Token ring uses a six byte address, which is imprinted

on the NIC card.
•Token ring uses differential manchester encoding.
•It supports data rates up to 16 Mbps.

Frame Format
Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types: tokens
and data/command frames. Tokens are 3 bytes in length and
consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end
delimiter. Data/command frames vary in size, depending on the
size of the Information field. Data frames carry information, while
command frames contain control information and have no data

•Start delimiter—Alerts each station of the arrival of a token
(or data/command frame).
Access-control byte—Contains the Priority field (the most
significant 3 bits) and
the Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a
token bit (used to differentiate a token from a data/command
frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to
determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly).
Frame-control bytes—Indicates whether the frame contains
data or control information. In control frames, this byte specifies
the type of control information.
Destination and source addresses—Consists of two 6-byte
address fields that identify the destination and source station
addresses.

Data—Indicates that the length of field is limited by the ring
token holding time, which defines the maximum time a station
can hold the token.
Frame-check sequence (FCS)—Is filed by the source
station with a calculated value dependent on the frame
contents. The destination station recalculates the value to
determine whether the frame was damaged in transit. If so,
the frame is discarded.
End Delimiter—Signals the end of the token or
data/command frame. The end delimiter also contains bits to
indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the
last in a logical sequence.
Frame Status—Is a 1-byte field terminating a
command/data frame. The Frame Status field includes the
address-recognized indicator and frame-copied indicator.

IEEE 802.4 Token Bus
IEEE 802.4 Token bus combines features of ethernet and token
ring. It combines the physical configuration of ethernet (a bus
topology) and the collision free delivery feature of token ring.
Stations are logically organized into a ring. A token is passed
among stations. If a station wants to send data, it must wait
and capture the token. Stations communicate via a common
bus.

Wireless LANs
 Wireless LAN makes use of a wireless

transmission medium.
 Wireless LAN applications
 LAN Extension
 Cross-building Interconnection
 Nomadic Access
 Ad Hoc Networking
 An ad hoc network is a peer-to-peer network
(without centralized server) set up temporarily to
meet some immediate need.
105
Applications - LAN Extension
 Saves installation of LAN cabling
 Eases relocation and other modifications to network
structure
 However, increasing reliance on twisted pair cabling for
LANs
 Most older buildings already wired with Cat 3 cable
 Newer buildings are prewired with Cat 5
 Wireless LAN to replace wired LANs has not happened
 In some environments, role for the wireless LAN
 Buildings with large open areas
 Manufacturing plants, stock exchange trading floors, warehouses
 Historical buildings
 Small offices where wired LANs not economical
 May also have wired LAN
McGraw-Hill Servers and stationary workstations ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Applications –
Cross-Building Interconnect
 Connect LANs in nearby buildings
 Point-to-point wireless link
 Connect bridges or routers
 Not a LAN per se
 Usual to include this application under
heading of wireless LAN


Applications - Nomadic Access
 Link between LAN hub and mobile data

terminal
 Laptop or notepad computer
 Enable employee returning from trip to
transfer data from portable computer to
server
 Also useful in extended environment such
as campus or cluster of buildings
 Users move around with portable computers
 May wish access to servers on wired LAN
WLAN Configurations (option1 of 2):
Infrastructure Wireless LAN
109
WLAN Configurations (option2 of 2): Ad Hoc
LAN
110
IEEE 802.11
 IEEE 802.11 is devoted to wireless LANs.
 Consists of MAC and physical layer protocols for wireless LANs
 The Wi-Fi Alliance (Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity)
 An industry consortium
 To certify interoperability for 802.11 products
 IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 The smallest building block is Basic Service Set (BSS)
 A number of stations executing the same MAC protocol
 Shared wireless medium
 BSS corresponds to a cell
 A BSS may be isolated, or may connect to a Backbone Distribution
System (DS) through an Access Point (AP)
 AP functions as a bridge and a relay point
 AP could be a station which has the logic to provide DS services
 AP corresponds to a Control Module (CM)
 DS can be a switch, wired network, or wireless network
 An Extended Service Set (ESS) consists of two or more BSSs
interconnected by a DS.
114
IEEE 802.11 - BSS
 MAC protocol and physical medium specification for
wireless LANs
 Smallest building block is basic service set (BSS)
 Number of stations
 Same MAC protocol
 Competing for access to same shared wireless medium
 May be isolated or connect to backbone distribution
system (DS) through access point (AP)
 AP functions as bridge
 MAC protocol may be distributed or controlled by central
coordination function in AP
 BSS generally corresponds to cell
 DS can be switch, wired network, or wireless network
BSS Configuration
 Simplest: each station belongs to single

BSS
 Within range only of other stations within BSS
 Can have two BSSs overlap
 Station could participate in more than one
BSS
 Association between station and BSS
dynamic
 Stations may turn off, come within range, and
McGraw-Hill
go out of range ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2004
Extended Service Set (ESS)
 Two or more BSS interconnected by DS

 Typically, DS is wired backbone but can be
any network
 Appears as single logical LAN to LLC

Access Point (AP)
 Logic within station that provides access

to DS
 Provides DS services in addition to acting as
station
 To integrate IEEE 802.11 architecture with
wired LAN, portal used
 Portal logic implemented in device that is
part of wired LAN and attached to DS
 E.g. Bridge or router
IEEE 802.11 Protocol Architecture
120
802.11 Physical Layer
 Issued in four stages
 First part in 1997
 IEEE 802.11
 Includes MAC layer and three physical layer specifications
 Two in 2.4-GHz band and one infrared
 All operating at 1 and 2 Mbps
 Two additional parts in 1999
 IEEE 802.11a
 5-GHz band, data rate up to 54 Mbps
 IEEE 802.11b
 2.4-GHz band, data rate at 5.5 and 11 Mbps
 Most recent in 2002
 IEEE 802.11g extends IEEE 802.11b to higher data rates, up to 54
Mbps
 At present
 IEEE 802.11n: data rate up to hundreds of Mbps
121
Medium Access Control
 MAC layer has three functions

 Reliable data delivery
 Different from Ethernet, wireless LANs suffer from
considerable unreliability.
 Access control
 Distributed access
 Centralized access
 Security
122
Reliable Data Delivery
 802.11 physical and MAC layers subject to unreliability
 Noise, interference, and other propagation effects result in loss of frames
 Even with error-correction codes, frames may not successfully be received
 802.11 includes frame exchange protocol
 Station receiving frame returns acknowledgment (ACK) frame
 The exchange of these two frames is treated as atomic unit
 Not interrupted by any other station
 If no ACK frame received within short period of time, retransmit
 To further enhance reliability, four-frame exchange may be used
 Source issues a Request to Send (RTS) frame to destination
 Destination responds with Clear to Send (CTS)
 After receiving CTS, source transmits data
 RTS and CTS notify other stations that a transmission is under way, so they
refrain from transmission in order to avoid collision
 Destination responds with ACK
 The purpose of RTS/CTS
 The collision time is shortened, because collision only occurs on the RTS frame,
which is very short compared with data frames
123
Hidden Terminal Problem
A and B can hear each other. B and C

can hear each other. But A and C cannot
collision
hear each other.
A B C When A is sending data to B, C cannot
sense this activity and hence C is
allowed to send data to B at the same
time. This will cause a collision at B.
Consider the effect of RTS/CTS:

RTS alerts all stations within range of source (i.e., A) that
exchange is under way; CTS alerts all stations within
range of destination (i.e., B).
124
Medium Access Control
 Two sublayers
 Lower sublayer is distributed coordination function
(DCF)
 Uses a contention algorithm to provide access to all traffic
 Higher sublayer is point coordination function (PCF)
 Uses a centralized algorithm
 Contention free
 Implemented on top of DCF
 Remark: PCF has not been popularly implemented in
today’s 802.11 products. DCF is widely used.
125
IEEE 802.11 Wireless MAC
Distributed and centralized MAC components
Centralized – Point Coordination Function (PCF)

• In infrastructure mode
• Contention-free access protocol with a controller (AP) called a
point coordinator within the BSS
Distributed – Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)

• In ad-hoc mode
• DCF is a Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) protocol (distributed contention based protocol)
Both the DCF and PCF can operate concurrently

within the same BSS to provide alternative contention
and contention-free periods

DCF in 802.11 MAC
• The AP doesn’t control the medium access
• Use collision avoidance techniques, in conjunction with a

(physical or virtual) carrier sense mechanism
• Carrier sense: – When a node wishes to transmit a

packet, it first waits until the channel is idle
• Collision avoidance: – Once channel becomes idle, the

node waits for a randomly chosen duration before
attempting to transmit –
Nodes hearing RTS or CTS stay silent for the duration of the
corresponding transmission

Distributed Coordination Function: CSMA/CA
 DCF sublayer uses CSMA/CA protocol, where CA refers to as Collision
Avoidance
1. A station with a frame to transmit senses the medium. If the medium is idle, it
waits to see if the medium remains idle for a time equals to a delay called
Interframe Space (IFS). If so, the station may transmit immediately.
2. If the medium is busy, the station defers transmission and continues to
monitor the medium until the current transmission is over.
3. Once the transmission is over, the station delays another IFS. If the medium
remains idle for this period, then the station backs off a random amount of
time and again senses the medium. If the medium is still idle, the station may
transmit. During the backoff time, if the medium becomes busy, the backoff
timer is halted and resumes when the medium becomes idle.
4. If the transmission is unsuccessful, which is determined by the absence of an
ACK, then it is assumed that a collision has occurred.
 To ensure that backoff maintains stability, binary exponential backoff
is used.
 Why not collision detection?
 Collision detection is not practical on wireless networks
 The dynamic range of wireless signals is very large
 The transmitting station cannot distinguish incoming weak signals from noise
and/or effects of own transmission
129
IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame Format
• Frame Control: Indicates the type of frame

• control, management, or data
• Control Frames:
• RTS, CTS, ACK (Acknowledgement), etc.
• Management Frames:
• to manage communications between stations and APs.
130
MAC Frame Fields
 Duration/Connection ID:
 If used as duration field, indicates the time (in s) the channel will be
allocated for successful transmission of a MAC frame
 In some control frames, contains association or connection identifier
 Addresses:
 The number and meaning of the 48-bit address fields depend on
context
 source address, destination address, transmitter address, receiver
address
 Sequence Control:
 4-bit fragment number subfield used for fragmentation and reassembly
 12-bit sequence number used to number frames between given
transmitter and receiver
 Frame Body:
 MSDU (MAC SUBLAYER DATA UNIT) or a fragment of an MSDU
 Frame Check Sequence:
 32-bit cyclic redundancy check 131
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
 FDDI is a standard developed by the

American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) for transmitting
data on optical fibers
 Supports transmission rates of up
to 200 Mbps
 Uses a dual ring
 First ring used to carry data at 100
Mbps
 Second ring used for primary
backup in case first ring fails
 If no backup is needed, second ring
can also carry data, increasing the
data rate up to 200 Mbps Source:http://burks.brighton.ac.uk/burks/pcinfo/hardware/ethernet/fddi.htm
 Supports up to 1000 nodes

 Has a range of up to 200 km

Fiber Distributed Data Interface
The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) specifies a
100-Mbps token-passing, dual-ring LAN using fiber-optic
cable. FDDI is frequently used as high-speed backbone
technology because of its support for high bandwidth and
greater distances than copper.
FDDI uses dual-ring architecture with traffic on each ring
flowing in opposite directions (called counter-rotating).
The dual rings consist of a primary and a secondary ring.
During normal operation, the primary ring is used for data
transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle.

FDDI Transmission Media
FDDI uses optical fiber as the primary transmission medium
Optical fiber has several advantages over copper media. In
particular, security, reliability, and performance all are
enhanced with optical fiber media because fiber does not
emit electrical signals.
FDDI defines two types of optical fiber: single-mode and
multimode
Multimode fiber uses LED as the light-generating device,
while single-mode fiber generally uses lasers.

FDDI Station-Attachment Types
Multiple ways exist by which to FDDI devices can be
connected. FDDI defines four types of devices: single-
attachment station (SAS), dual-attachment station (DAS),
single-attached concentrator (SAC), and dual-attached
concentrator (DAC).
An SAS attaches to only one ring (the primary) through a
concentrator. One of the primary advantages of
connecting devices with SAS attachments is that the
devices will not have any effect on the FDDI ring if they
are disconnected or powered off.

Each FDDI DAS has two ports, designated A and B. These
ports connect the DAS to the dual FDDI ring. Therefore,
each port provides a connection for both the primary and
the secondary rings. Devices using DAS connections will
affect the rings if they are disconnected or powered off.

An FDDI concentrator (also called a dual-attachment
concentrator [DAC]) is the building block of an FDDI
network. It attaches directly to both the primary and
secondary rings and ensures that the failure or power-down
of any SAS does not bring down the ring. This is
particularly useful when PCs, or similar devices that are
frequently powered on and off, connect to the ring.

FDDI Frame Format
The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token
Ring frame. FDDI frames can be as large as 4,500 bytes.

FDDI Frame Fields
Preamble—Gives a unique sequence that prepares
each station for an upcoming frame.
Start delimiter—Indicates the beginning of a frame
by employing a signaling pattern that differentiates it
from the rest of the frame.
Frame control—Indicates the size of the address
fields and whether the frame contains asynchronous or
synchronous data, among other control information.
Destination address—Contains a unicast (singular),
multicast (group), or broadcast (every station) address.
FDDI destination addresses are 6 bytes long.
Source address—Identifies the single station that sent
the frame. FDDI source addresses are 6 bytes long.

Data—Contains either information destined for an upper-
layer protocol or control information.
Frame check sequence (FCS)—Is filed by the source
station with a calculated cyclic redundancy check value
dependent on frame contents. The destination address
recalculates the value to determine whether the frame was
damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded.
End delimiter—Contains unique symbolsthat indicate the
end of the frame.
Frame status—Allows the source station to determine
whether an error occurred; identifies whether the frame
was recognized and copied by a receiving station.

Dual Ring
FDDI's primary fault-tolerant feature is the dual ring. If a
station on the dual ring fails or is powered down, or if the
cable is damaged, the dual ring is automatically wrapped
(doubled back onto itself) into a single ring. When the ring
is wrapped, the dual-ring topology becomes a single-ring
topology. Data continues to be transmitted on the FDDI ring
without performance impact during the wrap condition.

A Ring also Wraps to Withstand a Cable Failure

DQDB
Network Security
What is DQDB?
• Distributed Queue Dual Bus

• DQDB is a DLL comm. protocol for MAN
• Unlike FDDI, DQDB is an IEEE standard: 802.6
• Designed for both voice & video
• Topology used: Dual Bus - uses 2 unidirectional logical buses
• Extend up to 30 miles at 34-55 Mbps
• Uses optical fibre links
• Queued-packet distributed switch (QPSX) algorithm
Network Security
About DQDB
• Works on Data-link layer (specially in MAC sub-layer)

• Used in data, voice and video transmissions
• Used in data over cable services
• Based on Cell Relay Technology (like ATM)
• Provides connection-oriented, connection less services &
asynchronous services
Network Security
Few technical facts of DQDB
• Distance up to 200 KM
• Medium: Copper or Fiber
• At distance up to 160 KM approx speed is 44.73 Mbps (Copper)
• At distance up to 100 KM approx speed is 150 Mbps (Fiber)
• Transmission Rate: 34 Mbps to 150 Mbps
Network Security
DQDB Architecture
• Each bus supports traffic in only one direction

• Beginning of bus is denoted by a square and end by a
triangle
• Bus B traffic moves from right to left and Bus A traffic from
left to right
• Each bus connects to stations directly through input and
output ports
Network Security
DQDB Architecture (Cont…)
• The DQDB is composed of a two bus lines with stations attached to

both and a cell (Empty slots) generator at the start of each bus.
• The buses run in parallel in such a fashion as to allow the cells

generated to travel across the stations in opposite directions.
• The cell generator (head-end) is constantly producing empty cells

consisting of fifty-three bytes (a five byte header and a forty-eight byte
payload).
Network Security
Upstream & Downstream
• As Bus A is configured
• Stations 2 & 3 are considered to be upstream w.r.t station 1
• Stations 1 & 2 are considered to be downstream w.r.t. station 3
• As Bus B is configured
• Station 2 & 3 are considered to be downstream w.r.t. station 1
• Stations 1 & 2 are considered to be upstream w.r.t. station 3
Network Security
DQDB working
• Head-ends generate fixed size cells in both directions (cell generators)

• To transmit, a host must know whether the destination is to its right or
its left
• If right, the host must send on left bus
• If left, the host must send on the right bus
• A “Distributed Queue” is used to make sure that cells are transmitted
on a first-come first-serve basis
Network Security
DQDB Operation
 The DQDB configuration is independent
of the number of nodes and of the
distances involved making DQDB ideal
for high-speed transmissions
 DQDB uses 53-byte packets (52 data
bytes and one access control byte) for
transmissions called slots.
 Slots from different nodes are
intermingled in the network traffic.
157 DQDB
 The head node (the first node connected to
the external fiber) is responsible for creating
empty slots and sending these down the line
to the other nodes to use.
 The downline nodes indicate how many slots
are needed using the secondary bus to the
head node which then creates empty slots
and sends these down the line.
 As the slots move down the line, they are
taken by the nodes that have requested
them.
158 DQDB
Queue Arbitration
 The queue arbitration method is at the

heart of the DQDB protocol.
 Suppose that Node 2 wishes to send data
on Bus A (the forward bus) to Node N.
 It will first be necessary to reserve a slot
on Bus A.
159 DQDB
 To do this it will set the request bit of a slot
travelling on Bus B (the reverse bus).
 As the request passes each node on Bus B
they will set a counter to indicate the
presence of a reservation.
 When an empty slot travels down Bus A, the
counter at Node 1 will be decreased by one.
 Node 2 will be free to put its data into the
slot and send it down the bus to Node N.
160 DQDB
 Node 1 will then be free to use the next
empty slot for its own data.
 Each node will in fact need two
counters.
 The request counter (RQ) is used to
keep track of the distributed queue.
 RQ is incremented for every request bit
set to 1 on the reverse bus and
decremented for each empty QA slot
passing on the forward bus.
 When a node wants to send a QA
segment, it uses another counter called
the countdown counter (CD).
161 DQDB
 When a node is ready to place a
request on the queue, it transfers the
value of the RQ counter to the CD
counter and resets the RQ counter to 0.
 The RQ counter now counts the number
of new requests and the CD counter
keeps track of this node's position in
the queue.
 In this way a node knows how many
stations are ahead of it in the queue
and the length of the queue behind it.
162 DQDB
High Performance Parallel Interface
(HIPPI)
 HIPPI (late 1980s): high-speed interface developed for
supercomputers and high-end workstations
 Serial HIPPI is a fiber-optic version that uses point-to-point
optical links for bandwidth up to 800 Mbps
 In early 1990s, it was used as a network backbone and for
interconnecting supercomputers
 With the advent of Gigabit Ethernet, interest in HIPPI as a LAN
backbone decreased
 HIPPI-6400 (1998): up to 6.4 Gbps transfer rates
 Known as Gigabyte System Network (GSN)
 HIPPI and GSN are now exotic networking products and aren’t
often found in typical corporate networks
164
Overview of HIPPI
HIPPI is a very high-speed data transfer protocol, with the following properties,
features, and limitations:
􀁺 Data rates of 800 or 1600 Mb/s.
􀁺 Uses a 50- or 100-pair connection. (50-pair for 800 Mb/s data-rate, 100-pair
for 1600 Mb/s datarate.)
The 100-pair connection is actually a set of two identical 50-pair cables.
􀁺 Useful for distances up to 25 meters. (Serial-HIPPI extensions are being
proposed for operation up
to 10km.)
􀁺 Transfers 32 bits (for 800 Mb/s data-rate) or 64 bits (for 1600 Mb/s data-rate)
in parallel. Packet format allows byte alignment.
􀁺 Connection-oriented protocol.
􀁺 Point-to-point connection.
􀁺 Simplex (i.e., one-way data transfer) operation.
􀁺 First standard in its class (data-transfer for high-performance computing
environments).
􀁺 Designed for ease of implementation: available options are very limited.

The HIPPI protocol is defined, at several layers, by a
collection of standards :
1. HIPPI-PH (Physical Layer)

2. HIPPI-FP (Framing Protocol)
3. HIPPI-SC (Switch Control)
4. HIPPI-LE(Link Encapsulation)
5. HIPPI-FC(Fibre Channel)
6. HIPPI-IPI(Disk & Tape Commands)
7. Serial HIPPI

HIPPI-PH (Physical Layer)
The HIPPI-PH standard defines the mechanical, electrical, and
signaling of the HIPPI physical layer.
Note that since HIPPI is a simplex protocol, a full-duplex link would
be achieved by another HIPPI connection in the opposite direction.
HIPPI's physical layer consists of a set of 50-twisted-pair copper
cables (maximum length of 25 meters).
Two options exist, based the desired data-rate: 800 or 1600 Mb/s.

Conceptual Transmission Elements
To understand signaling, one must first understand how HIPPI
transmits data. The conceptual elements
of data transmission are the connection, the packet, the burst, and
the word.
􀁺 One connection consists of any number of packets.
􀁺 One packet consists of any number of bursts.
􀁺 One burst consists of 1 to 256 words of data. (Maximum of 1 K-
byte of data per burst.)
􀁺 Each data word is 32 bits long.

Signal Lines
The HIPPI signals and timing are described below. Each line is
dedicated to its own function. (Since HIPPI is simplex, this includes
the data bus and parity bus.) The item in parentheses is the line
direction:
Source is denoted by S , and destination by D . (Note that the source
initiates the data connection.
􀁺 REQUEST(S-->D) -- The source raises this line to initiate a

connection.
􀁺 CONNECT(D-->S) -- The destination raises this line if accepts the
source's initiation.
Once this line is raised, a connection is in progress.

READY(D-->S) -- Once the connection has been established, the
destination sends one ready pulse for each burst that it can receive (up to
a maximum of 63).
Two things are accomplished by this means:
1. The destination performs flow control by not sending ready pulses until
it knows it can handle the resulting burst.
2. These ready pulses can be sent at a much faster rate than the bursts
themselves, and in parallel with bursts. This allows the source to have
advanced notice of the amount of data it can send, and not interrupt the
source's sending with these notifications.
􀁺 PACKET(S-->D) -- The source raises this line at the beginning of a

packet transmission. It remains high as long as the packet is in progress.
􀁺 BURST(S-->D) -- The source raises this line at the beginning of a burst

transmission. It remains high as long as data is being transmitted.

􀁺 DATA BUS(S-->D) -- These 32 lines carry the data during the
transmission burst.
PARITY BUS(S-->D) -- These 4 lines carry the parity bits (one for each
word) along with data word.
􀁺 CLOCK(S-->D) -- Provided by the source, this is a continuous 25 MHz

clock. (Timing issues are described below.)
􀁺 INTERCONNECT(S<-->D) -- This is a set of two lines, one in each

direction, which inform each end that the other is powered up and
connected.

HIPPI-FP (Framing Protocol)
• This standard describes the format and content (including
header) of each packet of user information.

HIPPI-SC (Switch Control)
• The most glaring limitation of HIPPI-PH is that it supports
only a single point-to-point connection.
• Though this is necessary for practical purposes (to achieve
the required data-rates), it goes against the dominant
paradigm of networking: to allow many computers to share
data HIPPI SC was developed as one workable solution to
data. HIPPI-this quandary.
• It allows for a switching mechanism to be built which could
allow multiple simultaneous point-to-point connections to
occur

HIPPI Connection Management
Three such policies are considered:
1. Centralized-- One centralized, distinct management
system, closely integrated with the switches, maintains all
connection management information for the entire network.
When a connection is established or broken, this system
performs the next assignments which need to be made.

2. Broadcast-- A separate bus-type communications system
allows nodes to broadcast information regarding the HIPPI
links, and therefore manage connections by policies built
upon this shared knowledge.
3. Distributed-- Each HIPPI node works with no explicit

knowledge of any others Management policies are then
others. built upon random waiting and retrying methods.

Fundamentals of Wireless LAN
Radio-Based Wireless LANs
 Most widely used method

 Adv: penetrating walls and other obstacles
with little attenuation.
 Disadv: security, interference, etc.
 3 approaches:
 ISM band
 Narrow band
 Spread spectrum
ISM Bands
 ISM=Industrial, Scientific, and Medical
 Unlicensed, you can freely install and
move.

Narrow Band Modulation
 Concentrate all transmission power in a narrow

range of frequency.
 Efficient use of radio spectrum; save bandwidth.
 ex: television, AM, FM
 Adv: for long distance transmission (e.g.
metropolitan area)
 Disadv: noise can easily corrupt the signals
 Need to obtain licenses to coordinate the use.

Spread Spectrum Modulation
 Definition: “spread” a signal’s power over

a wider band of frequency.

Spread Spectrum
 Disadv: This contradicts with the goal of

conserving bandwidth.
 Adv: less susceptible to electrical noise
(especially from narrow band sources)
 In World War II, US Army uses spread
spectrum to avoid hostile jamming.
 To spread a signal, there are two ways:
 direct sequence (DSSS)
 frequency hopping (FHSS)
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 Use bit sequence to represent
“zero” and “one” (Fig. 2-5)
 Also referred to as “chipping
code”.
 Longer chipping codes are
more resilient to noise.
 Minimum length = 10 (by FCC)
 IEEE 802.11 uses 11 chips per
data bit.

Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
 Data is modulated
by carrier signals
that hop from
frequency to
frequency as a
function of time,
over a wide band of
frequencies.

Current Internet access
technologies
 Broadband
 DSL
 Cable
 WiFi hotspots
 Dial-up

Band for ADSL

Wi-Fi Certification
 The Wi-Fi CERTIFIED logo from the Wi-

Fi Alliance.
 Rigorous interoperability testing requirements.
 Certifies the interoperability of 802.11 products from the
many different vendors.

Brief History
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers) established the 802.11 Group
in 1990. Specifications for standard
ratified in 1997.
 Initial speeds were 1 and 2 Mbps.
 IEEE modified the standard in 1999 to
include:
 802.11b
 802.11a
 802.11g was added in 2003.
 IEEE Created standard, but Wi-Fi Alliance
certifies products
802.11 Standard
 802.11 is primarily concerned

with the lower layers of the OSI
model.
 Data Link Layer
 Logical Link Control (LLC).
 Medium Access Control (MAC).
 Physical Layer
 Physical Layer Convergence
Procedure (PLCP).
 Physical Medium Dependent
(PMD).

802.11b Standard
 Well-supported, stable, and cost effective,
but runs in the 2.4 GHz range that makes
it prone to interference from other devices
(microwave ovens, cordless phones, etc)
and also has security disadvantages.
 Limits the number of access points in
range of each other to three.
 Has 11 channels, with 3 non-overlapping,
and supports rates from 1 to 11 Mbps, but
realistically about 4-5 Mbps max.
 Uses direct-sequence spread-spectrum
technology.
802.11g Standard
 Extension of 802.11b, with the same
disadvantages (security and interference).
 Has a shorter range than 802.11b.
 Is backwards compatible with 802.11b so it
allows or a smooth transition from 11b to 11g.
 Flexible because multiple channels can be
combined for faster throughput, but limited to
one access point.
 Runs at 54 Mbps, but realistically about 20-25
Mbps and about 14 Mbps when b associated
 Uses frequency division multiplexing

802.11a Standard
 Completely different from 11b and 11g.
 Flexible because multiple channels can be
combined for faster throughput and more
access points can be co-located.
 Shorter range than 11b and 11g.
 Runs in the 5 GHz range, so less
interference from other devices.
 Has 12 channels, 8 non-overlapping, and
supports rates from 6 to 54 Mbps, but
realistically about 27 Mbps max
 Uses frequency division multiplexing
Advantages
 Freedom – You can work from any

location that you can get a signal.
 Setup Cost – No cabling required.
 Flexibility – Quick and easy to setup in
temp or permanent space.
 Scaleable – Can be expanded with growth.
 Mobile Access – Can access the network
on the move.

Disadvantages
 Speed – Slower than cable.

 Range – Affected by various medium.
 Travels best through open space.
 Reduced by walls, glass, water, etc
 Security – Greater exposure to risks.
 Unauthorized access.
 Compromising data.
 Denial of service.

Wireless LAN Networks

WiMAX Highlights
 Speed
 Faster than broadband service
 Wireless
 Not having to lay cables reduces cost
 Easier to extend to suburban and rural areas
 Broad coverage
 Much wider coverage than WiFi hotspots

WiMAX Highlights
 WiMAX
 Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access
 Is a certification mark for products that pass
conformity and interoperability tests for the
IEEE 802.16

WiMAX System Parts
 WiMAX tower
 Similar in concept to a cell-phone tower
 Can provide coverage to a very large area -- as big

as 3,000 square miles
 A WiMAX receiver
 The receiver and antenna could be a small
box or PCMCIA card, or they could be built
into a laptop the way WiFi access is today

WiMAX System Parts
 A tower station can connect directly to the

Internet using a high-bandwidth, wired
connection
 It can also connect to another WiMAX
tower using a line-of-sight, microwave
link.

Two forms of wireless service
 Non-line-of-sight
 A small antenna on your computer connects
to the tower
 2 GHz to 11 GHz frequency range
 Limited to a 4-to-6 mile radius

Two forms of wireless service
 Line-of-sight service
 A fixed dish antenna points straight at the
WiMAX tower from a rooftop or pole.
 66 GHz frequency range
 Higher frequencies, there is less interference
and lots more bandwidth
 30-mile radius

Specifications
 Range
 30-mile radius from base station
 Speed
 70 megabits per second
 Line-of-sight not needed between user
and base station

 In practical terms, WiMAX would operate
similar to WiFi but at higher speeds, over
greater distances and for a greater
number of users.

WiFi hotspot replacement
 Cities might pay to have WiMAX base

stations set up in key areas for business
and commerce and then allow people to
use them for free.
 Similar to free WiFi hotspots, but wider range
 Some companies might set up WiMAX
transmitters and then make people pay for
access.
 Similar to paid WiFi hotspots, but wider range

DSL/cable modem replacement
 Current high speed access method

 The cable (or phone) company has a line that
runs into your home.
 That line goes to a cable modem, and another
line runs from the modem to your computer.
 If you have a home network, first it goes to a
router and then on to the other computers on
the network.

DSL/cable modem replacement
 WiMAX access method
 An Internet service provider sets up a WiMAX base
station.
 You would buy a WiMAX-enabled computer or
upgrade your old computer to add WiMAX capability.
 You would receive a special encryption code that
would give you access to the base station.
 The base station would beam data from the Internet
to your computer
 If you have a home network, the WiMAX base station
would send data to a WiMAX-enabled router, which
would then send the data to the different computers
on your network.

VOIP
 The WiMAX protocol is designed to

accommodate several different methods of
data transmission, one of which is Voice
Over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

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THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International

 An ISO (International standard Organization) standard

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Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Data Link Data Link

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 The physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits

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 The data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for transmitting

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 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed

 If the frame is intended for a system outside the

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 Access Control. When two or more devices are

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•The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-

•If two systems are connected to the same link, there is

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 Routing. When independent networks or links are

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 The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

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The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a

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 Port addressing:computer often run several processes

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 Segmentation and reassembly: a message is

 Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow

 Error control: the transport layer performs error

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 The presentation layer was designed to handle

 The application layer enables the user to access

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

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The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do

Figure 1-21. The TCP/IP reference model.

Header contains source and TCP

Header contains source and

Header contains source

In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times.

 To improve efficiency, a modification of ALOHA,

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 Eliminates collision completely

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 Stations take turns accessing the medium

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bits are copied to the output bits with a one

listen mode transmit mode

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