Automation in Aluminium Welding

International Review of
Mechanical Engineering
(IREME)
Contents
Control of Base Pressure with Micro Jets for Area Ratio 2.4 1
by Syed Ashfaq, S. A. Khan, E. Rathakrishnan
Intelligent Parametric Identification of Flexible Manipulator System 11
by Hanim Mohd Yatim, Intan Z. Mat Darus
Investigate the Effect of Using Sunflower Oil as a Lubricant 22
During Turning Operation of Stainless Steel
by S. A. Adam, M. A. Fairuz, M. S. Hussain, M. R. M. Hafiezal, S. N. Khaironisa
Crashworthiness Design of Vehicle Side Door Beam Based on Elliptical Geometry Modification 28
Using Multi-Objective Optimization
by Ehsan Rasooliyazdi, Rizal Bin Zahari, Ali Ghadianlou, Ali Farhaninejad, Barkawi Bin Sahari,
Faieza Abdul Aziz, Hamed Jamali
Evolutionary Optimum Design for a Task Specified 6-Link Planar Robot 36
by N. Godwin Raja Ebenezer, R. Saravanan, S. Ramabalan, R. Natarajan
2D Simulation of FC72 Sessile Droplet Evaporation in the Constant Contact Line Region 52
by S. Hussain, Y. Fukatani, M. Kohno, K. Sefiane, Y. Takata
Determination of the Yield of Internal Combustion Thermal Engines 62
by Florian Ion T. Petrescu, Relly Victoria V. Petrescu
Effect of Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap in a Mixed Flow Submersible Pump 68
Using Computational Fluid Dynamics
by J. Manikandan, V. Senthil, S. Nagarajan
Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Aluminium Alloy 7075 Reinforced 75
with Tungsten Carbide and Fly-Ash
by Vivekanandan P., Arunachalam V. P.
Experimental Investigation on Electrochemical Micro Machining of Al-10%wt SiCp 80
Based on Taguchi Design of Experiments
by S. Dharmalingam, P. Marimuthu, K. Raja, C. Nithyapathi, B. Babu, M. Siva
Material Properties of Random Oriented Pressed Mat Coir Fibre/ Epoxy Composites 89
by Mohd Amirul Abdul Rahman, Munaim Ali Omar Baki, Azmin Shakrine Mohd Rafie, Renuganth A/L Vartharajoo
Numerical Simulation of the Three-Phase Flow Formed within the Riser Tube 94
of a System Designed to Remove Leaking Oil from Maritime Accidents
by Dimitrios-Periklis A. Giannoulis, Dionissios P. Margaris
Determination of Rational Geometrical Parameters of Cellular Cylinders According 100
to Characteristics of Strength and Stability
by A. Žiliukas, M. Kukis
Modeling Vaporous Cavitation in Transient Pipe Flow Using the Zielke’s Friction Model 111
by M. Tamani, B. Bahrar, K. Gueraoui
Taguchi Approach for the Optimization of Process Parameters of Wear 116
in AISI 202 Tested at Elevated Temperature
by K. Arul Raj, M. Karthikeyan, R. Mariappan, S. Sakthisubaraja, A. S. Akilan
(continued)
Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

Exergy and Performance Analysis of Three Stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade (3 Stage ARC) System 124
Using Zeotropic Mixture of Eco-Friendly Refrigerants
by M. Sivakumar, P. Somasundaram, P. Thangavel
Comparison of Different Multi-Strand Tundishes 135
by Anupam Dewan, Siddharth Gupta
Automation of Aluminum Alloy Welding 145
by P. Kah
Modified Grey Fuzzy Logic Controller for Vehicle Suspension System 153
by K. Rajeswari, S. Lavanya, P. Lakshmi
Impact of the Cut Form on the Drying Behavior without Pretreatment 162
of Carrots in a Convective Dryer
by M. Lahbari, H. Benmoussa
Developing Empirical Relationships to Predict MRR and Overcut of ECM of EN38 Steel 168
by A. Kumaravelu, C. Jegadheesan, C. Senthilkumar
Experimental Investigation of Surface Roughness and Tool Life in Hard Turning 174
of AISI M2 Steel Using CBN Insert
by P. Jaganathan, Sivasubramanian, V. Krishnaraj
Wear and Friction Behaviour of 7075Al-25 SiC Particle Composites 190
Sliding Against Automobile Friction Material
by L. Jayakumar, K. Balamurugan, C. Ezilarasan
On Real Time Prediction of Cutting Forces Using ANN 197
by Hany A. El Kadi, Ibrahim M. Deiab, Amal A. Khattab
Primary Superheater Spray Control Valve Modeling 209
Based on Levenberg-Marquardt Learning Algorithm
by N. A. Mazalan, A. A. Malek, Mazlan A. Wahid, M. Mailah
Fuzzy-Based Controller Design for Intelligent Robot Arm 214
by A. Jebelli, M. C. E. Yagoub, N. Lotfi, Seyyed Hossein Kazemi Riabi
Feasibility Study for Energy Recovery from Internal Combustion Engine’s Waste Heat 223
by Musthafah M. T., Safarudin H., R. A. Bakar, M. A. Salim, A. M. Mohd Shafie
Applicability of Robotic Welding for Aluminum Boat Manufacturing 228
by Paul Kah, Esa Hiltunen, Raimo Suoranta, Jukka Martikainen
Numerical and Mathematical Modeling of Reactive Mass Transfer 236
and Heat Storage Installations of Argan Waste
by S. Men-la-yakhaf, K. Gueraoui, A. Maaouni, M. Driouich
Effect of Swirl Strength to Axial Flow Development Inside the Can Combustor 241
by M. S. A. Ishak, M. N. M. Jaafar
SPECIAL SECTION ON
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
RESEARCH 2013 (ICMER 2013)
MILD Combustion: the Future for Lean and Clean Combustion Technology 251
by M. M. Noor, Andrew P. Wandel, Talal Yusaf
Implementation of LQR Controller on Electromagnetic Suspension System for Passenger’s Car 258
by Noor Hafizah Amer, Rahizar Ramli, Wan Nor Liza Wan Mahadi, Mohd Azman Zainul Abidin,
Hazril Md Isa, Soong Ming Foong
Indentation Fracture Behaviour of Fibre Metal Laminates Based on Kenaf/Epoxy 265
by M. R. Abdullah, C. L. Pang, N. A. Husain, B. Abdi
(Continued)

Influence of N2 and H2O on UV Irradiated Bio Polymer Composite 271
by Anika Zafiah M. Rus, Siti Rahmah M., Shaiqah M. Rus
Detection and Analysis of Defect in Steel Tube Using Vibration Impact 277
Acoustic Emission (VIAE) Method
by A. H. Zakiah, N. Jamaludin, J. Syarif, S. Y. S. Yahya
Potential of Microalgae Tetraselmis Chuii as Feedstock for Biodiesel Application 283
by Kumaran P., Saifuddin N., Janarthanan S.
Effect of Solution Treatment Temperature on Microstructure 289
and Mechanical Properties of A356 Alloy
by M. Ishak, A. Amir, A. H. Ahmad

International Review of Mechanical Engineering (I.RE.M.E.), Vol. 8, N. 1
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Control of Base Pressure with Micro Jets for Area Ratio 2.4
Syed Ashfaq1, S. A. Khan2, E. Rathakrishnan3
Abstract – This paper presents the results of experimental studies to control the base pressure
from a convergent nozzle to ascertain the effect of level of expansion on a suddenly expanded
sonic flow. An active control in the form of four micro jets of 1 mm orifice diameter located at 900
intervals along a pitch circle diameter of 1.3 times the nozzle exit diameter in the base region was
employed to control the base pressure. The area ratio (ratio of area of suddenly expanded duct to
nozzle exit area) studied is 2.4. Experiments were conducted for nozzle pressure ratio (NPR) from
1.5 to 3, in steps of 0.5. The length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio of the enlarged duct was varied from
10 to 1, and tests were conducted for L/D 10, 8, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1. It is evident from the results
that the flow field downstream of the reattachment-redevelopment is very complex. It is found that,
unlike in the case passive controls, the favourable pressure gradient does not ensure augmentation
of the control effectiveness for active control in the form of micro jets. To study the influence of
micro jets on the quality of flow in the enlarged duct wall pressure was measured and it is found
that the micro jets do not disturb the flow field in the duct. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize
S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Base Pressure, Mach Number, Micro Jets, Sudden Expansion, Wall Pressure
I. Introduction ‘Stings’ and other support mechanism vital for

external flow tests are also eradicated in the internal
The pressure at the blunt base is substantially low flows. Triggered predominantly by the necessities in
compared to the atmospheric pressure. The flow field at technological developments, several research
the base which is very complex is one of the significant investigations have been stated in literature devoted to
and complex problems in fluid dynamics. The flow at the reduce the base drag penalty both active as well as
base will be wave dominated. passive control methods, these methods aim in
When the flow at the nozzle exit is under expanded manipulation of the near wake flow field for controlling
there will be an expansion fan at the nozzle lip, where as the base pressure flow field.
in the case of correctly expanded case still waves are Sudden enlargement flow field is a complex
bound to be there at the nozzle exit, however, for phenomenon which is followed by flow separation, flow
correctly expanded case these waves are weak. It is well re-circulation and reattachment.
known that at subsonic speed due to the low pressure The point at which the dividing streamline strikes the
region at the base the magnitude of the base drag will be wall is called the reattachment point. In such a case the
ten per cent of the total drag, whereas the major shear layer divides such a flow in to two main regions,
contribution will be from the skin friction drag. one being the re-circulation region and the other the main
However, at transonic speed the component of the flow region (Fig. 1). In view of above it has been the
base drag is significant and it may be as high as fifty per subject of intensive study for many years due to its
cent of the total drag. Hence, a small increase in the base academic interest and its real-world applications.
pressure could lead to substantial decrease in the drag
and ultimately increase in the range of the projectiles and
missiles.
The issues of suddenly expanded flow of external
compressible flow at the base of projectiles and its
relation with the base pressure, and the base drag, which
is a substantial portion of the total drag is dictated by the
sub-atmospheric pressure at the base.
The experimental research of internal flow devices has
numeral distinctive advantages over general ballistics test
protocols.
Large amount of air supply is essential for tunnels
with test-section large enough so that wall interference, Fig. 1. Sudden Expansion flow field
etc., will not disrupt the flow over the model.
Manuscript received and revised December 2013, accepted January 2014 Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
1
Syed Ashfaq, S. A. Khan, E. Rathakrishnan
Most of the extensive works in this area have been Combination with whole momentum balance, the base
showcased on transonic or supersonic external flow past pressure and the position within the wake area where
blunted based bodies. All these efforts have been recompression initiates can be determined. Experiments
precisely reviewed. were conducted for sudden expansion for convergent
Base pressure related problems of internal flows are nozzles for different area ratios and for various
also significant in practical field. The base pressure will convergent angles.
change the performance of an ejector nozzle when Viswanath [5] explored experimentally the zero-lift
functioned without the help of secondary flow. Perhaps it drag features of multi-step after-bodies that utilize the
may be discussed that the present complex statements idea of controlled separated flows at transonic and
can be worked out by large-scale mathematical supersonic speeds. The significant geometrical
computations. As the viscous effects through the parameters affecting the drag of such after-bodies were
convergent nozzle suddenly upstream of an immediate identified, and their effects were examined through a
expansion are negligible and can be overlooked. parametric study. Their results show that multi-step after-
The aim of this research work is to investigate the bodies can be designed that provide significant total drag
base pressure ratio Pb/Patm linked with an abruptly reduction (as high as 50 per cent) compared to blunt
expanded internal flow emerging out of a convergent bases; however, compared to axi-symmetric boattailed
nozzle. Many investigators tried to control the base after-bodies of a given base area, the multi-step after-
pressure with passive technique and some of the work bodies have relatively higher drag. Finally, the certain
related to the present study is studied in the section to flow features involving separation and reattachment on
follow. In the present study an attempt has been made to multi-step after-bodies were discussed based on flow
control the base pressure by micro jets at different level visualization studies.
of under expansion and also assess the effectiveness of Singh and Rathakrishnan [6] studied the effect of tab
the micro jets at correct expansion as well as for under geometry on flow characteristics of sonic jet. It is found
expansion. that the tabs are very effective to control the jets, as high
as 80 percent decrease in the core length was achieved by
tabs.
II. Literature Review Khan and Rathakrishnan [7]-[12] did experimental
Wick [1] studied experimentally the effect of examination to assess the effectiveness of micro jets for
boundary layer on sonic flow over a sudden crossover, under, and correct expansion to control the base
sectional area change. He observed that the pressure in pressure in suddenly expanded ducts at moderate and
the expansion corner was associated to the boundary high supersonic speeds. The result thus produced showed
layer type and thickness upstream of the enlargement. that the maximum gain in the base pressure is 152
He deliberated that the boundary layer as a source of percent for Mach number 2.58. The result also indicated
fluid for the corner flows. They studied two-dimensional that the micro jets do not augment the wall pressure field.
air flows through a convergent nozzle which is expanded They showed that micro jets can function as an effective
abruptly into a rectangular channel of higher cross- controller raising the base suction to almost zero level for
section. Korst [2] investigated the problem of base some special cases. Further, it was concluded that the
pressure in transonic and supersonic flow for cases in nozzle pressure ratio has a major role to play in fixing the
which the flow reaching the base is sonic or supersonic base pressure with and without control.
next to the wake. He formulated a physical flow model Lovaraju et al. [13] conducted the experiments to
built on the concepts of communication between the investigate the effectiveness of passive controls in the
dissipative shear flow and the neighboring free stream form of small tabs and a cross-wire projecting normally
and the preservation of mass in the wake. into the flow at the nozzle exit, on the characteristics of
Anderson and Williams [3] worked on base pressure an axi-symmetric sonic jet operated at three under
and noise produced by the sudden expansion of air. The expansion levels, from their studies on the effectiveness
base pressure was having minimum value, with an of cross-wire and tabs on the under expanded sonic jet
attached flow, which depends solely on area ratio and on shows that, both the passive controls are effective in
the geometry of the nozzle. The results have shown that reducing the supersonic core significantly. Also, both the
for overall noise was lowest at a jet pressure nearly equal controls render the symmetric shock-cell structures
to that essential for generating minimum base pressure. unsymmetrical and weaker, all along supersonic core.
Hwang et al. [4] investigated the base pressure of a The cross-wire/tab controlled jets grow wider in the
sudden enlargement from a tapering nozzle and from direction normal to the cross-wire/tab at all the operating
their investigation which concerns the determination of conditions. However, the tabbed jets grow much wider
the back-pressure-independent base pressure associated compared to the cross-wire controlled jets.
with the convergent flow accelerating device which Farrukh Alvi et al. [14] obtained experimental
followed with a sudden enlargement in cross-sectional investigation of the flow and acoustic properties of a
area. The point of reattachment acts as a saddle point supersonic impinging jet, with and without control. From
singularity for the system of equations explaining the their results they found that effectiveness of the control is
viscous flow recompression. strongly dependent on a number of geometric and flow
Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 8, N. 1
2
parameters, such as the impingement plane distance, also explores the flow separation inside a slanted entry
orientation of the micro jets and the main jet operating supersonic nozzle when it is exposed to a supersonic
conditions. From their studies they concluded that stream.
activation of micro jets leads to a local thickening of the The effect of tabs placed at the exit of a circular
jet shear layer, near the nozzle exit, making it more stable nozzle of 10 mm exit diameter on the near flow field
and less receptive to disturbances. Furthermore, micro characteristics of the jet was investigated experimentally
jets generate strong stream wise vorticity in the form of for subsonic and sonic Mach numbers by S.
well organized, counter rotating vortex pairs. Thanigaiarasu et al. [19]. The tab used was a semi-
Vijayaraja et al. [15] experimentally studied effect of circular arc of diameter 1.5 mm and length 2 mm. The
annular rib on the base pressure and wall pressure field in near field characteristics of the jet was studied for two
a suddenly expanded flow in a circular duct at Mach 1.6. configurations of the tab, namely, the concave surface
They concluded that both the base pressure and the wall facing the flow exiting the nozzle (arc-tab facing-in),
pressure distribution in the enlarged duct are significantly convex surface facing the flow (arc-tab facing-out) and
influenced by the location of the rib and the level of flat rectangular tab, for the blockage ratio of 7.64%. The
expansion at the nozzle exit. centerline Mach number decay shows that, for the jet
E. Rathakrishnan [16] presented the physical reasons with arc-tab facing-in, a maximum reduction in core
for the presence of waves in correctly expanded length of about 80% of the core of the plain jet was
supersonic jets. Even though there is no pressure gradient achieved at all subsonic and correctly expanded sonic
at the nozzle exit, generating waves to take the exit conditions. Arc-tab facing-out and rectangular tab
pressure to the level of back pressure, the large space configurations reduce the core length by about 50%. The
encountered by the jet makes it to relax. This relaxation decay of arc-tab controlled jet was compared with that
at the nozzle leads to formation of an expansion fan at obtained for rectangular tab of same blockage and a plain
the exit for under flow at the nozzle exit and Mach waves circular nozzle. The jet was found to decay at a faster rate
at the nozzle lip for jets from correctly expanded nozzle. in the case of arc-tab facing-in configuration as compared
These expansion waves on reflection from the jet to the facing-out and rectangular tab configurations.
boundary form compression waves, thus causing the jet Mach number profiles show that, the arc-tab facing-in
field to become wave dominated. distorts the jet effectively by spreading the jet wider in
Singh and Rathakrishnan [17] did experimental the plane normal to the tab compared to arc-tab facing-
investigation to study the mixing and noise characteristic out. Iso-Mach contours show that, the jet spread is wider
of multi jets. A Multi jet configuration with inter-nozzle in the plane normal to the tab and the effect of spread is
spacing of 1.27 times the centre nozzle diameter has been more pronounced in the jet with arc-tab facing-in as
considered in the investigation. Circular jets of exit Mach compared to arc-tab facing-out. The effect of the tab
numbers 1.82, 3.10 and 3.61 were studied. The multi jet orientation and its shape seem to have a profound
configurations of three jets in a row and a centre jet influence on the evolution of the jet.
surrounded by four equally spaced jets were considered Vikram Roy et al. [20] carried the numerical analysis
in the study. In addition to the multi jets, the centre jet of the turbulent fluid flow through an axi-symmetric
characteristics also have been investigated for sudden expansion passage by using modified k- model,
comparison. It is found that the nozzle pressure ratio taking into consideration the effects of the streamline
(NPR) has a dominant influence on both mixing and curvature. It was observed that the size and strength of
noise characteristics of multi jets as well as single jet. For the re-circulation bubble decreases with increases in the
jets Mach of 1.82 the three jet configuration seems to be Reynolds number. But if the expansion ratio was
superior from mixing point of view. However, at NPRs increased keeping the Reynolds number constant the size
multi jets of Mach 3.1 show better mixing characteristics. and strength of the re-circulation bubble increases. They
At higher NPRs, the five jet configuration for Mach 3.61 concluded that these flow parameters are needed to be
is found to have significant mixing advantage over the controlled for the generation of the re-circulation bubble
three jet configuration. Thus, the jet Mach number and as required for combustion or any other purposes like the
NPR play an important role on both mixing and noise chemical processes etc.
characteristics of multi jets. The analysis of wall static pressure variation has been
C. Senthil Kumar et al. [18] presented the done with fuzzy logic approach to have smooth flow in
experimental results on the flow characteristics of a 15º the duct by Pandey et al. [21]. Three area ratio chosen
slanted entry Convergent-Divergent (CD) nozzle with a were 2.89, 6.00 and 10.00. The primary pressure ratio is
design Mach number of 2.94 exposed to M = 1.6, 1.8 and taken as 2.65 and cavity aspect ratio is taken as 1 and 2.
2.0 streams. The 15º slanted entry nozzle results are The study is analyzed for length to diameter ratio of 1, 2,
compared with the results of identical geometry straight 4 and 6. The nozzles used are De Laval type and with a
entry nozzle. The objective is to check whether a slanted Mach number of 1.74 and 2.23 and converging-diverging
entry nozzle, kept in a supersonic flow, with a detached nozzles having Mach numbers of 1.58 and 2.06. The
shock present at its mouth, can choke and deliver analysis based on fuzzy logic theory indicates that the
supersonic flow. The results show that the nozzle can length to diameter ratio of 1 is sufficient for smooth flow
choke and deliver supersonic flow. The present study development if only the basis of wall static pressure
3
variations is considered. BASE PRESSURE TAP
The effectiveness of micro jets to control the base NOZZLE BASE c

m
c
Po
pressure in suddenly expanded axi-symmetric ducts is m
m
studied experimentally by Syed Ashfaq et al. [22] for ENLARGED DUCT c
c
flow through the nozzle at sonic Mach number. From the SETTLING CHAMBER
m
experimental results, it was found that the micro jets can WALL PRESSURE TAPS
BASE
serve as active controllers for base pressure. From the TUBE FOR BLOWING
wall pressure distribution in the duct it was found that the

micro jets do not disturb the flow field in the duct. BLOWING SETTLING CHAMBER
Rathakrishnan and Sreekanth [23] considered flow in Fig. 2. Experimental setup

pipe with sudden enlargement. They found that the non-
dimensionalised base pressure is a function of area ratios, It has 16 channels and pressure range is 0-300 psi. It
the overall pressure ratios and the L/D ratios. They displays the reading after averaging 250 samples per
showed that for a given overall pressure ratio and a given second. To interface the transducer with the computer,
area ratio, it is possible to identify an optimal L/D ratio software is provided by the manufacturer. The user-
of the duct that will result in maximum exit plane total friendly menu driven software obtains data and displays
pressure at the nozzle exit on the symmetry axis (i.e. the pressure readings from all the 16 channels
minimum pressure loss in the nozzle) and in a minimum simultaneously on the computer screen.
base pressure at the sudden enlargement plane. The software is embedded with the facility to select
The separation and reattachment seemed to be the units of pressure from a list of available options,
strongly dependent on the area ratio of the inlet to perform a re-zero/full calibration, etc. The transducer is
enlargement. capable of selecting the number of samples to be
For a given nozzle and enlargement area ratio, the averaged, by means of dipswitch settings. It can function
duct length must exceed a definite minimum value for well, up to 95 per cent humidity and temperatures
minimum base pressure. ranging from -20° to +60° Celsius.
III. Experimental Method IV. Results and Discussions

The experimental set up of the present study is shown The measured data consists of base pressure (Pb); wall
in the Fig. 2. There are eight holes at the exit periphery of static pressure (Pw) along the duct and the nozzle
the nozzle, four (marked m) were used for base pressure pressure ratio (NPR) defined as the ratio of stagnation
(Pb) measurement, four of which are (marked c) were pressure (P0) to the back pressure (Patm). All the
used for blowing and control of base pressure was measured pressures were non-dimensionalzed by
achieved by blowing through the control holes (c), using dividing them with the ambient pressure (i.e. the back
pressure from a settling chamber by employing a tube pressure). In the present study, the back pressure is the
connecting the main settling chamber with the control atmospheric pressure. Further, the control chamber
chamber. pressure will be the same as the NPR of the respective
To measure the wall pressure distribution, taps were runs since we have drawn the air from the main settling
provided on the enlarged duct. Starting from the base chamber. Hence, there is no requirement of additional
region, initial nine holes were made at a gap of 4 mm source of energy for micro jets.
each (as the major activity will take place within the From the literature, it is found that in addition to area
reattachment length) and remaining holes were made at ratio and the NPR, the inertia at the nozzle exit has a very
an interval of 8 mm each. It is evident from literature strong influence on the base pressure.
that, the typical L/D (shown in Fig. 2) results in To quantify the increase in base pressure achieved
maximum base pressure, is usually from 3 to 5 without with active control in the form of micro jets, cross plots
control. Since in the present study, the active controls are of base pressure in the form of percentage increase in
used; L/D ratios up to 10 have been implemented. base pressure are used for presenting the results.
Further, the experimental setup was consisted of an Fig. 3 shows the percentage change in base pressure
axi-symmetric convergent nozzle followed by a with L/D ratio as a function of nozzle pressure ratio
concentric axi-symmetric duct of greater cross-sectional (NPR). A maximum gain of around 5 per cent is
area. At the exit, diameter of the nozzle was kept fixed achieved for NPR = 3. From the above results it is found
(i.e. 10 mm) and the area ratio of the model was 2.4. that unlike passive controls the favourable pressure
Brass pipe was used to fabricate the suddenly gradient does not ensure augmentation of the control
expanded ducts. The duct has a maximum L/D = 10 and effectiveness for active control in the form of micro jets.
the lower L/Ds were achieved by cutting the length after To understand this phenomenon we need to look at the
testing a particular L/D. For measuring the pressure in development of the flow at base and the interaction of the
the control chamber, the stagnation pressure in the main micro jets with the base vortex, the shear layer and shock
settling chamber and the pressure at the base, PSI model waves present in the base region within the reattachment
9010 pressure transducer were used. region (Fig. 1).
4
Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that the micro

jets at the base were located at mid pitch circle diameter
(pcd) of the base, whereas for area ratio 2.4 the micro-
jets are closer to the nozzle exit (not at the middle of the
base). This is because pitch circle diameter (pcd) for
micro jets was kept constant for all the area ratios.
Fig. 3. Percentage change in base pressure variation with L/D
Since the flow is being exited from a convergent

nozzle to an enlarged duct, the NPR required for the flow
to achieve the critical condition is 1.89. This means that
the flow will be under expanded for NPRs up to 2 and
above. Therefore, in case of active control in the form of
micro jets favourable pressure gradient alone is not
sufficient to ensure the effectiveness of the control which
Fig. 4. Base pressure variation with L/D
is true for passive control as discussed by Lovaraju et.al.
[12]. Non-dimensionalized base pressure variation with
L/D ratio for NPR 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 for the cases of
flow with and without control are compared in Figs. 4 to
7. It is clearly seen that the functional dependence of
base pressure with NPR is unaltered by the control.
However, the control tends to modify the base pressure
level. Also, the control effectiveness in modifying the
level of base pressure gets enhanced with increase of
NPR. It can be stated that the base pressure level due to
the re-circulating flow at the base is dictated by the
reattachment length, which is the distance from the
beginning of the enlargement to the point where the shear
layer from the nozzle attaches with enlarged duct wall.
The physical reason for this may be the influence of
the shock at nozzle exit which turns the flow away from
the base region, thereby weakening the vortex positioned
at the base. This results in increase of base pressure since
the weakened vortex at the base encounters the mass
flow injected by the micro jets. For this to take place the
enlarged duct should have a definite length. It should be
emphasized here that, L/D range from 3 to 6 has been
found to be optimum resulting in minimum base pressure
for without control in the subsonic and transonic Mach
number regime in the literature.
Also, it has been proved by Rathakrishnan and
Sreekanth [22] this minimum length is L/D = 3 for
subsonic, sonic and under expanded sonic jet with
sudden expansion without control. In accordance with
this here also it is seen that that L/D = 2 and above
experiences definite control of base pressure with micro
jets and the requirement of minimum duct length seems
to be L/D = 2. The above discussed trend may be due to
the influence of shock or expansion wave at the nozzle
lip, the relief effect due to the area ratio also will
influence the base pressure.
5
All these cases, exhibited much reduced noise level

compared to the without control case. A physical
explanation for this interesting phenomena calls for a
deeper investigation around these parameters.
One of the common problems encountered in suddenly

expanded flow field is that the pressure field in the duct
becomes oscillatory because of the “Ejector Pump”
action (Wick [1]) at the base region i.e. the vortices are
Fig. 8. Wall pressure distribution
getting formed at the base because of expansion of the
shear layer from the nozzle and getting ejected to the
main flow continuously. This action was referred to as
the “Jet Pump action” by Wick [1]. This action renders
the flow in the duct to become oscillatory.
These oscillations are reflected as variation in the wall
pressure distribution of the duct. Therefore, it becomes
mandatory on the part of a researcher working on sudden
expansion problems to monitor wall pressure
distributions in the enlarged duct. In other words when
we employ a control to modify the base pressure level,
there is a possibility that the control might augment the
oscillatory nature of the flow field in the enlarged duct
which is undesirable.
To account for this undesirable phenomenon
(aggravating the oscillatory nature of the flow field) wall
pressure distribution in the enlarged duct was measured
for all combination of parameters of the present
investigation. The wall pressure distribution for present Fig. 9. Wall pressure distribution
area ratio 2.4 is shown in Figs. 8 to 22. It is seen that
when control is activated the quality of the flow in the
enlarged duct is not disturbed as shown in Figs. 8 to 10
and also in Figs. 12, 14, 16, 20 and 21. The pattern of
wall pressure in the duct with and without control is
same except for the higher NPRs namely 2.5 and 3.0 and
also the wall pressure for few pressure taps is very low,
the physical reason for this pattern may be due to the
presence of base vortex, its interactions with the waves
present at the nozzle lip, interaction with the shear layer,
the dividing stream line and also the its proximity with
the reattachment point. It is interesting to see from these
results that even though most of the cases exhibit similar
behaviour as those for the other L/D ratios, showing no
negative influence of the control on wall pressure
distribution, there are some combination of parameters
influencing the wall pressure very strongly to assume
much lower value compared to without control cases, as Fig. 10. Wall pressure distribution
shown in Figs. 11, 12, 14, 16 and 19.
6
Fig. 11 indicates that the wall pressure in the duct was Wall pressure results for L/D = 6 and NPR = 2.5 is
smooth and control renders the flow to become shown in Fig. 13. It is seen that initially the wall pressure
oscillatory and at the same time base pressure assumes assumes low values then increase progressively then
low values and jet noise is reduced significantly. there is a decrease and then continuously it increases.
Wall pressure distribution for L/D = 6 and NPR = 2 is This dip may be due to the presence of the shock
shown in Fig. 12. It is seen from the figure that wall waves as well as because of the mixing of the jet.
pressure is oscillatory in nature for without control case Fig. 14 shows the wall pressure results for L/D = 6
and when the micro jets are activated the control results and NPR = 3, here the trend is on the similar lines
in the decrease of the wall pressure as well as the discussed, however, in this case flow field remains
reduction in the noise level of the jet. oscillatory for with and without control case except near
Further, it is seen that when micro jets are activated the reattachment point and control results in increase of
the oscillatory nature of the flow field in the duct is being wall pressure, further, downstream of the flow the wall
suppressed and the wall pressure is progressively pressure recovery takes place. This oscillatory nature of
increasing which indicates that shock wave which was the flow field may be due to the presence vortex at the
present in the absence of micro jet is no more present. base, viscous-inviscid interaction, interaction with the
Whenever the wall pressure has increased due to the shear layer as well as the interaction with the shock
control this has resulted in increase of the noise. wave. Results of wall pressure are shown in Fig. 15 and
Hence, the observation of Anderson and Williams [3] they exhibit the same trend as shown in Fig. 13.
have revisited during the present experimental studies as Wall pressure distribution for L/D = 5 and NPR = 3 is
well. This is just an observation which is being reported shown Fig. 16, they are on the similar lines as discussed
and no further studies were conducted to measure the for Fig. 14. Fig. 17 presents results L/D = 4 and NPR =2.
sound level. It is seen that the combination of parameters is such
that flow is very smooth.


7



Results of Fig. 18 are same as shown in Fig. 15. Fig.
19 shows the wall pressure results for L/D = 4 and NPR The wall pressure results for L/D = 3 and NPR = 3 is
= 3. shown in Fig. 20. Here, again control results in increase
It is seen that wall pressure has become oscillatory and of wall pressure and small fluctuations are due to the
control results in decrease of wall pressure and this presence of waves, also may be due to lower L/D which
reduction in wall pressure is seems to be at the edge of may be just sufficient for the flow to be attached with the
the re-attachment point, this may be due to the combined duct wall and the wavy nature is due the presence of
effect of NPR, area ratio, L/D ratio and the NPR. waves well as due to the influence of back pressure.
8
Fig. 21 presents the results for L/D = 2 and NPR = V. Conclusion

2.5, from the beginning the wall pressure assumes high
values this may be due to the combined effect of the back The results show that the effectiveness of the Micro
pressure, shear layer, base vortex, and the dividing jets is marginal in controlling the base pressure even
stream line. Similar results as discussed above are seen in under the influence of favourable pressure gradient. An
Fig. 22. important aspect to be noted here is that, unlike passive
controls the favourable pressure gradient does not ensure
augmentation of the control effectiveness for active
control in the form of micro jets.
The pattern of wall pressure in the duct with and
without control is same except for the higher NPRs
namely 2.5 and 3.0 and also the wall pressure for few
pressure taps is very low, the physical reason for this
pattern may be due to the presence of base vortex and
also its proximity with the reattachment length.
It is seen that most of the cases exhibit similar
behaviour as those for the other L/D ratios, showing no
negative influence of the control on wall pressure
distribution, there are some combination of parameters
influencing the wall pressure very strongly to assume
much lower values compared to without control cases.
The control has no adverse effect on the suddenly
expanded duct wall pressure field. With this it can be
Fig. 21. Wall pressure distribution taken that the micro jets can serve as base pressure
controller without imposing any adverse effect in the
pressure field in the enlarged duct. All the non-
dimensional base pressure presented in paper is within an
uncertainty band of ± 2.6 per cent. Further, all the results
are repeatable within ± 3 per cent.
References
[1] R. S. Wick, The Effect of Boundary Layer on Sonic Flow through
an Abrupt Cross-sectional Area Change, Journal of the
Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 20, pp. 675-682, 1953.
[2] H. Korst, A Theory of Base Pressure in Transonic and Supersonic
Flow, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 23, pp. 593-599, 1956.
[3] J. S. Anderson and T. J. Williams, Base Pressure and Noise
Produced by the Abrupt Expansion of Air in a Cylindrical Duct,
Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp.
262-268, 1968.
[4] Chi-bok Hwang, Wen L. Chow and Davood Moslemian, Base
Pressure of a Sudden Expansion from a Conical Converging
Fig. 22. Wall pressure distribution Nozzle, AIAA Journal, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 657-662, April 1993.
[5] P. R. Viswanath, Drag Reduction of After bodies by Controlled
Separated Flows, AIAA journal, Vol. 39, No. 1, pp. 73-78, 2001.
The wall pressure distribution for this area ratio 2.4 is [6] N. K. Singh and E. Rathakrishnan, Sonic Jet Control with Tabs,
shown in Figs. 8 to 22. It is seen that when control is International Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 19,
activated the quality of the flow in the enlarged duct is No. 1-2, pp. 109-118, 2002.
[7] S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Active Control of Suddenly
not disturbed. Expanded Flows from Over expanded Nozzles, International
The pattern of wall pressure in the duct with and Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 19, No. 1-2, pp. 119-
without control is same except for the higher NPRs 126, 2002.
namely 2.5 and 3.0 and also the wall pressure for few [8] S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Control of Suddenly Expanded
Flows with Micro Jets, International Journal of Turbo and Jet
pressure taps is very low, the physical reason for this Engines (IJT), Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 63-81, 2003.
pattern may be due to the presence of base vortex and [9] S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Active Control of Suddenly
also this area lies within the reattachment length. Expanded Flow from Under Expanded Nozzles, International
From the above discussion it is seen that the control Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines, (IJT), Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 233-
253, 2004.
has got no adverse effect on the enlarged duct wall [10] S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Control of Suddenly Expanded
pressure field. With this it can be taken that the micro jets Flow from Correctly Expanded Nozzles, International Journal of
can serve as base pressure controller without imposing Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 255-278, 2004.
any adverse effect in the pressure field in the enlarged [11] S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Control of Suddenly Expanded
Flow, Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An
duct. International Journal, Vol. 78, No. 4, pp. 293-309, 2006.
9
[12] S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, “Nozzle Expansion Level Authors’ information

Effect on a Suddenly Expanded Flow”, International Journal of
Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 233-258, 2006. 1
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, JJT
[13] P. Lovaraju, Shibu Clement, E. Rathakrishnan, Effects of Cross- University, Jhunjhunu Rajasthan, India & Associate Professor,
wire and Tabs on Sonic Jet Structure, Shock Waves, Springer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, AAEMF’s COE &
17:71-83, pp. 71 – 83, 2007. Maharashtra, Pune, India.
[14] Farrukh S. Alvi, Huadong Lou, Chiang Shih and Rajan Kumar,
Experimental Study of Physical Mechanisms in the Control of 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bearys Institute of
Supersonic Impinging Jets using Micro jets, J. Fluid Mechanics, Technology, Mangalore, Karnataka, India.
Vol. 613, pp. 55 – 83, 2008.
[15] K. Vijayaraja, S. Elangovan, E. Rathakrishnan, Effect of Rib on 3
Aerospace Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur, UP, India.
Suddenly Expanded Supersonic Flow, (2008) International
Review of Aerospace Engineering (IREASE), 1 (2), pp. 196-199. Syed Ashfaq was Born in Maharashtra, India
[16] E. Rathakrishnan, Waves in Correctly Expanded Supersonic Jets, on October 18, 1976. He received the B.E.
(2008) International Review of Aerospace Engineering (IREASE), degree in Mechanical Engineering from
1 (6), pp. 536-538. Government College of Engineering,
[17] Navin Kumar Singh, E. Rathakrishnan, Studies on Supersonic Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India in 1998, the
Multijets with Outward Canting, (2009) International Review of M.E. degree in Mechanical-CAD/CAM from
Aerospace Engineering (IREASE), 2. (1), pp. 29-38. SGGSCE&T, Nanded, Maharashtra, India in
[18] C. Senthil Kumar, S. Elangovan, E. Rathakrishnan, Studies on 2003. He has published many papers in
Flow Characteristics in a Slanted Entry Nozzle Run by a conference, national & international level and three papers in
Supersonic Stream, (2009) International Review of Aerospace international journals. His research interests are CAD, Optimization,
Engineering (IREASE), 2. (6), pp. 297-303. Fluid Dynamics, Gas Dynamics.
[19] S. Thanigaiarasu, S. Elangovan, E. Rathakrishnan, Effect of Arc- Prof. Ashfaq is an Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at
Tabs on the Mixing Characteristics of Subsonic and Sonic Jets, the AAEMF’s COE & MS, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
(2010) International Review of Aerospace Engineering (IREASE),
3. (1), pp. 1-8. S. A. Khan was born in UP, India on April 07,
[20] Vikram Roy, Snehamoy Majumder, Dipankar Sanyal, Analysis of 1957. He received the B.Sc. Engg. degree in
the Turbulent Fluid Flow in an Axi-symmetric Sudden Expansion, Mechanical Engineering from AMU, Aligarh,
International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, India, in 1982, the M. Tech and Ph.D. degrees
Vol. 2(6), pp. 1569-1574, 2010. in Aerodynamics and Gas Dynamics from IIT
[21] K. M. Pandey, Sushil Kumar, Jyoti Prakash Kalita, Wall Static Kanpur, India, in 1984 and 2001, respectively.
Pressure Variation in Sudden Expansion in Cylindrical Ducts with Presently he is working as Principal, BIT,
Cavities for Supersonic Flow for Mach 1.58 and 2.06: A Fuzzy Mangalore, Karnataka, India.
Logic Approach, International Journal of Soft Computing and
Engineering (IJSCE), ISSN: 2231-2307, Vol. 2, Issue-1, pp. 372- Ethirajan Rathakrishnan is well-known
378, 2012. internationally for his research in the area of
[22] Syed Ashfaq, S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Active Control of high-speed jets. The limit for the passive control
Flow through the Nozzles at Sonic Mach Number, International of jets, called Rathakrishnan Limit, is his
Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Development, contribution to the field of jet research, and the
Vol. 2, Issue-3, pp. 73–82, 2013. concept of breathing blunt nose (BBN), which
[23] E. Rathakrishnan and A. K. Sreekanth, Flow in Pipes with Sudden reduces the positive pressure at the nose and
Enlargement, Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium increases the low-pressure at the base
on Space Technology and Sciences, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 491-499, simultaneously, is his contribution to drag reduction at hypersonic
1984. speeds.
10
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Intelligent Parametric Identification of Flexible Manipulator System
Hanim Mohd Yatim, Intan Z. Mat Darus
Abstract – This paper presents an investigation into the development of an intelligence

parametric identification for a single-link flexible manipulator system using genetic algorithm
(GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO). The global search technique of GA and PSO employ
different strategies in the area of algorithm design, natural basis and computational effort in
order to find the solution of a given objective function. A simulation environment characterizing
the dynamic behavior of flexible manipulator system was first developed using finite difference
(FD) method. The flexible manipulator was driven by a bang-bang torque and the input-output
data of the system acquired is used for system identification using GA and PSO techniques based
on autoregressive model structure. The identification is performed on basis of minimizing the
mean-squared error (MSE) between the measured and estimated outputs of the flexible
manipulator. The validation of the algorithm is assessed with correlation tests and in time and
frequency domains. It is demonstrated that the PSO has perform far better with the value of MSE
is 3.0147×10-6 compared to GA with 1.4908×10-4. The best model obtained characterizes the
dynamic behavior of the system well and will be used in the future for control design and
development. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Dynamic Modeling, Finite Difference Method, System Identification, Single-Link

Flexible Manipulator, Particle Swarm Optimization, Genetic Algorithm
Nomenclature w Inertia weight

C1 and C2 Acceleration coefficients
L Length of beam
Ih Tmax Maximum number of iterations
Hub inertia
 Input motor torque  
G z 1
Transfer function of the system
Mp Mass payload
E Young Modulus
I Second moment of inertia I. Introduction
 Mass density per unit length In these recent years, the increased utilization of
 t  Angular displacement flexible manipulator in various applications has been
motivated by the requirement of industrial applications
  x,t  Elastic deflection
since its offer several advantages over their rigid
w  x,t  Total displacement of manipulator counterparts [1]-[20]. They possess a lighter in weight,
x Length of segment faster system responses, more transportable and
t Discrete time step manoeuvrable, reduced power consumption and have less
fi overall cost [1], [2], [3]. However, flexible manipulator
Natural frequency
systems are known to demonstrate oscillations at the tip
u t  System input of the link when subjected to disturbances forces [4].
y t  Measured output This highly nonlinear dynamics of the system make
control become complicated, as the manipulator required
ŷ  t  Estimated output to have reasonable accuracy in response of input
z 1 Backshift operator commands.
n Model order of the system A suitable model has to be developed to represent the
S Number of samples relationship between the input-output of the system in
nj order to design and analyze a good control system.
Number of bits System identification is the process of building a
rand Random number mathematical model that is characterizing the model
xid  t  Position vector structure based on observed data.
The main purpose of system identification is to
vid  t  Velocity vector estimate model parameters.
11
I. Z. Mat Darus, H. Mohd Yatim
Estimation of model parameters was developed by system is developed. Although the present study intends
finding the best agreement between the model’s predicted to obtain a system model through identification, a
output and the observed data. development on dynamic characterisation of flexible
A number of approaches have been devised to manipulator system is beneficial for obtaining the input-
determine models that describe the best relationship output data for used in identification later on.
between the input-output of the system. Well-developed Fig. 1 shows a schematic representation of the flexible
techniques such as least square and prediction error manipulator that can be modelled as pinned-free flexible
method have been suggested for identification. However, beam. The pinned end of flexible beam of length L with
these methods still have many limitations such as noise inertia Ih, is attached to the rotational axis of the hub
and possibility to be stuck on the local minima [1], [3]. driven by an input torque τ(t) and payload mass Mp is
Recently, genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm attached at the free end. E, I and ρ represent the Young
optimization (PSO) appeared as promising algorithm in Modulus, second moment of inertia and mass density per
solving optimization problem. These global search unit length of the flexible manipulator respectively.
techniques finding solutions based on natural
populations. GA is a stochastic optimization technique
based on the principles of natural selection introduced by
John Holland in the mid of 1970s. The realization
process of GA involves bit string coding and genetic
operators such selection, crossover and mutation, thus
influencing the efficiency of the algorithm. While this
method sacrifices the speed, GA has been recognized as a
powerful tool in many control applications to solve
complex design optimization problems [5], [6], [7].
PSO was first introduced by Kennedy and Eberhart in
1995 is a stochastic optimization technique inspired by Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the flexible manipulator system
social behaviour of bird flocking or fish schooling [8],
[9]. Let XOOYO and XOY be the stationary and moving
PSO implementing an information sharing approach coordinates respectively. For an angular displacement
within the search space in order to find an optimum θ(t) and an elastic deflection v(x,t), the total (net)
solution. It has only a few parameters to adjust, requires displacement w(x,t) of a point along the manipulator at a
no selection, crossover, and mutation operators which distance x from the hub along the line OX can be
possesses the properties of easy implementation and fast described as:
convergence. PSO has been found to be robust and w  x,t   x  t   v  x,t  (1)
widely applied in continuous and discrete optimization
problems and promisingly suitable for both scientific and
The well-known governing equation of the
engineering applications [10]–[12].
manipulator with the associated boundary and initial
This paper presents simulation investigations of the
conditions can thus be obtained as [13], [14]:
model characterization of flexible manipulator system
using global search techniques of GA and PSO. Prior to
this, a simulation environment characterizing the  4w  x,t   2w  x,t 
EI    t  (2)
dynamic behavior of the flexible manipulator structure x 4 t 2
based on finite difference (FD) method is developed.
Further, GA and PSO identification was carried out  w  0,t   0
using the input-output acquired from FD modeling. The  3
main reason of system identification in this paper is to   w  0,t   2w  0 ,t 
establish transfer functions that represent the dynamic I h 2
 EI 2
  t 
  x t  x
model of the system. This transfer function will be used
  2w  L,t   3w  L,t  (3)
in the controller algorithm development for M p  EI 0
simplification purposes. Comparative assessment is  t 2 x 3
presented and discussed in time and frequency domains.   2w  L,t  w  x, 0 
The best parametric model of flexible manipulator that  EI 2
 0 , w  x, 0   0, 0
developed will be used in subsequent investigations for  x x
the development of vibration suppression and control
strategies for single-link flexible manipulator. The fourth-order partial differential equation (PDE) in
Eq. (2) represents the dynamic equation describing the
motion of the flexible manipulator. Note that the model
II. The Flexible Manipulator System in Eq. (2) does not incorporate damping.
In this work, single-link flexible manipulator is A simulation algorithm characterizing the dynamic
considered and the dynamic characterisation of the behavior of the structure is thus developed using finite
difference (FD) method to obtain the numerical solution
12
of the PDE in Eq. (2). The FD method computes Using matrix notation, Eq. (5) can be written as:
solutions of the model only at discrete points. This
involves discretised the manipulator into n-equal length Wi, j 1  AWi, j  Wi, j 1  B F (6)
sections, each of length Δx, and the manipulator motion
(displacement) of each section at sample times Δt as
where:
shown in Fig. 2. In this respect, let w(x,t) be denoted by
wi,j representing the manipulator displacement at grid
point i at time step j.  w1, j 1   w1, j   w1, j 1 
     
 w2 , j 1   w2 , j   w2 , j 1 
Wi, j 1  , Wi, j  , Wi, j 1 
     
     
 wn, j 1   wn, j   wn, j 1 
A is a constant n × n matrix whose depend on the

flexible manipulator specification and the number of
sections the manipulator is divided into, as
 K1 K2 K3 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 
q r q p 0  0 0 0 0 0 

 p q r q p  0 0 0 0 0 
 
A            
 0 0 0 0 0  p q r q p
 
 0 0 0 0 0  0 K 6 K 7 K8 K 9 
Fig. 2. Finite Difference discretisation of the manipulator  0
in distance and time  0 0 0 0  0 K10 K11 K12 K13 
Using a first order central difference approximations

  i, j  
for the FD method, the partial derivative  4 w  x,t  x 4  
0  t 2
and  2 w  x,t  t 2 can be approximated as Eq. (4): F , B
   
 
 0 
 4 w  x,t  wi  2 , j  4wi 1, j  6wi, j  4wi 1, j  wi  2 , j
4

x x 4 The values of K1 to K3 and K 6 to K13 in matrix A
(4)
 2 w  x,t  wi, j 1  2wi, j  wi, j 1 are determined from the known boundary and initial

t 2 t 2 conditions [13].
Therefore, the required relation algorithm
characterizing the behavior of the flexible manipulator
Substituting for  4 w  x,t  x 4 and  2 w  x,t  t 2
structure is obtained as in Eq. (6), which can be
from Eq. (4) into Eq. (2) and simplifying yields: simulated easily.
A thin aluminum alloy of flexible manipulator with
wi, j 1   p  wi  2 , j  wi  2 , j   q  wi 1, j  wi 1, j   parameters given in Table I is considered [14]. The first
three modes of vibration of the manipulator obtained
Δt 2 (5)
 r wi, j  wi, j 1  τ  i, j  through theoretical analysis calculated using Eq. (7) are
ρ 12.60 Hz, 40.83 Hz and 85.19 Hz respectively with the
first mode being the dominant mode [15]:
where:
1/ 2
6 EI t 2 4 EI t 2 EI t 2 i2  EI 
r  2 ; q  ; p  fi    i  1, 2, 3 (7)
 x 4  x 4  x 4 2 L2  m 
TABLE I
Eq. (5) gives the displacement wi,j+1 of grid points PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF MANIPULATOR
i=1,2,…,n of the manipulator at time step j+1. Note that Length 0.96 m
in evaluating the displacement at wn-1,j+1 and wn,j+1 , the Width 0.01923 m
fictitious displacement at wn+2,j, wn+1,j and wn+1,j-1 are Thickness 0.0032004 m
required. These are obtained by utilized the known Mass density per area, ρ 2710 kg/m2
Young Modulus, E 7.11 1010 N/m2
boundary and initial conditions related to the dynamic Second moment of inertia, I 5.1924 10-11 m2
equation of the flexible manipulator.
13
End-Point Displacement
Validation of the developed finite difference model 0.35
was carried out by comparing the simulated output with
the theoretical results. Table II shows the percentage of 0.3
error for the first three modes of vibration as the number

0.25
of sections used in FD discretisation increased.
Displacement, y(m)
It is noted that the frequency parameter corresponding 0.2
to the first mode converges to a reasonably stable value
0.15
with the algorithm using at least 10 sections. It was also
appeared that the error converges to minimum as the 0.1
number of sections increases. It can be concluded that 20
sections will be reasonable to use for the simulation 0.05
algorithm characterizing the dynamic behaviour of the

0
flexible manipulator system to have a reasonable
accuracy. -0.05
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (second)
TABLE II
(a) Time domain
MODES OF VIBRATION WITH VARYING NO OF FD SECTIONS
No of Mode 1 (Hz) Mode 2 (Hz) Mode 3 (Hz) -1
10
Sections 12.60 % 40.83 % 85.19 %
Error Error Error
5 6.65 47.22 25.00 38.77 45.00 47.18 -2
10 10.00 20.63 31.64 22.51 64.95 23.76 10
15 11.65 7.54 35.00 14.28 71.60 15.95

20 11.65 7.54 36.63 10.29 74.95 12.02
Magnitude (m/Hz)
-3
10
A bang-bang torque input with an amplitude of ±0.3

Nm and duration of 0.5 seconds is applied at the hub of 10
-4
the manipulator throughout this simulation as shown in

Fig. 3. This type of input is chosen to ensure that
-5
manipulator link is move accordingly to the input torque. 10
The dynamic response of the flexible manipulator is

monitored for duration of 3.0 seconds with sampling -6
10
period of 0.2 ms and the system behaviour is observed 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frequency (Hz)
and recorded at end point of the manipulator. For (b) Spectral density
simplicity purposes, the effects of hub inertia, mass
payload and effect of damping are neglected. Figs. 4. End-point displacement
Figs. 4 show the simulated output of end-point
displacement in time and frequency domain. The average
end-point displacement is about 0.33m. The first III. Parametric Identification
vibration modes are found to be 11.65 Hz with 7.54% of In this work, parametric identification is conducted
error as shown in Table II. It is noted that the behavior of using linear ARX model structure. Optimization
the manipulator is characterized by oscillatory response approach includes Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Particle
where the maximum displacement occurred at the end- Swarm Optimization (PSO).
point of the manipulator.
Bang-bang Torque input
0.4 III.1. Model Structure
0.3
Relationship between input and output of the system is
required to develop a suitable model of the system. For
0.2 this purposes, it is essential to determine an appropriate
order and parameters for the model that best fits that
0.1
relations.
Torque (Nm)
0 This basic relation can be expressed as in Fig. 5.

System input, u(t) is fed into both flexible manipulator
-0.1
system and the model. In this work, flexible manipulator
-0.2
system was characterize using finite difference approach
and measured output, y(t) was obtained.
-0.3 The difference between measured output, y(t) and
estimated output ŷ(t), will give an error of the system.
-0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Based on this error, a minimization criterion is solved by
Time(second)
an optimization approach such as GA and PSO to derive
Fig. 3. Input torque bang-bang the estimated parameters for the system model.
14
The operating mechanism of a GA can be described

through the stages shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 5. Optimization approach
These estimated parameters then will be used to

update the system model. This process will be repeated
until maximum iteration number is reached or a
minimization criterion is achieved.
In this work, autoregressive (ARX) structure is chosen
to model the system that can be described as:
y t  
  u t    t 
B z 1
(8)
A z  A z 
1 1 Fig. 6. Flowchart of Genetic Algorithm
Genetic algorithms consist of a population of

where y  t  and u  t  are the system output and input individuals that each represents a possible solution to the
optimization method. This population is then used to
respectively, A(z-1) and B(z-1) are polynomials expressed
generate a new population based on genetic operators
as:
such selection, crossover and mutation that will compete
for survival leading to the optimum solution. GA perform
 
A z 1  1  a1 z 1    an z  n parallel search for an optimal solution and thus able to
find the global minima. However, GA typically take
longer time to find the solution due to the
B z 1  bo  b1 z 1    bn z  
   n 1
computationally effort.
Stages of GA can be comprised as follow:
z-1 is defined by a backshift operator; 1. Creation of initial set of potential solutions
  t   0 (white noise); (population) as strings.
GA optimization process begins with a randomly
n is the model order of the system; generated initial population where each individual in
[a1,…,an,b1,…,bn] are estimated model parameters. the population represent possible solution. The initial
For optimization formula, the mean-squared error population is set by encoding the ARX model
(MSE) of the difference between measured and predicted parameter into binary strings. The length of strings
output is used as defined by: depends on the required precision calculated as [17]:
S
1 2 n j 1 n
  amax  a min   104  2 j  1
MSE 
S
  y  i   ˆy  i   (9) 2 (10)
i 1
where nj is the number of bits and interval [amax, amin]

where S is the number of samples, y(i) is the measured is the real values of model parameter located within
output and ŷ(i) is the predicted output. The main purpose this range which [-1,1] interval was chosen. By
of system identification is to estimate optimum model substituting amax and amin, the required number of bits
parameters that satisfied the objective function which in nj was calculated as 15 bits. Each parameter in one
this work is the minimization of MSE. individual of solution space illustrated as in Fig. 7.
2. Evaluate the fitness of each solution and selection of

III.2. Genetic Algorithm (GA) the best ones.
Genetic Algorithm (GA) are a part of evolutionary Each individual in the population that represents the
computing, stochastic optimization technique based on possible solution is evaluated by an objective
the principles of genetic and natural selection introduced function where the main purpose of GA is to optimize
by John Holland in the mid of 1970s. GA is inspired by this objective function. The binary string is first
the mechanism of natural biological evolution, that is, the converted into real value which represents the ARX
principles of survival of the fittest [16]. model parameters as follows conversion process [17]:
15
amax  amin
x j  amin  binrep n
(11)
2 j 1
where binrep is the equivalent real number to the

binary coded of parameter.
This initial set of parameters is then fed into ARX
model of the system and its fitness is then computed
using a defined objective function. In this work, the
minimization of mean-squared error (MSE) is
selected as objective function.
3. Genetic manipulation to create new population.
Selection, crossover and mutation are known as
genetic operators which new solutions (population)
were reproduced. Each individual in the population is
assigned a rank based in its fitness value on how well
it’s minimizing the objective function. A selection Fig. 8. Flowchart of PSO algorithm
operator determines which individual should be select
and which should be discarded. The higher rank of The optimization of PSO is in a guided and intelligent
individual has more chance to be selected and will be manner and can perform complex tasks as a group [18].
kept to be advanced to the next generation. Then, a Stages of PSO can be comprised as follows:
crossover operator is applied. In this work, a single 1. Initialization of a set of potential solution (particles).
point crossover is chosen. Pair of individual strings PSO is initialized with a group of random particles,
(parent) is randomly selected and a part of one string move in the d-dimensional search space of an
is exchanged with another part of other string to optimization problem. Particle refers as a point in a
create two new individuals strings (children). A design space that changes its position to another by
mutation operator implies on one individual string, velocity updates. Each particle is associated with a
thus creating a new string (a child). Mutation position and a velocity, which randomly generated
maintains the diversity in the population and increase using the upper and lower bound of the design
possibility to find global optimum. variable values, xmin and xmax as follows
4. Termination strategy.
After selection, crossover and mutation operator is xid  t   xmin  rand  xmax  xmin 
completed, a new set of model parameters is passed xmin  rand  xmax  xmin  position (12)
to the ARX model of the system to compute for a vid  t   
new fitness value. This process is repeated through t time
step 2 until the stopping criteria are achieved, for
example maximum number of generations is xid  t  and vid  t  represent position and velocity
completed or best fitness is satisfied. The tuning vector for i-th particle at time t in the d-dimensional
method of GA is shown in Fig. 6. search space and rand is the random number between
0 and 1.
2. Evaluate the fitness of each particle.
The particles evaluate their positions based on a
global fitness value and have a memory to remember
Fig. 7. Binary encoded of 4 parameters their best position in the search space. The position
corresponding to the best fitness is known as pbest,
Pid, and the overall best of all particles in the swarm
III.3. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
is called gbest, Pgd. Therefore, this set of initial
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a population position of particle that has a gbest value is then
based, stochastic optimization technique introduced by passed to the ARX model of the system. Noted that
Kennedy and Eberhart in 1995 [8], [9]. It is inspired by the position of the particle represents the ARX model
the behaviour of biological swarms and social adaptation parameter and the gbest value represents the initial
of bird flocking or fish schooling. fitness value. In this work, fitness value is computed
The operating procedure of a PSO can be described using a defined objective function which is the
through the stages shown in Fig. 8. Particle swarm minimization of mean-squared error (MSE).
optimization consists of a swarm of particles where each 3. Update particles’ velocity and position
particle represents possible solutions. Each particle has After finding the initial pbest and gbest, particle is
its own position, velocity and fitness value. The position then accelerated toward those two best values by
of a particle represents a solution candidate itself and updating the particle velocity and position for the
velocity provides information about direction and next iteration using the following set of equations:
changing rate towards optimal solution.
16
vid  t  1  wvid  t   C1  rand   Pid  xid  t     

ŷ  t   G z 1 u  t 

C2  rand  Pgd  xid  t   (13)
   b b z
B z 1 1
 b2 z 2 (15)
xid  t  1  xid  t   vid  t  1  
G z 1 
A z  1 a z
1
o 1
1
 a2 z 2
1
C1 is called cognitive component encourage the

The flexible manipulator system was modelled with
particles to return to previously found best positions GA and PSO algorithm using obtained input-output data
and C2 is called social component quantified the from the simulation study of Section II. Simulation is
collaborative effect of the particle of mutual carried out in order to study the performance of GA and
cooperation in finding global solution, usually PSO to estimate the model parameter for the system.
C1  C2  2 . w is the inertia serves as memory of the The models were observed with different orders and
previous direction, preventing the particle from the best result was achieved for both GA and PSO
drastically changing direction. High value of w optimization with an order of 2. Satisfactory results were
promote global exploration and exploitation, while obtained with the set of parameter values of GA and PSO
low value of w leads to a local search. The common as shown in Table III. The performance of both
approach is to provide balance between global and optimization methods is observed in input/output
local search by linearly decrease w during the search mapping, the value of MSE and correlation tests.
process. Decreases the inertia over time can be The simulated output of end-point displacement
expressed as: obtained using GA and PSO in both time and frequency
domains, with its error, obtained as shown in Figs. 10
and 11 respectively. It is noted that the simulated output
 wstart  wend 
w  t   wstart  t (14) using GA and PSO match the actual output very well for
Tmax the time domains mapping. This is further demonstrated
by the frequency domain plots which show that the
Tmax is the maximum number of time step the swarm model has successfully characterized the system
is allowed to search. dynamics especially the first three modes of vibration.
4. Termination strategy The first vibration mode captured using GA and PSO
After the particles accelerated toward those two best are both recorded at 11.66 Hz, which is very close to the
values, the fitness of each particle in the swarm is re- theoretical vibration mode with percentage of error, as
evaluated. For each particle, if the fitness of current shown in Table IV. The best results of GA and PSO
position is better than the fitness of the previously algorithm achieved are depicted in Table IV.
optimal position, update pbest. For all particles, if the From Table IV, corresponding MSE results reveals
fitness of currently optimal position is better than the that the identification using PSO has performed better
fitness of the previously optimal position, replace than that with GA. It is also noted that the percentage of
gbest. A new set of model parameters is passed to the errors between the simulated output result and theoretical
ARX model of the system to compute for a new result for mode 1 can be considered acceptable.
fitness value. This process will go through step 2 and This was then confirmed by correlation tests using
repeat until the stopping criteria is achieved, for 95% confidence interval for 1000 samples to test the
example maximum number of generations are model validity.
completed or best fitness are satisfied. TABLE III
The tuning method of PSO is shown in Fig. 8. Figs. 9 PARAMETER SETTING FOR GA AND PSO
show a swarm movement of all particles in 2- GA PSO
dimensional search space where the position of the Population size = 20 Swarm size = 60
particle represents ARX model parameter. After every Generation number = 100 Iteration number = 100
Generation gap = 0.9 Inertia start = 0.9
iteration, all the particles accelerated toward optimal Crossover rate = 0.6 Inertia end = 0.4
solution of an optimization problem by updating the Muatation rate = 0.01
velocity and position. It is noted that, with less iteration,
the near optimum solution can be reach with quick TABLE IV
convergence ability by the swarm. COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT
Mode 1 (Hz) MSE Execution Estimated
12.6 % Error time (s) Parameter
IV. Implementation and Results GA 11.7 7.46 1.491×10˗4 9.02×1012 a1 = -0.8309
a2 = 0.1692
Parametric identification estimate parameters that can b1 = -0.0022
b2 = 0.0022
best represent the model of the system. The model can be PSO 11.7 7.46 3.013×10-6 6.92×103 a1 = 2.7385
described as a transfer function of the system, G z  
1 a2 = -1.7385
b1 = 0.0797
and can be represented as follows for model order of b2 = -0.0795
n=2:
17
Swarm movements Swarm movements

3 3
0
2 2
5
2 2
0
1 1
Variable y
Variable y
5
1 1
0
5 5
0 0
- -
5 5
- -
- - 0 5 1 1 2 25 3 - - 0 5 1 1 2 2 3
10 10
10 5 0 x 5
Variable 0 0 10 5 Variable x
(a) Initial population (b) 10 iterations
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
Variable y
Variable y
1
1
5
5
0
0
-
5 -
5
-
10- - 0 5 1 1 2 2 3 -
10 5 Variable x 10- - 0 5 1 1 2 2 3
10 5 Variable x
(c) 20 iterations (d) 40 iterations
3 3
2 2
2 2
1 1
Variable y
Variable y
1
1
5
5
0
0
-
- 5
5
- - - 0 5 1 1 2 2 3
- 10 10
- - 0 5 1 1 2 2 3 5 Variable x
10
10 5 Variable x
(e) 60 iterations (f) 100 iterations
Figs. 9. Swarm movement where (a) Step 1; (b)-(f) Step 2-4
End-Point Displacement
1.5 0.02
GA Prediction
Actual
Normalized Magnitude of End-Point Displacement
0.015
1
0.01
0.5
0.005
Error
0 0
-0.005
-0.5
-0.01
-1
-0.015
-1.5 -0.02
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Time (samples) Time (samples)
(a) Actual and predicted GA output in (b) Error between actual and predicted (c) Spectral density of output
time domain output
Figs. 10. End point displacement modelling using GA
18
0.03
0.02
0.01
Error
0
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Time (samples)
(a) Actual and predicted PSO output in time domain (b) Error between actual and predicted output
1
spectral density of the output
10
PSO Prediction
Actual
0
10
-1
10
Magnitude (m/Hz)
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frequency (Hz)
(c) Spectral density of output
Figs. 11. End point displacement modelling using PSO
Autocorrelation of the error Crosscorrelation of input-error

1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
-1 -1
-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
lag lag
Fig. 12. Correlation tests for GA
19
Autocorrelation of the error Crosscorrelation of input-error

1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
-1 -1
-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
lag lag
Fig. 13. Correlation tests for PSO
The correlation tests including autocorrelation of the This research is supported using UTM Research
error and cross correlation of input-error, as illustrated in University grant, Vote No. 04H17.
Figs. 12 and 13 for both GA and PSO optimization
method. The corresponding correlation tests for
identification using GA and PSO were found to be within References
95% confidence interval indicating adequate model fit. [1] R.R. Orszulik and J. Shan. (2012). Active Vibration Control using
GA and PSO are similar in the sense that both are Genetic Algorithm-based System Identification and Positive
population-based search methods, random initialized Position Feedback. Smart Materials and Structures, 21(5).
[2] M.O. Tokhi, Z. Mohamed & M.H. Shaheed. (2001). Dynamic
with a population (swarm) and search for the optimal Characterization of a Flexible Manipulator System, Robotica, Vol
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over time without modifications of candidate solution. 2-5 September 1996, pg. 210-215
Instead of that, PSO also have a memory in the form of [4] Mohammad Vakil. (2008). Dynamics and Control of Flexible
pbest/gbest substituting for selection operator and Manipulators. Doctor Philosophy, University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Canada.
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[7] S.Z. Mohd Hashim, M.O. Tokhi and I.Z. Mat Darus. (2006).
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that obtained are used to model the flexible manipulator Optimization. Department of Computer Science, University of
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[9] S. Julai, M.O. Tokhi, M. Mohamad & I.A. Latiff. (2009). Control
techniques are used to model the system. A number of of a Flexible Plate Structure using Particle Swarm Optimization.
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Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) for the constrained portfolio
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Structure. 2009 Third UKSim European symposium on Computer
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[12] S. Panda and N.P. Padhy. (2007). Comparison of Particle Swarm
Acknowledgements Optimization and Genetic Algorithm for TCSC-based Controller
Design. International Journal of Computer Science and
The authors wish to thank the Ministry of Higher Engineering. 1(1).
Education (MOHE) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
(UTM) for providing the research grant and facilities.
20
[13] M.O. Tokhi & A.K.M. Azad. (2008). Flexible Robot

Manipulators: Modelling, Simulation & Control. London, UK:
Institution of Engineering & Technology.
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Parametric Identification and Dynamic Characterisation of
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Systems & Industrial Informatics,ICCSII2012. Bandung,
Indonesia, 23-26 September 2012
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Modeling of a Twin Rotor System using Genetic Algorithms.
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Hammamet, Tunisia, 21-24 March 2004.
[17] A.R. Tavakolpour, I.Z. Mat Darus, M.O. Tokhi and M. Mailah.
(2010). Genetic Algorithm-based Identification of Transfer
Function Parameters for a Rectangular Flexible Plate System.
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[18] Hadi, M.S., Mat Darus, I.Z., Intelligence swarm model
optimization of flexible plate structure system, (2013)
International Review of Automatic Control (IREACO), 6 (3), pp.
322-331.
[19] Tavakolpour, A.R., Mailah, M., Mat Darus, I.Z., Active vibration
control of a rectangular flexible plate structure using high gain
feedback regulator, (2009) International Review of Mechanical
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Authors’ information
Department of Applied Mechanics and Design, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Hanim Mohd Yatim was born in Johor,

Malaysia, in September 27th, 1988. She
graduated from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
(UTM), Malaysia in First Class B.Eng Degree of
Mechanical Engineering in the year 2011. Her
field of research interests are in active vibration
control, modeling and simulation of dynamical
system and artificial intelligent techniques for
system identification and control. Currently, she extending her
knowledge by undergoing Ph.D studies in Automatic Control and
Systems Engineering from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),
Malaysia.
Intan Z. M. Darus was born in Melaka,

Malaysia, in September 16th, 1976. She received
her First Class B.Eng (Hons.) degree in
Mechanical Engineering from the University of
Wales College Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom
in 1998 and later her Ph.D in Automatic Control
and Systems Engineering from the University of
Sheffield, United Kingdom in 2004. Currently,
she is an Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Mechanics
and Design, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia. Her current research interests are active vibration control,
modeling and simulation of dynamical system, soft computing and
artificial intelligent techniques for system identification and control.
21
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Investigate the Effect of Using Sunflower Oil as a Lubricant

During Turning Operation of Stainless Steel
S. A. Adam, M. A. Fairuz, M. S. Hussin, M. R. M. Hafiezal, S. N. Khaironisa
Abstract – The study was focused on the effect of using Sunflower Oil as a lubricant during
turning operation of Stainless Steel. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were set as the
control factor for the machining operation. An Orthogonal Array of L4 (2³) was used. Then
ANOVA analyses were carried out to identify the significant factors affecting surface roughness,
Ra and tool wear, Vb, and determined the optimal cutting combination design by seeking the
responses and signal-to-noise ratio. Finally, the confirmations run can optimize the optimal
parameters and cutting fluid for surface roughness and tool wear. Copyright © 2014 Praise
Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sunflower Oil, Taguchi Method of Orthogonal Array, ANOVA, Surface Roughness,
Tool Wear
I. Introduction The output is a healthier and cleaner in the work

environment, with less mist in the air. For that reason,
There’s a great challenging in machining to achieve cutting fluids developed from vegetable oil in the present
high quality, high surface quality, and longer tool life. study are environmentally friendly and have a good
The most important parameter in cutting tool is tool lubricating ability as compared to others [3].
wear because it affects the tooling cost. Many researchers Bellucco and De Chiffre [4] investigated effect of
doing their study to minimize tool wear because it vegetable based cutting oil on cutting forces and power.
benefits the outcomes of machining quality, reduction of From the comparison of performance results obtained
cost and increases tool life. Tool life is depending upon from two cutting fluids showed that the vegetable based
the tool material, work material as well as cutting cutting oils were better than the commercial mineral oil.
parameters. The prevention of wear is needed by study They improved formulations of vegetable oils which
on tool wear characteristics [1]. used as comparison with a mineral oil shows the results
Surface roughness is an important measure of product with the new formula were better than that of mineral oil.
quality since it greatly influences the performance of Later, they used three vegetable based cutting oils
mechanical parts as well as production cost. In the other including EP additives and a straight cutting fluid for
hand, surface properties such as roughness are too critical performance study in turning, reaming and tapping
to the function ability of machine components. Increased operations. Results indicated that vegetable based cutting
understanding of the surface generation mechanisms can oils were superior to mineral oil. Their investigation
be used to optimize machining process and to improve shows the tool life, tool wear, chip formation and cutting
component function ability. Many investigators have forces were studied as performance criteria and results.
been conducted to determine the effect of parameters
such as feed rate, tool nose radius, cutting speed and
depth of cut on surface roughness in hard turning II. Experimental Setup
operation [1].
II.1. Cutting Fluid, Workpiece Material
Cutting fluids increase the tool life and improve the
efficiency of the production systems providing both and Cutting Tool
cooling and lubricating the work surface. Higher surface Two cutting fluids, which are Synthetic oil and
finish quality and better dimensional accuracy are also vegetable-based oil developed from Sunflower oil, were
obtained from cutting fluids [2]. Many types of cutting used in this study. Solid shaft stainless steel was used as
fluids namely, straight oils, soluble oils, synthetic and a workpiece material. The dimension of workpiece was
semi synthetic are widely used in metal cutting Ø2in x 5in. coated carbide insert model KORLOY
processes. Bio-based cutting fluids have the potential to NC3020 was used as cutting tool.
reduce the waste treatment costs due to their inherently
higher biodegradability and may reduce the occupational
health risks associated with petroleum-oil-based cutting II.2. Factor Selection
fluids since they have lower toxicity. The control factors are the basic controlled parameters
22
used in turning operation. III. Results and Discussion

In this study, cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut
are considered as parameters. The levels of parameter III.1. Surface Roughness
were selected based on recommendation cutting Table IV below shows the responses of variety
condition of coated carbide insert NC3020. The control lubricant which are sunflower oil, soybean oil, and
factors are listed in Table I. synthetic oil.
After ran 12 experiments, the surface roughness
TABLE I
LEVELS AND SELECTED FACTORS
readings are used to optimize the surface roughness.
Factors Levels Generally, increasing of cutting speed caused the larger
1 2 surface roughness.
Cutting Speed, A (mm/rev) 50 100 Hence, smaller values of feed rate and depth of cut
Feed Rate, B (mm/rev) 0.05 0.1 must be selected in order to achieve better surface finish
Depth of Cut, C (mm) 0.3 1.0
during turning of stainless steel.
TABLE IV
II.3. Experimental Design SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF COMBINATION RESPONSES
Experiment A B C Response Response Response
Experiment design by using Taguchi method. Two 1 2 3
levels of each factor are conducted in an L4 2³ array Y1 Y2 Y3
where the selection of the array is because of its 1 50 0.05 0.3 0.346 0.272 0.275
suitability for three factors with two levels. Array 2 50 0.1 1.0 0.827 0.698 0.807
selector is based on three parameter and two levels used 3 100 0.05 1.0 0.984 1.277 0.177
4 100 0.1 0.3 0.805 1.01 0.525
in this experiment. So, the links to orthogonal array
would be L4 array.
In loss function indicates the better performance by
Table II shows the L4 orthogonal array. A total of four
performance characteristics. Better performance in this
experimental runs for each cutting fluid. Total
experiment is lower response (surface roughness).
experimental runs for 3 types of cutting fluids are twelve
The loss function is calculated the deviation between
experiments must be conducted. Table III shows the
experimental values and the desired values. Then, it’s
Control Factors and Levels for Factor Cutting Speed (A),
transferred into a signal to noise S/N ratio. The S/N ratio
Feed Rate (B), and Depth of Cut (C).
is calculated as follows:
TABLE II
L4 ORTHOGONAL ARRAY = −10 ( )
Experiment A B C
1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 where:
3 2 1 2 1
4 2 2 1 =
TABLE III
CONTROL FACTORS AND LEVELS FOR FACTOR A, B, AND C
= Mean Square Deviation,
Factors
Experiment A B C = Observations,
1 50 0.05 0.3 = No. of tests in a trial
2 50 0.1 1.0
3 100 0.05 1.0 Table V shows results of Response and S/N ratio for
4 100 0.1 0.3
each cutting fluids. In addition, Ra is filled array in this
includes the Signal-to Noise (S/N) ratio of the individual
II.4. Surface Roughness Measurements runs. The yi is the individual surface roughness
measurements in a run for both noise conditions while n
Surface roughness was measured by using Mitutoyo is the number of replications. In this case, n is equal to 1.
Surface Roughness Tester machine. This measurement Data analyze by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
was taken for 3 times, the average value was used in this where the relative percentage contribution of all factors
analysis. is determined by comparing with the relative variance.
TABLE V
II.5. Tool Wear Measurement S/N CALCULATION FOR EACH RESPONSE
The picture of tool wear has been taken and measured Expt A B C S/N S/N S/N
(Response 1) (Response 2) (Response 3)
by using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope). Each
1 50 0.05 0.3 9.2185 11.3086 11.2133
tool was measured for 3 times, the average value was 2 50 0.1 1.0 1.6499 3.1229 1.8625
used in this analysis. 3 100 0.05 1.0 0.1401 -2.1238 15.0405
4 100 0.1 0.3 1.8841 -0.0864 5.5968
23
The examples of S/N calculations are shown below. For Factor A, :

Table VI shows the response S/N ratio for the Oils.
For Factor A: = −1=2−1=1
9.2185 + 1.6499 where is the number of level or factor A

1= = 5.4342
2 Sum of squares for all factors is then calculated and
the example of calculating sum of squares is shown
0.1404 + 1.8841 below;
2= = 1.0121
2 Sum of Squares, :
TABLE VI =( + + ⋯+ )+
COMBINATION RESPONSE OF S/N RATIO FOR Y1, Y2, AND Y3
Level A B C
( + + ⋯+ )
− = 0.226565
1 (Y1) 5.432 4.6793 5.5513
2 (Y1) 1.0121 1.767 0.895
1 (Y2) 7.21575 4.5924 5.6111 For Factor A, :
2 (Y2) -1.1051 1.51825 0.49955
1 (Y3) 6.5379 13.1269 8.40505
2 (Y3) 10.3186 3.72965 8.4515 (∑ ) (∑ )
= + +
Table VII shows the summary of best combination of ( + + + )
parameter for response. − = 0.094864
TABLE VII For Error, :

BEST SETTING OF COMBINATION FOR RESPONSES
Factor Values
Cutting Speed, A 100 mm/rev = +( + + )=0
Feed Rate, B 0.05 mm/rev
Depth of Cut, C 1.0 mm Variance, V:
After the optimal level of all control factors are 0.094864

identified, conducted confirmation run. For factor , = = = 0.094864
1
The combination of the optimal levels for each factors
are produced the optimal response of surface roughness For Variance Error:
(smallest Ra).
Table VIII shows the response of confirmation run.
= =0
TABLE VIII
THE RESPONSE OF BEST COMBINATION OF PARAMETER
Block Reading 1, Reading 2, Reading 3, Average, F-Ratio:
Label Ra (μm) Ra (μm) Ra (μm) Ra (μm)
A3 2.059 1.300 1.165 1.508
B3 0.739 0.721 0.690 0.716 , =
C3 0.705 0.865 0.746 0.772
and cannot be determined for all cutting fluids

Based on the confirmation run, we find the minimum
as = 0. Percentage Contribution, for all factors are
response for surface roughness at each cutting fluid.
calculated and the example of the calculation is shown
It shows the best performance of cutting fluid is
below.
Soybean Oil.
(i) Sunflower Oil:
The soybean oil gives the best performance on surface
For factor A:
roughness based on the lowest surface roughness, Ra
which is 0.772. Tables IX-XI show the ANOVA table for
0.094864
the response 1 of each types of oils. = × 100 = × 100 = 41.87%
0.226565
III.2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

for Surface Roughness III.3. Tool Wear
In ANOVA calculations, the degree of freedom for all The picture of tool wear has been taken and measured
factors needs to be obtained first. Below shows the by using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope). Each
example of calculating degree of freedom, f: measurement was taken for 3 times, average of
Total Degree of freedom, : measurement were used in this analysis.
Tables XII-XVI show the results for combination of
= −= 4 − 1 = 3 parameters.
24
TABLE IX TABLE XVI

ANOVA TABLE FOR RESPONSE 1(SUNFLOWER OIL) THE RESPONSE OF BEST COMBINATION OF PARAMETER
Factors f S V F P(%) Block Reading 1, Reading 2, Reading 3, Average,
Cutting Speed 1 0.094864 0.094864 - 41.87 Label Vb (μm) Vb (μm) Vb (μm) Vb (μm)
Feed Rate 1 0.022801 0.022801 - 10.06
Depth of Cut 1 0.1089 0.1089 - 48.07 A4 300 280 260 280
Pooled Error 0 0 B4 460 455 0459 458
Total 3 0.226565 0.226565 - 100 C4 515 500 488 501
TABLE X For Factor A:

ANOVA TABLE FOR RESPONSE 1(SOYBEAN OIL)
Factors F S V F P(%) 9.2185 + 1.6499
Cutting Speed, 1 0.43362225 0.43362225 - 41.87 1= = 5.4342
(mm/rev) 2
Feed Rate, (mm/rev) 1 0.00632025 0.00632025 - 10.06 0.1404 + 1.8841

2= = 1.0121
2
Depth of Cut, (mm) 1 0.12006225 0.12006225 - 48.07
Pooled Error 0 0 Table XVII shows the best optimal cutting fluid for
tool wear is Sunflower Oil. It shows the lowest reading
Total 0.56000475 0.56000475 - 100 of tool wear from the confirmation run of the experiment
as compared to the results in Tables XVIII-XIX.
TABLE XI
ANOVA TABLE FOR RESPONSE 1(SYNTHETIC OIL)
Factors f S V F P(%) III.4. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Tool Wear
Cutting 1 0.0361 0.0361 - 15.16
Speed, In ANOVA calculations, the degree of freedom for all
(mm/rev) factors needs to be obtained first. Below shows the
Feed Rate, 1 0.1936 0.1936 - 81.29
(mm/rev)
example of calculating degree of freedom, f:
Depth of Cut, 1 0.008464 0.008464 - 3.55 Total Degree of freedom, :
(mm)
Pooled Error 0 0 = −= 4 − 1 = 3
Total 3 0.238164 0.238164 - 100
For Factor A, :
TABLE XII
SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF COMBINATION RESPONSES = −1=2−1=1
Experiment A B C Response 1 Response2 Response 3
Y1 Y2 Y3 where is the number of level or factor A.
1 50 0.05 0.3 345 711 298 Sum of squares for all factors is then calculated and
2 50 0.1 1.0 319 377 306
3 100 0.05 1.0 419 365 431 the example of calculating sum of squares is shown
4 100 0.1 0.3 134 458 501 below;
Sum of Squares, :
TABLE XIII
SUMMARY RESULTS OF TOOL WEAR, VB AND S/N VALUES
=( + + ⋯+ ) +
Exp A B C S/N S/N S/N
(Response 1) (Response 2) (Response 3)
( + + ⋯+ )
− = 0.226565
1 50 0.05 0.3 -50.7564 -57.0374 -49.4843
2 50 0.1 1.0 -50.0758 -51.5268 -49.7144
3 100 0.05 1.0 -52.4443 -51.2459 -52.6895 For Factor A, :
4 100 0.1 0.3 -42.5421 -53.2173 -53.9968
TABLE XIV (∑ ) (∑ )
COMBINATION RESPONSE OF S/N RATIO FOR Y1, Y2, AND Y3 = + +
Level A B C ( + + + )
1 (Y1) -50.4161 -51.60035 -46.64925 − = 0.094864
2 (Y1) -47.4932 -46.30895 -51.26005
1 (Y2) -54.2821 -54.14345 -55.12735
2 (Y2) -52.2334 -52.37205 -51.38635 For Error, :
1 (Y3) -49.59935 -51.0869 -51.74055
2 (Y3) -53.34315 -51.8556 -51.8556
= +( + + )=0
TABLE XV
BEST SETTING OF COMBINATION FOR RESPONSES Variance, V:
Factor Values
Cutting Speed, A 100 mm/rev
Feed Rate, B 0.1 mm/rev , = = 0.094864
Depth of Cut, C 0.3 mm
25
For Variance Error, = =0 The surface roughness increases with increasing in

feed rate followed by depth of cut and cutting speed.
F-Ratio: It is observed that the predicted and measured values
, = are close to each other.
Therefore, the proposed method can be used to predict
the corresponding specific surface roughness (Ra) and
and cannot be determined for all cutting fluids tool wear (Vb) of other steel at different parameters in
as = 0. turning operation.
Percentage Contribution, for all factors is By using orthogonal array method, the best
calculated and the example of the calculation is shown combination of design variables can be selected to
below: achieve the optimal Ra and Vb that corresponding
machining parameters during turning operation of
, = × 100 = stainless steel.
The response of surface roughness of different cutting
0.094864 fluid was observed. In this study, the best response on
= × 100 =
0.226565 tool wear by setting the best combination of parameters
= 41.87% is by using Sunflower oil as lubricant. So, the
TABLE XVII
combination of parameter can improve the quality of
ANOVA TABLE FOR RESPONSE 1(SUNFLOWER OIL) surface roughness and decrease tool wear and also
Factors f S V F P(%) increasing tool life.
Cutting Speed 1 3080.25 3080.25 - 6.996
Feed Rate 1 24180.25 24180.25 - 54.92
Depth of Cut 1 16770.25 16770.25 - 38.09 References
Pooled Error 0 [1] S. Thamizhmanii, S. Hasan, “Analyses of surface roughnessby
Total 3 44030.75 44030.75 - 100 turning process using taguchi method”, Journal of achievement in
Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 20, 2007.
TABLE XVIII [2] M. Soković, K. Mijanović, “Ecological aspects of cutting fluids
ANOVA TABLE FOR RESPONSE 1(SOYBEAN OIL) and its influence on quantifiable parameters of the cutting
Factors f S V F P(%) processes,” Journal of Materials Processing Technology
2001;109:181-189.
Cutting 1 17556.25 17556.25 - 22.61 [3] J. John, M. Bhattacharya, P. C. Raynor, “Emulsions containing
Speed, vegetable oils for cutting fluid application,” Colloids and Surfaces
(mm/rev) A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 2004;237:141-150.
Feed Rate, 1 14520.25 14520.25 - 18.696 [4] W. Belluco, L. De Chiffre, “Testing of vegetable-based cutting
(mm/rev) fluids by hole making operations,” Lubrication Engineering
Depth of 1 45582.25 45582.25 - 58.696 2001;57:12-16.
Cut, (mm) [5] S. A. Adam, N. A. Shuaib, M. R. M. Hafiezal, S. N. Suhaili,
Pooled 0 “Study on Surface Roughness and Chip Formation using Milling
Error Operation of Mild Steel Using Vegetable Based Oil as a
Total 77658.25 77658.25 - 100 Lubricant”, International Journal of Engineering & Technology
IJET-IJENS, 2013:Vol:13 No:01, pp.19-23.
TABLE XIX [6] N.J. Fox, B. Tyrer, and G.W. Stachowiak, “Boundary lubrication
ANOVA TABLE FOR RESPONSE 1(SYNTHETIC OIL) performance of free fatty acids in sunflower oil”, Tribology
Factors f S V F P(%) Letters, Vol. 16, No. 4, May 2004.
[7] Sokovic, M. and Mijanovic, K., “Ecological aspects of the cutting
Cutting 1 26896 26896 - 91.55 fluids and its influence on quantifiable parameters of cutting
Speed, processes”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 109(1-
(mm/rev) 2):181-189, 2001.
Feed Rate, 1 1521 1521 - 5.18 [8] Belluco, W., and Chiffre, L. D., “Performance evaluation of
(mm/rev) vegetable-based oils in drilling austenitic stainless steel”, Journal
Depth of 1 961 961 - 3.27 of Materials Processing Technology 2004: 148:171–176.
Cut, (mm) [9] Safian, S., Hisyam, M.A. and Aman, S., Evaluation of Vegetable
Pooled - - - Oil as an Alternative Cutting Lubricant When End Milling
Error Martensutic Stainless Steel Using Uncoated Carbide Tool,
Total 3 29378 29378 - 100 Journal of Advanced Manufacturing and Technology, ISSN:
Y1: Sunflower Oil, Y2: Soybean Oil, Y3: Synthetic Oil 1985-3157 Vol. 3 No. 2, pp.49-55, 2009.
[10] Zailani, Z.A., Sanuddin, A.B., Hussin, M.S., Khalil, A.N.M.,
Hamzas, M.F.M.A., Ahmad Mustafa, N., An effect of boric acid
IV. Conclusion mixture as solid lubricant towards machining processes, (2013)
International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (5),
The orthogonal array by factorial design is found the pp. 912-918.
[11] Hussin, M.S., Zailani, Z.A., Hadi, H., Sanuddin, A.B., Hamzas,
successful performance trend analysis of surface M.F.M.A., A study on the effect of boric acid mixture as solid
roughness and tool wear with respect to various lubricant towards machining processes, (2012) International
combinations of design variables. Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 6 (7), pp. 1429-
It uses to optimize the response by using the 1433.
Sunflower oil and Synthetic oil.
26
School of Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Malaysia.
Siti Aishah Adam received her B.Eng(Hons) in

Manufacturing Engineering from International
Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia in 2006
and Master degree in Innovation and
Engineering Design from Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Malaysia in 2010. Her research
interests are in conventional and modern
machining, optimization and robust design. She
is currently working as a lecturer in University Malaysia Perlis,
Malaysia.
Ahmad Fairuz Mansor received his Bachelor

of Engineering in Manufacturing from
University of Malaysia Perlis and Master of
Engineering in Advance of Technology
Malaysia. His research interests are in new
manufacturing process and advance
manufacturing technology.
Mohd Sabri Hussin received his B.Eng in

Manufacturing Engineering from Universiti
Malaysia Perlis and and Master degree in
Innovation and Engineering Design form
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia .The
research interest is in modeling and control,
product innovation and engineering simulation
on automotive safety.
Mohd Hafiezal Mohd Radzi receive d his

Diploma of Engineering Technology in
Mechanical and Manufacturing, Degree of
Mechanical Engineering and Master of
Mechanical System Design Engineering from
University of Aix-Marseille, France. The
research interests are in modeling and finite
element analysis, mechanical design and green
technology in mechanical.
Siti Nurhafamira Khaironisa received her

Diploma in Manufacturing Engineering from
Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia in 20009
and B. Eng (Hons) in Manufacturing
Engineering from Universiti Malaysia Perlis in
2012. Her research interest are in conventional
and modern machining.
27
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Crashworthiness Design of Vehicle Side Door Beam

Based on Elliptical Geometry Modification
Using Multi-Objective Optimization
Ehsan Rasooliyazdi, Rizal Bin Zahari, Ali Ghadianlou, Ali Farhaninejad,

Barkawi Bin Sahari, Faieza Abdul Aziz, Hamed Jamali
Abstract – Side Door Beam (SDB) is one of the crucial parts of today’s vehicles in order to meet
the passenger safety. Through an explicit finite element analysis (FEA), material selection for the
SDB under impact is evaluated by using three different sheets of material to achieve the maximum
possible specific energy absorption (SEA). To find the lowest peak load, the carefully chosen SDB
is investigated based on its orientation angle toward the rigid wall impactor. The elliptical cross
section of the selected SDB is taken into account by considering two variables of geometrical
parameters; thickness and minor to major diameter ratios. Accordingly, Multi-objective
optimization of the SDB is performed using response surface method (RSM) to reach the
mentioned objectives and to determine the optimal sectional configuration of the SDB. Copyright
© 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Crashworthiness, FEA, Elliptical Beam, Multi-Objective Optimization
Nomenclature subjected to axial crush using LS-DYNA. Kalid et al [16]

worked on the behavior of steel structural beams with
 Poisson Ratio corrugated web under bending loading.
 Density (kg/m3) Mai Nursherida et al. [17], Salwani et al. [18], Sahari
Sy Yeld stress (MPa) et al. [19] and Sahari et al. [20] had many research
E Elasticity modulus (GPa) regarding automotive structures namely bumper beam,
side member, front floor and backbone components
respectively in an attempt to obtain lightweight as well as
I. Introduction crashworthy automotive body. In the last several decades,
Finite element analysis (FEA) is used widely in some research has been carried out on various
automobile industry to find the response of components configurations of tubular beams for comparing the
under impact. It is the prevalent approach in numerical energy absorption and peak crash load [21]-[30]. The
solutions to decrease analysis costs in dynamic problems crash performance of cylindrical structures is examined
compared with experimental tests [1][2]. Nowadays, by Abramowicz [23], [25].
saving energy and safety have become the basic Langseth et al [22], [28] studied the local buckling and
technique in research and development. In this respect, crush response of square beams. Crashworthiness of thin
weight reduction has the most significant effect on walled tubes with hexagonal cross section under axial
reducing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions [3], [4], loading was evaluated by Mamalis Ag et al and Liu Y
[5]. A reduction of weight by 10% causes 6-8% less fuel [24], [30] . In order to analyze the impact response of the
consumption [6]. SDB, the model from a local company is chosen to be
For this reason, thin wall structures have been tested numerically shown in Fig. 1. Firstly, Aluminum,
commonly used and a lot of research works have been steel and magnesium materials are assigned to the SDB
carried out in the past few decades on the capability of in order to find out the most appropriate material with the
thin wall structures to absorb energy under dynamics regards of energy absorbing and lightweight purpose.
loading [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14]. From the practical point of view, the SDB with
Kecman [8] investigated experimental and theoretical elliptical cross section subjected to lateral crash is in
analysis of bending performances for rectangular beams. interest to be studied in this paper since few researchers
He used a simple mechanism and found the moment- have worked on it yet. Afterwards, Specific Energy
rotation features in the post-buckling range up to 40 Abortion (SEA) and the Peak Load occurring in the
degree. Afshar et al [15] studied the displacement of system (PL) for diverse arrangements of the SDB’s cross
tubular structures for different polygonal cross-sections section are obtained.
28
Ehsan Rasooliyazdi et al.
III. Side Door Beam Material

With the consideration of demanding minimum
weight of white-body to achieve higher fuel efficiency,
deep-drawn sheets of magnesium and aluminum alloys
are predominately being used for non-supporting parts
such as doors, hoods and fenders [4].
Applying less stiff alloys caused the wall thickness of
the parts to be increased to satisfy the required strength.
To simulate the material for the SDB, Type 024,
Piecewise-Linear-Plasticity, is used to model elasto-
palstic behavior with a predefined stress versus strain
Fig. 1. Side door beam location in the frontal vehicle door curve including many piecewise linear segments. The
differences between the elasticity modulus of the three
Lastly, in order to find the optimal design case, multi- different alloys are chosen to be studied here and listed in
objective optimization is used based on the response Table I.
surface method (RSM).
TABLE I
MATERIAL PROPERIES OF SIDE DOOR BEAM
II. Finite Element Modeling Material type Poisson's Yield Density, Elasticity Ultimate

ratio, υ stress, modulus, E stress U
To simulate the contact area between two masses, the Sy (kg/m3) (GPa) (MPa)
(MPa)
type of Automatic-Single-Surface contact is considered
Aluminum 0.33 193 2720 68.9 214
in LS-DYNA finite element solver [31]. The CAE 3105-H18
process is initiated by importing the CAD data of the Magnesium 0.35 190 1740 45.0 275
SDB and creating fitting surfaces to be meshed. To AZ31B
simplify the SDB bending, it was essential to consider Steel AISI 0.30 190 7860 200.0 320
1006
the boundary conditions as near as possible to a real
employed SDB in a frontal door. Therefore, the both
ends are fixed by the width of 60 mm from the end sides Fig. 3 compares the ability of the mentioned materials
in all six degree of freedom. The aforementioned model to absorb the impact energy in terms of Specific Energy
consists of 2108 elements and 2125 nodes. The four Absorption, SEA. In fact, the parameter of SEA equals to
node-quadrilateral element, Belytschko-Tsay, is the absorbed internal energy over the mass of the
preferred to be applied because of its highly suitable structure.
function in shell elements with the formulation of 3 In addition, this factor is defined exclusively for crash
integration points. problems in order to achieve the maximum possible
For a SDB system to be analyzed accurately, applying absorbed energy together with the minimum weight.
fine mesh resolution is vital and is applied technically in
the middle zone of it. The finite element modeling of the
SDB is shown in Fig. 2.
It is assumed that 50% of middle portion of the SDB
was impacted by a rigid wall having 10 kg mass and 5
m/s velocity and it strikes to the SDB in Y direction as
illustrated in Fig. 2. The total termination time of each
test is chosen to be 25ms representing the enough time to
release the kinetic energy completely.
Fig. 3. Comparison of SEA among three different SDB materials
According to the result, the magnesium could absorb

the most impact energy per its weight among the others.
Actually, the reason comes from the fact that its weight is
much less than the steel and aluminum. Therefore, the
magnesium material is selected to use for the SDB due to
its highest SEA. It is necessary to mention that all of the
following simulations will be performed with this
material.
Fig. 2. Isometric view of the rigid wall impact
29
IV. SDB Performance For Different and the ratio of two radii of the elliptical SDB. As the
Orientation Angles assumptions, magnesium material from section 3 and the
orientation angle of 90 degree from section 4 are
In automobile accidents, the main aim is to improve supposed to be applied in all the following simulations.
safety features. In this respect, the designers have always Fig. 6 displays the two radii of the assumed SDB with
struggled to reduce the crash pulse transferred to the elliptical cross section. What is looking for in these
occupants. Hence, reducing the peak load occurred in the series of simulations is to determine which thickness of
above simplified impact is the challenge we are looking the elliptical SDB and which ratio of the SDB’s radii
for in this section. To examine the effects of SDB could lead to the highest SEA together with the lowest
orientation angle on the created peak load (PL), three PL. Therefore, the first objective is the highest possible
angles including 0, 45 and 90 degree toward the rigid specific energy absorption SEA and the second objective
wall impactor are assumed and demonstrated in Fig. 4. is the lowest peak load (PL).
Meanwhile, the mentioned objectives are evaluated
simultaneously to find the two optimal independent
geometrical factors. However, the process of the
optimization is discussed specifically in the next section.
Fig. 6. The cross-section of the elliptical SDB with two radii

of ‘a’ and ‘b’
Fig. 4. The angle of the impact between SDB and rigid wall The upper band and the lower band of the SDB
thicknesses (first objective) are assumed to be 4.0 and 2.5
As a result, Fig. 5 compares PL values for each angle mm respectively. However, these values for the radii
during the impact. It can be seen obviously that the ratio (second objective) are supposed to be from 1.0 to
lowest PL belongs to the SDB arranged with 90 degree 0.25.
with respect to the horizontal line. In fact, the According to the tabulated results, it can be concluded
arrangements of θ has consequential effects on how the that by increasing the SDB thickness (t) in a set of the
SDB profile resists the impact. In this scenario, if the tests with the same radii ratio (r), SEA reduces and PL
SDB is placed horizontally (θ =90), it would create the rises as well.
highest value of the stiffness so the crash force would be Since the target is to find the maximum SEA and the
raised also. In this example, with considering θ degree of minimum PL, the particular geometrical features
90, the minimum possible of the crash force is achieved satisfying these conditions are expected to be somewhere
showed in the bellow graph. among data. To find these parameters, the multi-
objective optimization has been used.
TABLE II
SEA AND PL VARIATIONS FOR DIFFERENT SDB GEOMETRIES
PL (N)
r = b/a t (mm) Mass (kg) SEA (J/kg)
10 5
1 2.5 0.38070 268.35 1.0398
1 3.0 0.45684 269.73 1.1025
1 3.5 0.53298 230.47 1.1786
1 4.0 0.60913 201.21 1.7198
0.75 2.5 0.33560 366.93 1.4364
0.75 3.0 0.40276 304.17 1.6262
Fig. 5. Crash force distribution for various orientation degrees 0.75 3.5 0.46989 258.40 1.8555
of the SDB 0.75 4.0 0.53701 224.24 2.2334
0.5 2.5 0.29347 418.22 1.3167
0.5 3.0 0.35120 345.71 1.4626
0.5 3.5 0.41086 295.24 1.9682
V. Side Door Beam Optimization 0.5 4.0 0.46956 256.71 2.2198
0.25 2.5 0.25941 453.43 1.465
V.1. Definition of Design Models 0.25 3.0 0.31129 382.66 1.9351
In order to find the maximum SEA associated with the 0.25 3.5 0.36317 328.59 2.3047
0.25 4.0 0.41506 283.26 2.8782
minimum PL, two independent geometrical factors are
taken into concern. These factors include SDB thickness
30
V.2. Description of Optimization Problem where f U2 and f 2L are the upper and lower bound
The first step to optimize a set of data is to find the respectively. Here, f U2 and f 2L are the functions of the
relationship between the variables by extracting a
mathematical function. Generally, this function is carried design variables, and their values is in the interval [0,1].
out by regression analysis including fitting and In this regard, when Fg  1 , the corresponding objective
predicting the raw data. Structural optimization function reaches the optimal design, i.e., if Fg  0 it
techniques have been used recently for optimizing energy
absorption and peak load of complicated structures under leads to the worst solution.
impact.
There are a number of methods for optimization, i.e., V.3. Response Surface Method
Response surface method (RSM) is one of the methods
most commonly used for crashworthiness optimization RSM is a method for illustrating the correlation
[32], [33], [34], [35]. between multiple variables as an input and output. For
Yamazaki [36], Lee [37] and Allahbakhsh [38] have the specific objective functions, like SEA and PL in this
applied the RSM method for crashworthiness study, they are assumed in terms of basis function [45],
optimization. In this paper, to optimize the specific [46], [47]:
N
energy absorption and the peak load, multi-objective
y  x    a j j  x  (5)
optimization framework has been applied. In the present
j 1
paper, RSM as described by [39] is used and is
described. Multi-objective optimization is formulated in
two different types; one of them is linear weighted wehere N is the number of basis function i  x  ,
average as given in Eq. (1): x  Rn .
To simplify the correlation between raw data derived
 f f from FE-result, the polynomials function in quartic form
 Minimize Fw  1  w  1  w 2
 f1 f2 is obtained:
 (1)

 w   0 ,1 and x L  x  xU  y  a0  a1 x1  a2 x2  a3 x3  ... Linear terms
 
a12 x1 x2  a13 x1 x3  a23 x2 x3  ... Interaction terms
 2 2 2
where f 1, f 2 are the normalizing values of a11 x1  a22 x2  a33 x3  ... Quadratic terms

f 1  SEA  x  and f 2  PL  x  [40], [41], [42].  (6)
 3 3 3
The factor of w is the weight factor for emphasizing a111 x1  a222 x2  a333 x3  ... Cubic terms
different importance of each objective [43]. Using the 
geometrical average of efficiency coefficients [44] with 
two objectives, another formulation for multi-objective a1111 x14  a2222 x24  a3333 x34  ... Quartic terms
optimization is expressed in Eq. (2):
To verify regression coefficient a   a1 ,a2 , ,a N  in
 Maximize F g  d SEAd PL
 Eq. (6), a large number of FE analysis
 (2) i 

y  i  1, 2, ,M   M  N  is in need of making.
 x L  x  xU By minimizing the errors between response function
y and FE analysis y , the regression coefficient vector
where d SEA and d PL are efficiency coefficients of SEA a is determined. The least squares function is expressed
and PL respectively. To maximize d SEA in Eq. (2), it can in Eq. (7):
be obtained in terms of the relative distance to the lower
bound: 2
M M  i  N 
E a    i2   y   a j j  x i 
  (7)
f 1  x   f 1L i 1 i 1 
 j 1 
d SEA  (3)
f 1U  f 1L
Through getting the integration of E with respect to
E  a 
Also, for minimizing the peak crash force d PL , this the x ( ), the regression coefficient vector
x
term is expressed as bellow.
a   a1 ,a2 , ,a N  is obtained as below:
f 2  x   f 2L
d PL  1  (4) 1
f U2  f 2L 
a  T    y  T
(8)
31
Matrix  denotes the values of basic functions in optimization can be expressed as:
which is evaluated for M sampling points. Lastly, by
substituting Eq. (9) to Eq. (5), the RS model can be  SEA* PL  r,t 
defined:  Minimize F  t1 ,t2   1  w  w
 SEA  r,t  PL*
 
 x1   x1 
 1 N
  
 w   0,1 (12)
      (9) 
   0.25  r  1.0
 x
 1

M 

 N x  M  

   2.5  t  4
where SEA* and PL* are the normalization values for

V.4. Response Surface Model
SEA and PL respectively. By varying weight w in Eq.
In this study, the second order polynomial function is (12), the Pareto sets for side door beam are obtained and
used for SEA(x) and PL(x) that is suitable and expressed plotted in Fig. 8. The Pareto front provides a range of
as Eqs. (10) and (11) respectively: optimal solutions and shows the relation between SEA
and PL.
SEA  r,t   9.987  108  3.633  108 r  Any further improvements on SEA must sacrifice the
PL and vice versa. In fact, any points in Pareto frontier
2.356  108 t  5.192  107 r 2  8.263 108 rt  (10) can be the optimal case which is up to the designer
1.434  108 t 2 depending on its significant level. To generate the Pareto
frontier, the multi-objective optimization using Genetic
[50] Algorithm of MATLAB language programming was
PL  r,t   1.123  105  1.647 105 r  used.
3.913  104 t  4.951 104 r 2  6.459 10 4 rt  (11)
2.189  104 t 2
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. The variation of PL against 1/SEA
Figs. 7. The RS (response surface) of SEA (a) and PL (b)
V.5.3. The Geometrical Average Method

V.5. Result of Optimization
In this method, the cost function is constructed by
V.5.1. Multi-Objective Optimization relative efficiency of the two mentioned objectives:
In single-objective optimization, one criterion is
investigated whereas the other one is constrained. So,  Maximize Fg  r,t   d SEA d PL
this method cannot explain the interaction between 
independent variables.  s.t 0.25  r  1.0 (13)
From the practical point of view, the multi-objective  2.5  t  4

optimization is more applicable for the problem
discussed here [48].
In this story, SEA and PL are optimized by using the SEA  r,t   SEAL
Weight Average and Geometrical Average Methods, d SEA  (14)
SEAU  SEAL
respectively.
PL  r,t   PLL
V.5.2. The Weight Average Method d PL  1  (15)
PLU  PLL
Multi-objective optimization accounts the interaction
between the criteria [49]. where the symbol of U and L represents the maximum
Using the weight average method, multi-objective and the minimum value for the functions respectively. By
32
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[30] A. . Mamalis, D. . Manolakos, M. . Ioannidis, P. . Kostazos, and E. Rasooliyazdi was born in Rafsanjan,Iran 11th
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metallic thin-walled tubes with octagonal cross-section,” Thin- degree in mechanical engineering in 2008 at
Walled Structures, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 891–900, Oct. 2003. Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman.He is a
[31] K. U. S. Manual and V. Ii, “KEYWORD USER ’ S MANUAL student of M.Sc in mechanical engineering in
VOLUME II,” vol. II, no. August, 2012. University Putra Malaysia currently.His research
[32] S. Hou, Q. Li, S. Long, X. Yang, and W. Li, “Design optimization is on the crashworthiness of vehicle by finite
of regular hexagonal thin-walled columns with crashworthiness element modeling.
criteria,” Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, vol. 43, no. 6– E-mail: Erasooli.mec@gmail.com
7, pp. 555–565, Apr. 2007.
[33] S. Salehghaffari, M. Rais-Rohani, and A. Najafi, “Analysis and R. B. Zahari was born in Perlis, Malaysia on
optimization of externally stiffened crush tubes,” Thin-Walled 11th May 1971. He received his Bachelor degree
Structures, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 397–408, Mar. 2011. in mechanical engineering in 1999 from
[34] Y. Xiang, Q. Wang, Z. Fan, and H. Fang, “Optimal University of Malaya. He graduated in
crashworthiness design of a spot-welded thin-walled hat section,” aerospace engineering from College of
Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, vol. 42, no. 10, pp. 846– Aeronautics, Cranfield University in both M.Sc
855, Jun. 2006. and PhD at 2001 and 2005 respectively.He is
[35] E. Acar and M. Rais-Rohani, “Ensemble of metamodels with currently a lecturer(Associate Professor) in the
optimized weight factors,” Structural and Multidisciplinary Aerospace Engineering department, University Putra Malaysia. His
Optimization, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 279–294, Feb. 2008. areas of research are Finite element method, composites and aircraft
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absorption of cylindrical shells,” Advances in Engineering E-mail: rizal@upm.edu.my
Software, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 425–434, Jun. 2000.
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funnel in cathode ray tubes using a response surface model,” 25th October 1957. He received his bachelor
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374–381, Oct. 2004. University of Nottingham. He graduated from
[38] H. R. Allahbakhsh and J. Saemi, “Design optimization of square Nottingham university in PhD level in 1984. He
and circular aluminium extrusion damage columns with is currently a lecture (Professor) in the
crashworthiness criteria,” Indian Journal of Engineering & Mechanical engineering department, University
Materials Sciences, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 341–350, 2011. Putra Malaysia. His interest areas are Stress
[39] D. C. Montgomery, Design and Analysis of Experiments. John Analysis, Automotive Engineering Vehicle Body and Finite Element
Wiley & Sons, 2008, p. 680. Method.
[40] S. Hou, Q. Li, S. Long, X. Yang, and W. Li, “Multiobjective E-mail: barkawi@upm.edu.my
optimization of multi-cell sections for the crashworthiness
design,” International Journal of Impact Engineering, vol. 35, no. F. A. Aziz was born in Selangor,Malaysia 18th
11, pp. 1355–1367, Nov. 2008. March 1973. She received her Bachelor degree
[41] H. R. Zarei and M. Kröger, “Multiobjective crashworthiness in mechanical engineering in 1997 at Bradford
optimization of circular aluminum tubes,” Thin-Walled University of England.She graduated in M.Sc
Structures, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 301–308, Mar. 2006. level from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2002.
[42] H. Fang, M. Raisrohani, Z. Liu, and M. Horstemeyer, “A She received her PhD degree in Cardiff
comparative study of metamodeling methods for multiobjective University in UK in 2006. She is currently a
crashworthiness optimization,” Computers & Structures, vol. 83, lecture (Associate Professor) in the Mechanical
no. 25–26, pp. 2121–2136, Sep. 2005. engineering department, University Putra Malaysia. Her interest areas
[43] T. W. Athan and P. Y. Papalambros, “A Note On Weighted are Manufacturing Engineering, Crash Simulation, Virtual Reality,
Criteria Methods For Compromise Solutions In Multi-Objective HCI and Ergonomics.
Optimization,” Engineering Optimization, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 155– E-mail: faieza@upm.edu.my
176, Sep. 1996.
[44] S. Hou, Q. Li, S. Long, X. Yang, and W. Li, “Crashworthiness A. Farhaninejad was born in Tehran, Iran 22th
design for foam filled thin-wall structures,” Materials & Design, November 1980. He received his Bachelor
vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 2024–2032, Jun. 2009. degree in mechanical engineering in 2006 at
[45] H. Kurtaran, A. Eskandarian, D. Marzougui, and N. E. Bedewi, Shahid Chamran University of Tehran.He is a
“Crashworthiness design optimization using successive response student of M.Sc in mechanical engineering in
surface approximations,” Computational Mechanics, vol. 29, no. University Putra Malaysia currently.his research
4–5, pp. 409–421, Oct. 2002. is on the crashworthiness of vehicle by finite
[46] R. J. Yang, N. Wang, C. H. Tho, J. P. Bobineau, and B. P. Wang, element modeling.
“Metamodeling development for vehicle frontal impact
34
A. Ghadianlou was born Tehran, Iran 20th June

1984. He received his Bachelor degree in
mechanical engineering in 2007 at Azad Islamic
University of Tehran.He received his M.Sc
degree in mechanical engineering from
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 2013.his
research is on the crashworthiness of vehicle by
finite element modeling.
H. Jamali (was born in Mashhad, Iran 25th

March 1983. He received his Bachelor degree in
chemical engineering in 2007 at Azad Islamic
University of Ghoochan.He is a student of M.Sc
in aerospace engineering in Universiti Putra
Malaysia currently.his research is on the
crashworthiness of vehicle by finite element
modeling.
35
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Evolutionary Optimum Design for a Task

Specified 6-Link Planar Robot
N. Godwin Raja Ebenezer, R. Saravanan, S. Ramabalan, R. Natarajan
Abstract – Optimal structure design for robots is fundamentally important, as it stands first in
the order of robotic system design. The structure of industrial robots should be robust, versatile
and strong enough – to withstand a variety of forces/loads, guarantee stability and security in
operation. To achieve best solution, it is desirable to perform structure design optimization. Here,
it is proposed to determine optimal geometric dimensions for a task specified 6-link planar robot
considering pick and place operation. The aim is to minimize torque required for defined motion
and to maximize manipulability measure of the robot subject to dynamic, kinematic, deflection and
structural constraints. Links physical characteristics (length and cross sectional area parameters)
are design variables. Five different cross-sections (hollow circle, hollow square, hollow rectangle,
C-channel and I-channel) have been experimented for the link. Evolutionary algorithms viz. Elitist
Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) and Multi Objective Differential Evolution
(MODE), Multiobjective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) are used. Normalized weighting objective
functions and average fuzzy membership functions are used to select the best optimal solution.
Multiobjective performance measures, namely, Solution Spread Measure (SSM) and Ratio of Non-
dominated Individuals (RNI) are used to evaluate Pareto optimal fronts. Two other multiobjective
performance measures, namely, Optimizer Overhead (OO) and Algorithm effort are used to find
computational effort of optimization algorithms. Results obtained from various techniques are
compared and analyzed. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Optimal Structure Design, Task Specified Robots, Pick and Place Operation, Multi
Criteria, Evolutionary Techniques – NSGA-II, MOGA and MODE, Dynamic,
Kinematic, Structural Constraints
Nomenclature Trun Simulation time of the optimization technique

Neval Total number of evaluation by optimization
g Acceleration due to gravity technique
θi Angular displacement of robot joint i αi Twist of link i
F Assembled global load vector wi Weigtage value given to the objective function i
K Assembled global stiffness matrix
Favg Average fitness vector
fc Cost function value I. Introduction
Ai Cross sectional area of link i
δ Deflection of the end effector of the robot Robots are used invariably in all the fields. Robot
ai,di Denavit and Hartenberg (D H) parameters manipulators have become increasingly important
Z1 First objective function especially in flexible automation and manufacturing
fi Forces due to axial loading along Y axis system in industrial applications [1]-[25].
J Jacobian matrix Today's robots should provide much higher mobility,
L Link length higher positioning accuracy, manipulability, and
ρ Material density of link i dexterity – to meet with ever increasing demands for
n Maximum number of robot links faster response. To get this done, the robots need to have
Ei Modulus of elasticity of link i optimum structure design – crucial in building of robots.
Ii Moment of inertia of the link i It greatly influences workspace design, vibrations
M Moments due to bending about Z axis during operation, efficiency of manipulator in work
Ni Normalising parameter of the objective function i environment and power consumption. Optimal robot
Fp Payload carried by robot structure design problem is complex in nature and
N Population size involves several conflicting design objectives.
Fs Scaling factor for MODE The base, arm, wrist, and end effector form the
Z2 Second objective function structure of a robot.
36
The structure of a robot, which consists of rigid The problem was solved using sequential
cantilever beams connected by hinged joints forming programming method. A methodology to determine
spatial mechanism, is inherently poor in stiffness, optimum values for the design parameters using
accuracy and load carrying capacity. As joints are in a structural optimization and topology algorithm was
serial sequence, errors accumulate. The position and presented. Criterion for reducing the material used to
motion of each joint is affected by the position and build the structure of an RRR type industrial robot was
motion of all the other joints, which affects kinematic achieved. This analysis was based on Finite Element
performance. Method (FEM) [1].
Further, the weight and inertial load of each link is Three methods (simple GA, GA with elitism and DE)
carried by previous link to undergo rotary motion about were used to get optimum design of 2-link and 3-link
the joints. This influences dynamic behaviour of the manipulators [14]. The limitations of this work are:
robot manipulator. The static and dynamic behaviour of 1. It did not consider the important structural member, I-
the structure of industrial robots can be improved by channel, commonly used for its high strength and
minimizing weight of structure, maximizing static material saving, 2. Singularity avoidance, which plays a
stiffness of structural elements and minimizing moments vital role in the design of serial link manipulators, was
of inertia etc. Usually to be able to support subsequent not considered in the design, 3. The solved problem was
links on the chain and the payload to be manipulated, approached as a single objective optimization problem.
links of serial manipulator are over designed. But many real world problems are multiobjective
But this requires larger actuators and causes more problems, 4. The methods used cannot be directly used
power requirements. for treating multi-objectives and 5. It got only one
Optimum robot structure design based on kinematic or optimal solution. But for a real world problem, a Pareto
dynamic specifications had been addressed by many optimal front that offers a set of optimal solutions for
researchers as found in open literature. A task-oriented user’s choice is more desirable.
design method for kinematics design of a planar robot Superior optimization algorithms are very much
was presented for nuclear power plants and spatial required for solving real world problems as employed in
operations [11]. This method was based on Grid Method, robotics [8], [15]. Especially Evolutionary Algorithms
which is widely used in finite difference method. (EA’s) for multi-objective optimization are desirable as
A methodology was presented for determining the they are effective and robust in searching for a set of
optimal force distribution of multiple manipulators trade-off solutions. EA’s with performance measures for
system grasping an object [18]. A multi-objective assessing the quality of multi-objective optimization are
optimal design procedure for a robotic arm was currently gaining much attention from researchers in
developed for service tasks [6]. It had two modules and various fields [16], [9]. EA’s with modified reproduction
four degrees of freedom (dofs). schemes for multi-objective optimization are capable of
It had been built at the Carlos III University of Madrid treating each objective component separately and lead
as a module for service robot applications. An optimal the search in discovering of the global Pareto optimal
design procedure was presented for the kinematic front. This paper employs three evolutionary
structure for a four link PPRR type manipulator for optimization techniques for obtaining optimum design of
autonomous cucumber harvesting in greenhouses [17]. a 6-link robotic manipulator based on task specifications.
The design objective included the time needed to Kinematic and dynamic analyses are derived based on
perform a collision-free motion from an initial position to robotic concepts and structural analysis is performed
the target position as well as a dexterity measure to allow based on finite element method.
corrections for motion in the neighborhood of fruits. The The proposed optimization methods have following
problem was solved using DIRECT algorithm advantages: (1) Global optimal solution is possible, (2)
implemented in Tomlab package. A design of fishlike They are easier to program and implement efficiently, (3)
underwater robots was done using an optimization They ensure that the resulting optimized structure is safer
approach [12]. Optimal link-length ratios were (produce lesser vibrations), more efficient (lesser torque
numerically calculated by an improved constrained requirement) and economical (lower power
cyclic variable method considering both ichthyologic consumption), (4) They consider both kinematic and
characteristics and mechatronic constraints. dynamic aspects of the robot, (5) They consider all
The mechanical structure optimization of a sewerage important types of cross sections (hollow square, hollow
inspection robot and structural analysis are presented rectangle, C-channel, hollow circle and I-channel) (6)
[19]. The basic characteristics for manipulation such as They are computationally superior and faster, (7) They
workspace, singularity, and stiffness were overviewed can be easily extended to other types of robots and (8)
with numerical evaluation procedures for both serial and They give Pareto optimal fronts that offer a set of
parallel manipulators [3]. A multiobjective optimization optimal solutions for user’s choice.
problem for 3R serial link manipulators was dealt by This paper is organized as follows. The problem
taking workspace volume and robot dimensions as formulation is presented in Section II. In Section III,
objective functions, and given workspace limits as proposed evolutionary techniques NSGA-II and MODE
constraints [13]. and MOGA for obtaining optimal solutions are
37
presented. Section IV deals with two methods and four    allowable (3)
multi-objective performance metrics used for evaluating
the proposed algorithms. In Section V, a numerical Maximum deflection  (when the manipulator is
example is presented to illustrate the use of the proposed completely stretched out) is evaluated using finite
techniques. The results obtained in various methods are element techniques. The deflection evaluation is a
presented and compared in Section VI. The conclusions function of structural and material properties of the links
are presented in Section VII. and the payload. The physical constraints on the joint
limits or range of motion of the manipulator actuators are
imposed. The joint constraints are defined as:
II. Optimization Problem Definition
A task specified robot does operations based on i,min  i  i,max (4)
specifications of the task for defined motion. In this
problem, the specifications of the task are divided into where i is the joint value for joint i and   n with n
two elements, namely, kinematic characteristics and being the number of joints. This constraint is important
dynamic characteristics. The former defines the required in selecting a unique solution in cases where inverse
position of the end effector and the latter deals the time kinematics solution process (a function of the Cartesian
required to complete the motion, while carrying the position and link length) yields multiple solutions. The
payload considering the inertia properties of link structural characteristics of links (link lengths and the
parameters. cross sectional area characteristics) are also incorporated
The objective is to optimize the link parameters of the in the constraints. They are defined as:
considered robot subject to dynamic, kinematic,
deflection and structural constraints – to minimize torque
d j ,min  d j  d j ,max (5)
(to get minimum power) required for defined motion and
to maximize manipulability measure. The design
variables are physical characteristics of links (length and where dj indicates the j structural characteristic, and
cross sectional area parameters). A new objective d  m , m is the number of structural characteristics.
function “Singularity avoidance” which plays a vital role The design space for the structural characteristics
in serial link manipulators design is considered. always consists of the link length along with the
remaining parameters depended on the type of cross
II.1. Objective Functions section being considered. Here, hollow rectangular,
hollow square and hollow circular, C-channel and I-
The objective is to minimize cumulative sum of the channel cross-sections types are considered as shown in
square root of torques for each joint during motion of the Fig. 1. The number of structural constraints is dynamic
manipulator. So the first objective is: and depends on the type of cross section being
considered in analysis.Physical structural constraints are
time joint s also imposed during analysis, as the inner cross-sectional
z1   tij2 dimensions cannot be equal or larger than outer
i 1 j 1 dimensions shown in Fig. 1. For instance, a manipulator
(1)
designed with C-channel cross-section link has the
where t ij is the torque at time i for joint j. additional dynamic constraints t < h and t < b/2.
It is desirable to ensure a given workspace volume
within which the manipulator extremity can be movable,
controllable, and far enough from singularities.
Singularity avoidance enhances feasibility of
operation. It is chosen in the form of manipulability
measure.
Maximization of manipulability measure will force the
manipulator away from singularity. So the second
objective is:
Maximize Manipulability measure: z2  det  J  (2)
II.2. Constraints
They include deflection of the end effector of the
robot manipulator, physical constraints such as the limits
on the joint values, and the structural characteristics of
each link: Fig. 1. Cross-sections considered in the analysis
38
II.2.1. Analysis Procedure The deflection of the end effector of the robot
manipulator considering the structural characteristics of
Kinematic and dynamic analyses are accomplished
the links, material properties for inertia evaluation and
based on robotic concepts. Structural analysis is
payload is evaluated by performing deflection analysis.
performed using finite element analysis. The defined
This calculation is done using finite element method
values (motion time, material properties, payloads and
[5].
bounds of design variables) are used in analysis routines
to obtain the values for the design variables.
These values are used in the optimization routine, II.2.1.1. Finite Element Analysis for Deflection
where new values for the design variables are generated.
When one set of design variables is analyzed, one The generalized load vector is derived using the
function evaluation is completed. The calculated joint payload, Fp and properties of the links of the manipulator
torque and manipulability measure provide the fitness such as cross-section, modulus of elasticity, E, and
evaluation for optimization. The schematic flow chart is density, .
shown in Fig. 2. The links of the manipulator are modeled as beams
with general 3-D beam element stiffness matrix [5]. The
structural model of a n-link planar manipulator is shown
in Fig. 3 where the degrees of freedom for each node are
the moments, Mi due to bending about the Z-axis and
forces fi due to axial loading along the Y–axis.
The assembled global load vector, P, for the 6-element
manipulator after reduction due to motion constraints at
degrees of freedom Mo and fo is given by:
 1 / 2  L1 f1  L2 f 2  
Fig. 2. Analysis flow chart  

2 2
 1 / 2 L2 f1  L1 f1 


The analysis routines namely inverse kinematics, joint
space trajectory generation and dynamics (related to 1 / 2  L2 f 2  L3 f 2  
 
manipulator motion analysis) are evaluated using 2 2
1 / 2 L3 f 2  L2 f 2  
standard robotic analysis algorithms [4]:  
1. Inverse kinematics evaluates the required joint 1 / 2  L3 f3  L4 f3  
 
variables int ial and  final based on the desired 2 2
1 / 2 L4 f3  L3 f 2 
P
 (7)
Cartesian coordinates of the initial and final positions. 
2. Joint space trajectory generates the position 1 / 2  L4 f 4  L5 f 4  
1 / 2 L2 f  L2 f 
  t  (cubic polynomial profile), velocity    t  and  5 4 4 4  
acceleration    t  profiles based on the desired 1 / 2  L f  L f  
5 5 6 5
 
motion time and joint variables.
3. Dynamics evaluates the individual joint torques based
2 2
1 / 2 L6 f5  L5 f5 
 

 1 / 2  L6 f 6  f P  
on the structural characteristics of the links, the  
payload and the position, velocity and acceleration
profiles. The dynamics are evaluated according to the
 1 / 2 L26 f 6
   

Newton-Euler method:
where fi is the link weight per unit length given by:
  t   M      V  ,     G   (6)
fi   i Ai L i g  / Li
where robot is the joint torque, M () is the inertial The stiffness matrices for each element are assembled
system matrix, is the coriolis and centripetal forces to generate the global stiffness matrix. The assembled
matrix and is the gravity-loading vector. global stiffness matrix for the 6-element manipulator, K,
The Denavit –Hartenberg (D-H) parameters for 6-link after reduction due to constraint degrees of freedom is
planar robot are given below: given by:
Link i ai αi di θi  K11, K1,2 • • K112
, 
1 L1 0 0 θ1 K
2 L2 0 0 θ2  2 ,1 K 2 ,2 • • K 2 ,12 
3 L3 0 0 θ3
4 L4 0 0 θ4
K  • • • • •  (8)
 
5 L5 0 0 θ5  • • • • • 
6 L6 0 0 θ6  K12 ,1
 K12 ,2 • • K12 ,12 
39
where the element values are zero except the values

given below:
K 7 ,5  12 E3 I 3 / L33
K 7 ,6  6 E3 I 3 / L23

K 7 ,7  12 E4 I 4 / L34  E3 I 3 / L33 

K 7 ,8  6 E4 I 4 / L24  E3 I 3 / L23  Fig. 3. Forces and moments for structural analysis
K 7 ,9  12 E4 I 4 / L34
K 7 ,10  6 E4 I 4 / L24
III. Evolutionary Techniques
To show the superior nature of evolutionary
algorithms, this paper proposes three evolutionary
K8 ,5  6 E3 I 3 / L23 optimization techniques viz. Multiobjective Genetic
K8 ,6  2 E3 I 3 / L3 algorithm (MOGA), Elitist Non-dominated Sorting
Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) and Multi Objective

K8 ,7  6 E4 I 4 / L24  E3 I 3 / L23  Differential Evolution (MODE).
K8 ,8  4  E4 I 4 / L4  E3 I 3 / L3 
III.1. Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA)
K8 ,9  6 E4 I 4 / L24
In principle, MOGA [10] is a search algorithm based
K8 ,10  2 E4 I 4 / L4
on mechanics of natural selection and natural genetics.
They combine survival of the fittest among the string
K9 ,7  12 E4 I 4 / L34 structures with randomized yet structured information
exchange to form a search algorithm with innovative flair
K9 ,8  6 E4 I 4 / L24 of natural evolution. MOGA starts with a random
creation of a population of strings and thereafter

K9 ,9  12 E5 I 5 / L35  E4 I 4 / L34  generates successive population of strings that improve
over time. The processes involved in the generation of
K9 ,10  6E I 5 5 / L25  E4 I 4 / L 42  new populations mainly consist of the following
K9 ,11  12 E5 I 5 / L35 operations illustrated in Fig. 4.
K9 ,12  6 E5 I 5 / L25 (9)

K10 ,7  6 E4 I 4 / L24
K10 ,8  2 E4 I 4 / L4

K10 ,9  6 E5 I 5 / L35  E4 I 4 / L24 
K10 ,10  4  E5 I 5 / L5  E4 I 4 / L4 
K10 ,11  6 E5 I 5 / L25
K10 ,12  2 E5 I 5 / L5
K11,9  12 E5 I 5 / L35 Fig. 4. Schematic representation of genetic algorithm operation
,  6 E5 I 5 /
K1110 L25
III.1.1. Reproduction
,  12 E5 I 5 / L5
K1111
2 It is a process in which individual strings are copied
,  6 E5 I 5 / L5
K1112
according to their objective function values ‘f’ (also
K12 ,9  6 E5 I 5 / L25 called as fitness function), which measures profit, utility
K12 ,10  2 E5 I 5 / L5 or goodness that needs to be maximized. In some cases
(e.g. measures of force, stress, cost, etc.), the objective
K12 ,11  6 E5 I 5 / L25 function is to be minimized. Strings with a higher fitness
K12 ,12  4 E5 I 5 / L5 value have a probability of contributing one or more off-
string in the next generation. The reproduction operator
may be implemented in an algorithmic form in a number
The deflection vector U is then evaluated according of ways such as roulette wheel selection, rank selection
to the relation U=K-1P.
40
or steady selection and tournament selection. Once a Firstly, NSGA-II uses an elite-preserving mechanism,
string has been selected for reproduction, an exact replica thereby assuring preservation of previously found good
of the string is made. This string is then entered into the solutions. Secondly, NSGA-II uses a fast non-dominated
mating pool, a tentative new population for further sorting procedure. Thirdly, NSGA-II does not require
genetic operator action. Tournament selection method in any tunable parameter, thereby making the algorithm
combination of equal weight age method is used to find independent of the user.
Pareto-optimal solutions. Initially, a random parent population Po is created.
The population is sorted based on the non-domination. A
special book-keeping procedure is used in order to
III.1.2. Crossover reduce the computational complexity down to O (N2).
Simple crossover may proceed in two steps. First, Each solution is assigned a fitness equal to its non-
members of newly reproduced strings in the mating pool domination level (1 is the best level). Thus, minimization
are mated at random. Second, each pair of strings of fitness is assumed.
undergoes crossing over as follows: an integer position Binary tournament selection, recombination, and
‘K’ along the string is selected uniformly at random mutation operators are used to create a child population
between 1 and string length l minus one i.e. (1, l-1). Two Qo of size N. Thereafter, we use the following algorithm
new strings created by swapping all the characters in every generation. First, a combined population
between positions (K+1) and l inclusively. Ri=PiUQi is formed. This allows parent solutions to be
compared with the child population, thereby ensuring
elitism. The population Ri is of size 2N.
III.1.3. Mutation Then, the population Ri is sorted according to non-
It is a random alteration of the value of a string domination. The new parent population Pi+1 is formed by
position. In binary coding, this means changing a 1 to 0 adding solutions from the first front and continuing to
and vice versa. other fronts successively till the size exceeds N.
In MOGA, its probability of occurrence is generally Thereafter, the solutions of the last accepted front are
kept small, as a higher occurrence rate would lead to a sorted according to a crowded comparison criterion and
loss of important data. MOGA, with 100% mutation rate the first N points are picked. Since the diversity among
becomes random search in the solution space. Flowchart the solutions is important, we use a partial order relation
in Fig. 5 shows the processes of the proposed MOGA to n as follows:
find an optimum solution.
i  n j if (i rank<j rank) or ((i rank=j rank) and (i fitness>j fitness)
That is, between two solutions with differing non

domination ranks we prefer the point with the lower
rank. Otherwise, if both the points belong to the same
front then we prefer the point, which is located in a
region with lesser number of points (or with larger
crowded distance).
These way solutions from less dense regions in the
search space are given importance in deciding which
solutions to choose from Ri. This constructs the
population Pi+1. This population of size N is now used for
selection, crossover and mutation to create a new
population Qi+1 of size N. We use a binary tournament
selection operator but the selection criterion is now based
on the crowded comparison operator n. The above
procedure is continued for a specified number of
generations.
It is clear from the above description that NSGA-II
uses (i) a faster non-dominated sorting approach, (ii) an
Fig. 5. Flow chart representing the optimization process using elitist strategy, and (ii) no niching parameter. Diversity is
the proposed multi-objective genetic algorithm strategy
preserved by the use of crowded comparison criterion in
the tournament selection and in the phase of population
III.2. Elitist Non-dominated Sorting reduction.
Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) NSGA-II has been shown to outperform other current
elitist multi-objective evolutionary Algorithms on a
NSGA-II algorithm differs from non-dominated number of difficult test problems. Fig. 6 shows an
sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA) implementation in a iteration of the proposed NSGA-II procedure.
number of ways [7].
41
i=1
c. Compare vector I with each member, say
each member, say j, already present
in P’, one at a time
d. If i dominates over j (i.e. i is superior to or
better than j in terms of all objective
functions), remove the jth vector from P’ and
put it back in its original location in P
e. If i dominated over by j, remove i from P’ and
put it back in its position in P
f. If i and j are non-dominating (i.e. there is at
least one objective function associated with i that
Fig. 6. An iteration of the NSGA-II procedure is superior to/better than that of j), keep both i and
j in P’ (in sequence). Test for all j present in P’
g. Repeat for next vector (in the sequence,
III.3. Multi-Objective Differential Evolution (MODE) without going back) in P till all Np are tested. P’
MODE [2] can be categorized into a class of floating- now contains a sub-box (of size <=Np) of
point encoded evolutionary algorithms. The theoretical nondominated vectors (a subset of P), referred to as
framework of MODE is very simple and MODE is the first front or sub-box. Assign it a rank number,
computationally inexpensive in terms of memory Irank, of I
requirements and CPU times. Thus, nowadays MODE h. Create subsequent fronts in (lower) sub-boxes
has gained much attention and wide application in a of P’, using Step 2b above (with the vectors
variety of fields. MODE’s advantages are: simple remaining in P). Compare these members
structure, ease of use, speed and robust. only with the members present in the current
In a multi-objective domain, the goal is to identify the sub-box, and not with those in earlier (better)
Pareto optimal solution set. In this proposed multi- sub-boxes. Assign these Irank=2,3…Finally, we
objective differential evolution (MODE), a Pareto-based have all Np vectors in P’, boxed into one or
approach is introduced to implement the selection of the more fronts
best individuals. Firstly, a population of size, NP, is (3) Spreading out: Evaluate the crowding distance,
generated randomly and the fitness functions are Ii,dist, for the ith vector in any front, j, of P’ using the
evaluated. At a given generation of the evolutionary following procedure:
search, the population is sorted into several ranks based a. Rearrange all vectors in front j in ascending
on dominance concept. Secondly, Differential Evolution order of the values of any one (say, the qth) of
(DE) operations are carried out over the individuals of their several objective functions (fitness
the population. functions). This provides a sequence, and,
The fitness functions of the trial vectors, thus formed, thus, defines the nearest neighbors of any
are evaluated. One of the major differences between DE vector in front j.
[16] and MODE is that the trial vectors are not compared b. Find the largest cuboid (rectangle for two
with the corresponding parent vectors. Instead, both the fitness functions) enclosing vector i that just
parent vectors and the trial vectors are combined to form touches its nearest neighbors in the f-space.
a global population of size, 2*NP. c. Ii,dist= ½*(sum of all sides of this cuboid)
Then, the ranking of the global population is carried d. Assign large values of Ii, dist to solutions at the
out followed by the crowding distance calculation. boundaries (the convergence characteristics
The best NP individuals are selected based on its would be influenced by this choice)
ranking and crowding distance. These act as the parent (4) Perform DE operation over the NP target vectors in
vectors for the next generation. P’ to generate NP trial vectors and store it in P’’.
The procedure is carried out until the entire selected a. Create new (empty) box, P’’, of size, Np
best NP individuals have a rank of one. The Pseudo code b. Select a target vector, i in P’, starting with i=1
for MODE algorithm is presented below: c. Choose two vectors, r1 and r2 at random from the NP
The following assumes that we are minimizing all the vectors in P’ and find the weighted difference. This is
objective functions, fq: carried out by the following steps: 1) Generate two
(1) Generate box, P, of Np parent vectors using a random numbers 2) decide which two population
random-number code to generate the several real members are to be selected 3) Find the vector difference
variables. These vectors are given a sequence between the two vectors. Multiply this difference with F
(position) number as generated to obtain the weighted difference.
(2) Classify these vectors into fronts based on d. Find the noisy random vector. This is done by 1)
nondomination as follows: Generate a random number 2) choose a third random
a. Create new (empty) box, P’, of size, Np vector, r3, from the NP vectors in P’ 3) Add this vector to
b. Transfer ith vector from P to P’, starting with the weighted difference to obtain the noisy random
42
vector objective function (fc) is defined as follows:

e. Perform Crossover between the target vector and
noisy random vector to find the trial vector and put it in Minimize fc= |1z1/N1- 2z2/N2| (10)
box P’’. This is carried out by 1) Generate random
numbers equal to the dimension of the problem 2) For 1 = 2 = 0.5, for both cases N1 and N2 are normalizing
each of the dimensions: if random no. > CR; copy the parameters of objective functions.
value from the target vector, else copy the value from the
noisy random vector into the trial vector and put it in box
P’’ IV.2. Fuzzy Average Membership Function (µavg)
(5) Elitism: Copy all the Np parent vectors (P’) and all The deterministic models proposed in the literature
the Np trial vectors (P’’) into box PT. Box PT has suffer from limitation in a real world optimal trajectory
2Np vectors planning – due to the fact that a decision maker does not
a. Reclassify these 2Np vectors into fronts (box have sufficient information related to the different
PT’) using only non-domination (as described criteria.
in Step 2 above) These data are typically fuzzy in nature. All the
b. Take the best Np from box PT’ and put into box above-referred deterministic methods lack the capability
P’’’. The following procedure is adopted to to handle the linguistic vagueness of fuzzy type.
identify the better of the two chromosomes. The optimal results obtained from these deterministic
Chromosome i is better than chromosome j if formulations may not serve the real purpose of modeling
Ii, rank  Ij, rank: Ii, rank < Ij, rank the problem. A consideration to incorporate information
Ii, rank =Ij, rank: Ii, dist > Ij, dist vagueness (Fuzziness) in the real world optimal
This completes one generation. Stop if appropriate trajectory planning has not been found in the existing
criteria are met, e.g. the generation number > maximum literature. So a new multi-objective performance metric
number of generations (user specified). Else, Copy P’’’ (average fuzzy membership function) is proposed and
into starting box P. Go to Step 2 above. used here.
The membership function given in Fig. 7 is a
graphical representation of the magnitude of each input.
IV. Performance Measures and Methods It associates a weighting with each of the inputs that are
for Multiobjective Optimization processed, and determines an output response. These
In this section, two methods and four performance must be processed and combined in a manner to produce
metrics are recommended and applied to examine the a single, crisp (defuzzified) output. The µ value is 1 at
strength and weaknesses of the proposed multi-objective Zmin and 0 at Zmax for minimization of an objective
evolutionary algorithms. Two methods, namely, function and it is vice versa for maximizing an objective
normalized weighting objective functions and average function.
fuzzy membership function are used to select best The proposed membership function of the fuzzy
optimal solution.Two multiobjective performance decision is as follows:
measures, namely, solution spread measure and ratio of µi = (Zi max –Zi) / (Zi max – Zi min) for minimization of
non-dominated individuals are used to evaluate the objective function
Pareto optimal fronts. Two more multiobjective Zi – Objective function (i= Objective function
performance measures namely optimiser overhead and number, 1… 2 for this problem)
algorithm effort are used to find computational effort of Zmax – Maximum objective function value
an optimisation algorithm. These methods and metrics Zmin – Minimum objective function value
are chosen as they have been widely used for
performance comparisons in multi-objective optimization
IV.1. Normalized Weighting Objective Functions

Multiple objectives are combined into scalar objective
via weight vector. Weights may be assigned through:
direct assignment, eigenvector method, empty method,
minimal information method, randomly determined or
adaptively determined. If the objective functions are
simply weighted and added to produce a single fitness,
the function with largest range would dominate
evolution. A poor input value for the objective with the
larger range makes the overall value much worse than a
poor value for the objective with smaller range.
To avoid this, all objective functions are normalized to Fig. 7. Representation of Fuzzy Membership Function
have a same range. For our problem, the combined for minimization of objective function
43
The solution that has the highest average membership indicate the amount of program overhead as a result of
function value (µavg) is the best optimal solution, which the optimization manipulations such as those by
gives a nondominated solution. For our problem, the Evolutionary Algorithm operators. More quantitatively,
average membership function is defined as follows: the Optimiser Overhead (OO) may be calculated by:
Maximize average membership function Optimiser Overhead = (TTotal-TPFP)/TPFP (14)

(11)
µavg = (µ1+µ2)/2.0
where TTotal is the total time taken and TPFP is the time
where: taken for pure function evaluations. Thus, a value of zero
µ1 = (z1max-z1)/(z1max-z1min) indicates that an algorithm is efficient and does not have
µ2 = (z2-z2min)/(z2max-z2min) any overhead. However, this is an ideal case and is not
practically reachable.
IV.3. Solution Spread Measure

IV.6. Algorithm Effort
While it is desirable to find many Pareto-optimal
solutions, it is also important to find the ones scattered The performance in multi-objective optimization is
uniformly over the Pareto frontier in order to provide a often evaluated not only in terms of how the final pareto-
variety of compromise solutions to the decision maker. front is, but also in terms of the computational effort
Solution Spread Measure (SSM) represents the required in obtaining the optimal solutions. For this
distribution of the solutions along the Pareto front: purpose, the algorithm effort is defined as the ratio of the
total number of functions evolutions Neval over a fixed
N 1 period of simulation time Trun:
d f  dl   di  d Algorithm effort = Trun/Neval, (Trun > T1stgen)
i 1
SSM  (12) (15)
d f  dl   N  1 d  (Teval  Neval)
As shown in the above equation, for a fixed period of

where N is the number of solutions along the Pareto front Trun, more number of function evolutions being
so there are (N-1) consecutive distances, di is the distance performed indirectly indicates that less computational
(in objective space) between each solution, d is the effort is required by the optimization algorithm and
arithmetic mean of all di and df and dl are the Euclidean hence results in a smaller algorithm effort.
distances between the extreme solutions and the The condition of Trun > T1stgen, where T1stgen is the
boundary solutions of the obtained non-dominated set. computation time for the 1st generation, should be held
Thus, a low performance measure characterizes an that Trun and Neval are>0. This results that algorithm effort
algorithm with good distribution capacity. is bounded in the range of (0,).
IV.4. Ratio of Non-Dominated Individuals V. Application to Manipulator Design

This performance metric is defined as the ratio of non- The proposed evolutionary techniques are used in
dominated individuals (RNI) for a given population X: structure design of 6-link planar robot (6 dof) for pick
and place operations. In the presented examples,
RNI(X) = nondom_indiv/P (13) parameters are expressed in SI system and angles in
degrees. A 6-link planar manipulator with six revolute
where nondom_indiv is the number of non-dominated joints is shown in Fig. 8.
individuals in population X and P is the size of
population X.
Therefore the value RNI=1 means all the individuals
in the population are non-dominated, and RNI = 0
represents the situation where none of the individuals in
the population are non-dominated. Since a population
size of more than zero is often desired, there is always at
least one non-dominated individual in the population
within the range of 0< RNI <1.
IV.5. Optimiser Overhead

Fig. 8. 6-link planar robot manipulator
Total number of evaluations and total CPU time may
be used for testing the algorithm. This would be useful in The task specification and constraints are given in
indicating how much time an optimization or simulated Table I. The constraint values for the design variables,
evolution process would take in real world and to the link lengths and cross sectional parameters of each
44
cross-section are defined to be the same for all three 7, 2  L6  7, 0.3  B1  0.9, 0.3  B2  0.9, 0.3  B3 
optimization approaches. 0.9, 0.3  B4  0.9, 0.3  B5  0.9, 0.3  B6  0.9, 0.3 
H1  0.9, 0.3  H2  0.9, 0.3  H3  0.9, 0.3  H4  0.9,
TABLE I
6-LINK PLANAR ROBOT TASK SPECIFICATIONS 0.3  H5  0.9, 0.3  H6  0.9, 0.03  T1  0.09, 0.03 
AND CONSTRAINTS T2  0.09, 0.03  T3  0.09, 0.03  T4  0.09, 0.03  T5
Task Constraints  0.09, 0.03  T6  0.09
Initial Final Motion Pay Maximum
Joint Range
Position Position Time load deflection
(Degrees)
(m) (m) (s) (kg) (m) V.1. MOGA Parameters
-160≤θ1≤160,
X=-1.2 X= -0.9
-225≤ θ2≤45 The parameters used in MOGA technique are:
-45≤θ3≤225,
Y= 1.2 Y= -0.9 2.0 2.0 0.00001 Crossover type: Binary MOGA (Single-pt), Strategy:
-110≤ θ4≤170
-100≤θ5≤100, 1 cross - site with swapping, Population size: 100, Total
Z=0.78 Z= 0.1
-226≤ θ6≤226 number of generations: 100, Cross over probability: 0.8,
Mutation probability: 0.01, Sharing Strategy: sharing on
The variables limits used for the hollow circular cross- Parameter Space.
section are as follows:
V.2. NSGA-II Parameters
2  L1  7, 2  L2  7, 2  L3  7, 2  L4  7, 2  L5 
7, 2  L6  7, 0.3  D1  0.9, 0.3  D2  0.9, 0.3  D3 The parameters used in the NSGA-II technique are:
0.9, 0.3  D4  0.9, 0.3  D5  0.9, 0.3  D6  0.9, 0.03 Variable type=Real variable, Population size=100,
 d1  0.08, 0.03  d2  0.08, 0.03  d3  0.08, 0.03  d4 Crossover probability=0.7, Real-parameter mutation
 0.08, 0.03  d5  0.08, 0.03  d6  0.08 probability=0.01, Real-parameter SBX parameter=10,
Real-parameter mutation parameter=100, Total number
The variables limits used for hollow square cross- of generations=100.
section are:
2  L1  7, 2  L2  7, 2  L3  7, 2  L4  7, 2  L5  V.3. MODE Parameters

7, 2  L6  7, 0.3  B1  0.9, 0.3  B2  0.9, 0.3  B3  The parameters used in the proposed MODE
0.9, 0.3  B4  0.9, 0.3  B5  0.9, 0.3  B6  0.9, 0.03  technique are: Strategy=MODE/rand/1/bin, crossover
b1  0.08, 0.03  b2  0.08, 0.03  b3  0.08, 0.03  b4  constant CR=0.8, number of population NP=500, F=0.5
0.08, 0.03  b5  0.08, 0.03  b6  0.08 and total number of generations=100.
The variables limits used for hollow rectangular cross-

section: VI. Results and Discussion
2  L1  7, 2  L2  7, 2  L3  7, 2  L4  7, 2  L5  The results of the optimization process using proposed
evolutionary techniques are presented in Tables II – VI
7, 2  L6  7, 0.3  H1  0.9, 0.3  H2  0.9, 0.3  H3 
for the 6-link robot.
0.9, 0.3  H4  0.9, 0.3  H5  0.9, 0.3  H6  0.9, 0.15
 B1  0.45, 0.15  B2  0.45, 0.15  B3  0.45, 0.15  TABLE II
B4  0.45, 0.15  B5  0.45, 0.15  B6  0.45, 0.03  h1 6-LINK HOLLOW CIRCULAR CROSS–SECTION
 0.09, 0.03  h2  0.09, 0.03  h3  0.09, 0.03  h4  MOGA MODE NSGA –II
L1 6.69208 6.800513262 2.316695
0.09, 0.03  h5  0.09, 0.03  h6  0.09, 0.015  b1 
L2 6.51124 6.702359154 6.561280
0.045, 0.015  b2  0.045, 0.015  b3  0.045, 0.015  L3 4.92766 5.117582655 5.996583
b4  0.045, 0.015  b5  0.045, 0.015  b6  0.045 L4 4.41447 3.638128773 6.867448
L5 2.40567 3.776401438 4.633966
The variables limits used for C channel are: L6 2.83578 4.906516989 4.406217
D1 0.36745 0.5207572779 0.443618
D2 0.63196 0.402806808 0.691485
2  L1  7, 2  L2  7, 2  L3  7, 2  L4  7, 2  L5  D3 0.71760 0.3167824079 0.359466
7, 2  L6  7, 0.3  B1  0.9, 0.3  B2  0.9, 0.3  B3  D4 0.64487 0.4967413854 0.375820
0.9, 0.3  B4  0.9, 0.3  B5  0.9, 0.3  B6  0.9, 0.3  D5 0.61554 0.7044947858 0.610963
D6 0.87537 0.822448808 0.878579
H1  0.9, 0.3  H2  0.9, 0.3  H3  0.9, 0.3  H4  0.9, d1 0.03181 0.05801850854 0.049628
0.3  H5  0.9, 0.3  H6  0.9, 0.03  T1  0.09, 0.03  d2 0.05195 0.05985778483 0.040541
T2  0.09, 0.03  T3  0.09, 0.03  T4  0.09, 0.03  T5 d3 0.05937 0.04659401861 0.062056
d4 0.06431 0.07676300155 0.051252
 0.09, 0.03  T6  0.09 d5 0.07863 0.07832145528 0.046113
d6 0.04300 0.06100765507 0.074785
The variables limits used for I channel are: Z1 0.335267 1.049242 0.723790
Z2 0.377546 0.404237 0.010911
fc 0.712812 0.645005 0.712878
2  L1  7, 2  L2  7, 2  L3  7, 2  L4  7, 2  L5 
45
TABLE III TABLE V

6-LINK HOLLOW SQUARE CROSS-SECTION 6-LINK C-CHANNEL CROSS-SECTION
MOGA MODE NSGA -II MOGA MODE NSGA -II
L1 6.05670 6.855860671 5.714121 L1 6.79472 4.611465032 6.239727
L2 6.06647 6.001620019 5.608148 L2 6.47214 6.338790903 4.968950
L3 6.46237 6.817533155 4.900352 L3 6.73607 5.498710037 5.610470
L4 2.61584 3.645013498 3.610923 L4 3.00196 4.687484444 2.231656
L5 4.19941 2.965419783 2.262285 L5 3.24145 2.087392802 2.172875
L6 6.19355 4.804576059 4.133331 L6 4.85924 3.65919495 6.993034
B1 0.47654 0.639825983 0.493306 B1 0.72170 0.8326700449 0.405845
B2 0.86540 0.8787935802 0.800021 B2 0.71584 0.4394670805 0.899965
B3 0.31466 0.850663875 0.734289 B3 0.48416 0.6927914398 0.826602
B4 0.57273 0.4119528637 0.840432 B4 0.52639 0.3737864424 0.889696
B5 0.69765 0.4237105136 0.728604 B5 0.53460 0.5875501511 0.493695
B6 0.44018 0.3815474042 0.846468 B6 0.56804 0.3024174385 0.577667
b1 0.06842 0.05916410127 0.041316 H1 0.51760 0.7890122544 0.800723
b2 0.06084 0.04968110777 0.036967 H2 0.44194 0.5265884349 0.822535
b3 0.07892 0.03947311807 0.047579 H3 0.55689 0.8176150428 0.869798
b4 0.04945 0.06062250568 0.071752 H4 0.67595 0.5260970547 0.839867
b5 0.06006 0.03887920102 0.033659 H5 0.80205 0.3984170209 0.634399
b6 0.07242 0.04372902118 0.058969 H6 0.55337 0.768303721 0.791657
Z1 0.653373 0.565242 0.069093 T1 0.08243 0.05561652005 0.055327
Z2 0.738723 2.484653 0.558964 T2 0.06314 0.08513136492 0.041765
fc 0.085350 1.919411 0.489871 T3 0.05287 0.05859482178 0.075642
T4 0.07827 0.06142581073 0.061179
TABLE IV T5 0.03809 0.05204811441 0.055611
6-LINK HOLLOW RECTANGULAR CROSS –SECTION T6 0.06537 0.07197181901 0.035477
Z1 1.032728 0.177741 1.016031
MOGA MODE NSGA -II
Z2 0.000720 0.361675 0.007803
L1 6.96090 6.459718205 6.160266 fc 1.032009 0.183934 1.008228
L2 6.24731 6.779624122 5.194889
L3 6.40860 5.396499672 6.441655
L4 2.84066 4.805632989 6.894144 TABLE VI
L5 3.56403 2.095083475 4.292613 SIX-LINK I-CHANNEL CROSS-SECTION
L6 5.48485 2.388463757 6.876538 MOGA MODE NSGA -II
H1 0.88299 0.5325047122 0.790771 L1 6.59433 4.611465032 6.955853
H2 0.62610 0.7578864582 0.664517 L2 5.78788 6.338790903 6.320741
H3 0.63842 0.8744928692 0.835034 L3 6.66276 5.498710037 6.882563
H4 0.80499 0.732835184 0.550457 L4 2.72825 4.687484444 2.294353
H5 0.84194 0.5803049088 0.438574 L5 3.11437 2.087392802 3.798107
H6 0.48886 0.7940826337 0.876575 L6 2.55718 3.65919495 3.125320
B1 0.17991 0.3084324212 0.267685 B1 0.37566 0.8326700449 0.643235
B2 0.34795 0.4611877167 0.410463 B2 0.36393 0.4394670805 0.842890
B3 0.29604 0.3100388921 0.377465 B3 0.67067 0.6927914398 0.622955
B4 0.40044 0.3641507588 0.347001 B4 0.81085 0.3737864424 0.844877
B5 0.26613 0.3867067838 0.327777 B5 0.64897 0.5875501511 0.504325
B6 0.30748 0.4860299639 0.168765 B6 0.84545 0.3024174385 0.375345
h1 0.04613 0.2132405773 0.084247 H1 0.53519 0.7890122544 0.629346
h2 0.05891 0.2704809771 0.084608 H2 0.36276 0.5265884349 0.531238
h3 0.06490 0.2919314088 0.081621 H3 0.73109 0.8176150428 0.403260
h4 0.08543 0.4029359222 0.042572 H4 0.55982 0.5260970547 0.778660
h5 0.05387 0.3056730263 0.075124 H5 0.49120 0.3984170209 0.801744
h6 0.06484 0.4865498546 0.046418 H6 0.58446 0.768303721 0.087185
b1 0.02350 0.03473238943 0.033348 T1 0.07610 0.05561652005 0.076887
b2 0.03726 0.05982648311 0.024643 T2 0.06812 0.08513136492 0.072974
b3 0.03647 0.03418985993 0.025389 T3 0.08724 0.05859482178 0.070313
b4 0.03324 0.04341923741 0.023632 T4 0.03528 0.06142581073 0.064333
b5 0.04048 0.08870937037 0.035063 T5 0.04677 0.05204811441 0.089894
b6 0.04371 0.0532290039 0.043420 T6 0.08062 0.07197181901 0.079870
Z1 0.489771 0.061918 0.027118 Z1 1.058454 0.177741 1.076010
Z2 0.017025 0.294010 0.252859 Z2 0.415181 0.284173 0.51005
fc 0.506797 0.232092 0.225740 fc 0.643273 0.106432 0.28298
These show the values of the optimum design The results of average fuzzy membership function
variables for each cross-section, individual objective value (µavg), solution spread measure (SSM), ratio of
functions and the combined objective function (fc). It is non-dominated individuals (RNI), optimiser overhead
observed that NSGA-II approach gives smaller torques (OO) and algorithm effort obtained from MOGA,
(z1); higher manipulability measure (z2) and minimum NSGA-II and MODE are listed in Tables VII-XI.
combined objective function (fc) in majority of cases. The algorithm that gives minimum combined
Minimum torque requirements are for I-section for 6-link objective function (fc), maximum average membership
planar robots, when compared to other cross sections. function value (µavg), minimum solution spread measure
46
(SSM), maximum ratio of non-dominated individuals NSGA-II and MODE gives the best Pareto optimal
(RNI), minimum optimiser overhead (OO) and minimum solution.
algorithm effort is the best optimization algorithm.
TABLE IX
SOLUTION SPREAD MEASURE (SSM) RESULTS
TABLE VII
OF 6-LINK PLANAR ROBOT
AVERAGE FUZZY MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION (µAVG)
RESULTS OF 6-LINK PLANAR ROBOT Hollow C-
Hollow Hollow I-Channel
Square Channel
Hollow Hollow Circular Rectangular cross
Hollow C-Channel I-Chan nel cross cross
Circular Square cross section cross section section
Rectangular cross cross section section
cross cross
cross section section section GA 0.7524 0.7414 0.769 0.8241 0.8944
section section
NSGA-II 0.8754 0.7954 0.7545 0.7985 0.8451
GA 0.552313 0.551486 0.523146 0.064175 0.062347
MODE 0.92457 0.9421 0.9012 0.9421 0.9532
NSGA-II 0.286541 0.995421 0.562415 0.532851 0.546274
MODE 0.512845 0.496745 0.612541 0.445175 0.497814 TABLE X
RATIO OF NON-DOMINATED INDIVIDUALS (RNI)
TABLE VIII RESULTS OF 6-LINK PLANAR ROBOT
ALGORITHM EFFORT RESULTS OF 6-LINK PLANAR ROBOT Hollow Hollow Hollow C- I-Channel
Hollow Hollow C- Circular Square Rectangula Channel cross section
Hollow I-Channel
Square Rectangula Channel cross cross r cross cross
Circular cross cross
cross r cross cross section section section section
section section
section section section GA 0.43 0.61 0.69 0.23 0.25
GA 0.00142 0.00157 0.00134 0.00134 0.00137 NSGA-II 0.104 0.161 0.095 0.141 0.1722
NSGA-II 0.00127 0.00131 0.00131 0.00124 0.00135 MODE 0.64 0.78 0.71 0.41 0.26
MODE 0.00114 0.00124 0.00126 0.00123 0.00124
MOGA Parameters Analyses
From Tables II-XI, it is observed that NSGA-II MOGA parameters are not arbitrarily chosen. Based
technique gives minimum combined objective function on number of populations, Crossover probability and
(fc), maximum average fuzzy membership function Mutation probability, they have been chosen.
(µavg), minimum solution spread measure (SSM), Two analyses are made for the numerical example (6-
maximum ratio of non-dominated individuals (RNI) and link planar robot with I-channel cross section) for finding
minimum algorithm effort than MOGA and MODE in the relationship between crossover probability (CP) Vs
majority of cases. mutation probability (MP) and crossover probability
But MODE technique gives minimum optimizer (CP) Vs population size (N). The results of the analyses
overhead (OO) than NSGA-II and MOGA in majority of are given in Tables XII and XIII respectively. From
cases. The Pareto optimal fronts for I-channel obtained Table XII, it is observed that:
from MOGA, NSGA-II and MODE are given in Fig. 9. 1. If crossover probability (CP) value increases, the
From Fig. 9, it is observed that NSGA-II gives the cost function (fc) value decreases 2. If Mutation
best Pareto optimal front with more number of non- probability (MP) value increases, the cost function (fc)
dominated solutions for user’s choice than GA and value also increases and 3. If the value of crossover
MODE. So NSGA-II technique is best suited for this probability (CP) is 0.8 and the Mutation probability (MP)
multicriterion optimization problem. value is between 0.01 and 0.07, we get a minimum cost
In this paper, we have made considerable analyses to function (fc) value.
find out which combination of parameters of MOGA,
TABLE XI
OPTIMISER OVERHEAD (OO) RESULTS OF 6- LINK PLANAR ROBOT
Hollow Circular Hollow Square Hollow Rectangular cross C-Channel cross I-Channel cross
cross section cross section section section section
GA 0.1841 0.161 0.174 0.134 0.1254
NSGA-II 0.91 0.93 0.93 0.52 0.41
MODE 0.074 0.092. 0.076 0.124 0.045
TABLE XII
MOGA PARAMETER ANALYSIS (CR VS MP)
CP
Fs
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.01 0.6437 0.6435 0.6435 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6433 0.6433
0.02 0.6437 0.6435 0.6435 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6433 0.6433
0.03 0.6437 0.6435 0.6435 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6433 0.6433
0.04 0.6437 0.6435 0.6435 0.6436 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6433 0.6433
0.05 0.6437 0.6435 0.6435 0.6436 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6433 0.6433
0.06 0.6437 0.6436 0.6435 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6433 0.6433
0.07 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6433 0.6434
0.08 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434
0.09 0.6437 0.6437 0.6437 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434
1.0 0.6438 0.6437 0.6437 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434 0.6434
47
population size (N). The results of the analysis are given

in Table XIV. From Table XIV, it is observed that:
1. If the value of crossover probability (CP) falls
between 0.7 and 0.9, we get a minimum cost function
(fc) value.
2. If population size (N) value increases from 10 to 100,
the cost function (fc) value decreases. But when
population size (N) increases from 100 to 1000, there
is no improvement in the cost function (fc), and
3. When the value of crossover probability (CP) is 0.7
and population size (N) value is 100, we get a very
minimum cost function (fc) value. So the preferable
value for crossover probability (CP) is 0.7 for
population size (N) value 100.
So, the values of the parameters that are used in the
NSGA-II technique are Variable type=Real variable,
population size (N) =100, Crossover probability (CP) =
0.9, Real- parameter mutation probability=1, Real-
parameter SBX parameter=10, Real-parameter Mutation
Fig. 9. Pareto optimal fronts obtained from MOGA, NSGA-II parameter=100, Total number of generations=100.
and MODE for 6-link planar robot (I- section)
MODE Parameters Analysis
Therefore, the preferable values for crossover To find out the relationship between crossover
probability (CP) and Mutation probability (MP) value are constant (CR) Vs scaling factor (Fs) and crossover
0.8 and 0.01 respectively. From Table XIII, it is observed constant (CR) Vs population size (N), two analyses are
that 1. We get a minimum cost function (fc) value, if the made for the numerical example (6-link planar robot with
value of crossover probability (CP) is 0.8 and population I-channel cross section). The results of the analyses are
size (N) value is 100 and above. 2. If population size (N) given in Tables XV and XVI respectively.
value increases, the cost function (fc) value decreases. 3. From Table XV, it is observed that:
If population size (N) value increases above 100, the cost 1. If scaling factor (Fs) value increases, the cost
function (fc) value is constant. But, when population size function (fc) value also increases and 2. if the value of
(N) increases the computational effort and time increase. crossover constant (CR) falls between 0.3 and 0.8 and
So the preferable values for crossover probability (CP) is the scaling factor (Fs) value is in between 0.1 to 0.5,
0.8 for population size (N) value 100. we get a minimum cost function (fc) value. So, the
From the above analyses, the values for crossover preferable value for crossover constant (CR) is in
probability (CP), population size (N) and Mutation between 0.3 and 0.8 for scaling factor (Fs) value that
probability (MP) for this research work are taken as 0.8, lies between 0.1 and 0.5. From Table XVI, it is
100 and 0.01 respectively. The tables are given below. observed that 1. If the value of crossover constant
(CR) is 0.8, we get a minimum cost function (fc)
NSGA-II Parameters Analysis value.
An analysis is made for the numerical example (6-link 2. If population size (N) value increases, the cost
planar robot with I-channel cross section) to find out the function (fc) value decreases.
relationship between crossover probability (CP) Vs
TABLE XIII
MOGA PARAMETER ANALYSIS (CP VS N)
CP
N
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
10 0.6441 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6436
20 0.6441 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6436
30 0.6441 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6436
40 0.6441 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6436
50 0.6441 0.6440 0.6438 0.6437 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6436
60 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6435 0.6436
70 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6436
80 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434
90 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6434 0.6434
100 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6433 0.6434
200 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6433 0.6434
500 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6433 0.6434
1000 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6435 0.6433 0.6434
10000 0.6440 0.6439 0.6438 0.6437 0.6436 0.6436 0.6433 0.6433 0.6434
48
TABLE XIV
NSGA-II PARAMETERS ANALYSIS
CP
N
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
10 0.2839 0.2835 0.2832 0.2832 0.2831 0.2837
20 0.2838 0.2834 0.2832 0.2832 0.2831 0.2836
30 0.2837 0.2833 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2836
40 0.2837 0.2833 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2836
50 0.2837 0.2833 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2836
60 0.2837 0.2832 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2835
70 0.2837 0.2832 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2835
80 0.2837 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2834
90 0.2837 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2831 0.2834
100 0.2836 0.2831 0.2830 0.2830 0.2831 0.2833
200 0.2836 0.2831 0.2830 0.2830 0.2831 0.2833
500 0.2836 0.2831 0.2830 0.2830 0.2831 0.2833
1000 0.2836 0.2831 0.2830 0.2830 0.2831 0.2833
TABLE XV
MODE PARAMETER ANALYSIS (CR VS FS)
CR
Fs
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.1 0.1068 0.1068 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1065
0.2 0.1068 0.1068 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1065
0.3 0.1068 0.1068 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1065
0.4 0.1068 0.1068 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1065
0.5 0.1068 0.1068 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1065
0.6 0.1068 0.1068 0.1065 0.1064 0.1066 0.1065 0.1064 0.1064 0.1066
0.7 0.1068 0.1069 0.1066 0.1065 0.1066 0.1065 0.1066 0.1065 0.1066
0.8 0.1068 0.1070 0.1067 0.1065 0.1069 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1066
0.9 0.1070 0.1070 0.1067 0.1065 0.1069 0.1066 0.1067 0.1065 0.1066
1.0 0.1070 0.1070 0.1068 0.1065 0.1070 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066
1.1 0.1070 0.1072 0.1068 0.1065 0.1070 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066
1.2 0.1070 0.1072 0.1069 0.1066 0.1071 0.1068 0.1069 0.1066 0.1067
TABLE XVI
MODE PARAMETER ANALYSIS (CR VS FS) FOR 6-LINK PLANAR ROBOT WITH I-CHANNEL CROSS SECTION
CR
N
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
10 0.1068 0.1067 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
20 0.1068 0.1067 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
30 0.1068 0.1067 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
40 0.1068 0.1067 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
50 0.1068 0.1067 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
60 0.1068 0.1067 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
70 0.1068 0.1067 0.1067 0.1067 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
80 0.1067 0.1066 0.1067 0.1067 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
90 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
100 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
200 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065
500 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1065 0.1064 0.1065
1000 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1065 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064
10000 0.1067 0.1066 0.1066 0.1065 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064 0.1064
3. If population size (N) is 500 and above, the cost generations=100. The convergences of the proposed
function (fc) value is constant. evolutionary algorithms are within 100 generations. So
But when population size (N) increases the the number of generations for all the algorithms is fixed
computational effort and time increase. So the as 100. The above analyses are done for the sample case
preferable values for crossover constant (CR) is 0.8 1 = 2 = 0.5.
and the same for population size (N) is 500.
From the above analysis, the values for crossover
constant (CR), population size (N) and scaling factor VII. Conclusion
(Fs) for this research work are taken as 0.8, 500 and This paper contributes a novel procedure to obtain
0.5 respectively. both optimum design of 6R manipulator as well as to
So the values of the parameters that have been used in find the best optimization algorithm for the problem
the proposed MODE technique are: considered. Further, an improved optimization model is
Strategy=MODE/rand/1/bin, crossover constant CR=0.8, used and an important structural member (I-channel) is
population size (N) = 500, Fs=0.5 and total number of considered in this paper.
49
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50
N. Godwin Raja Ebenezer was born in
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India on 31-07-1972.
He studied his graduation in Government
College of Engineering, Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu,
India. He was awarded B.E. (Mechanical
Engineering) degree in 1993 by Madurai
Kamaraj University. Afterwards, he took an
MBA degree in 2000 from Bharathiar
University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. He also received M.E.
(CAD) degree in 2002 from Government College of Engineering,
Salem, Periyar University, Tamilnadu, India. Now he is doing Ph.D.
(Robotics) in Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. His
research areas are Robotics and Non-conventional optimization
algorithms. He has 3 research papers in referred international journals.
R. Saravanan received the B.Eng. degree in

mechanical and production engineering in 1985
and M.Eng. degree in production engineering in
1992 from Annamalai University,
Chithambaram, India. He received the Ph.D.
degree in computer aided manufacturing (CAM)
in 2001 from National Institute of Technology,
Trichy, India. He has 20 years of teaching
experience in various engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu, India. Now,
he is dean and head of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri
Krishna College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. His
research interests include robotics, CAM, and nonconventional
optimization algorithms. E-mail: saradharani@hotmail.com
S. Ramabalan (Corresponding author) received

the B.Eng. degree in mechanical engineering in
1997 from Madras University and the M. Eng.
Degree in CAD/CAM in 2003 from Madurai
Kamaraj University, Tamil nadu, India. He
received the Ph.D. degree in robotics in Anna
University, Chennai, India. He has 15 years of
teaching experience. Now, he is a professor in
the Department of Mechanical Engineering, E.G.S. Pillay Engineering
College, Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India. His research interests
include robotics and non-conventional optimization algorithms.
E-mail: cadsrb@gmail.com
R. Natarajan received the B.Eng. degree in mechanical engineering in

2000 from Alagappa University and M. Eng. degree in CAD/CAM in
2006 from Anna University, Tamil Nadu, India. Currently, he is a
Ph.D. candidate in robotics in Anna University, Chennai, India, and
working as a Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, J.J. College of Engineering and Technology, Trichy,
Tamilnadu, India. His research interests include robotics and
nonconventional optimization algorithms.
E-mail: ctsnm1@yahoo.co.in
51
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
2D Simulation of FC72 Sessile Droplet Evaporation

in the Constant Contact Line Region
S. Hussain1, 2, Y. Fukatani2, M. Kohno2, K. Sefiane3, Y. Takata2
Abstract – A 2-dimensional simulation of FC72 sessile droplet evaporation on a substrate layer

consisting of silicon and Kapton tape has been carried out to study the heat and fluid flow inside the
droplet as well as its surroundings. The momentum and volume fraction (VOF) equations were
solved simultaneously with the heat and diffusion equations to obtain the flow profiles. The
simulated conditions were based on actual experiments. This paper presents the findings for the
simulated experimental condition for the same substrate and surrounding temperature under a
constant contact line condition. The initial conditions for the substrate, surroundings and droplet
was set to, as best as possible, the same condition as the experiment. Quantitative as well as
qualitative comparisons were made between the experimental and simulated results. The simulation
also predicted the temperature and concentration fields inside and outside the evaporating droplet.
The predicted temperature and heat transfer profiles were compared to experimental results and
were found to be qualitatively agreeable. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Droplet Evaporation, CFD, Temperature, Concentration
Nomenclature r Radial
z Axial
u Velocity w Wall
t Time
p Pressure
g Gravitational phase I. Introduction
T Temperature
k Thermal conductivity The research on droplet evaporation is important in
SVC Saturated vapour concentration various fields such as in engineering and in medicine. In
cp Specific heat industries, droplet evaporation plays an important role in
hfg Latent heat of vaporization various applications such as cooling of turbine blades [1],
CFC72 Concentration of FC72 thermal quenching of metal castings, fire suppression by
DFC72 Binary diffusion coefficient between FC72 and sprinkler systems and in deposition of solder on circuit
air boards. In medicine, it has been studied in cases of DNA
Tr Reduced temperature spreading and flow of blood though veins etc.
Tc Critical temperature Reason for studying droplet evaporation is mainly in
Pc Critical pressure understanding its evaporation mechanism; the main
M Molar mass factors that affect droplet evaporation in the various
J Evaporation flux environments it exists. The knowledge would enable
various processes to be optimized. Various experimental
Greek symbols methods have been used to study droplet evaporation.
α Volume fraction of liquid The classical approach in studying the transient thermal
ρ Density behaviour along the solid and liquid interface has been
µ Viscosity direct contact sensors such as thermocouples or
Surface tension microthermocouples. This method has often proved to

give very good results but falls short in the biasing effect
 Contact angle
of the intrusion of the thermocouple probes in the
 Curvature
sampling domain [2]. Due to this, non-intrusive methods
∞ Ambient such as infrared (IR) thermography have been adopted for
use in the research of thermal transient research at
Subscripts solid-liquid interface [3]. This particular method has the
l Liquid phase advantage in providing temperature profile along the
g Gas phase
52
S. Hussain, Y. Fukatani, M. Kohno, K. Sefiane, Y. Takata
whole of the sampling region and not just points on the be repeated here. The evaporating liquid is FC72. The
sampling region. physical configuration of the problem described in the
Simulation has always been performed to complement paper is shown in Fig. 1. The substrate is a silicon wafer of
experimental research on droplet evaporation. It can help 0.5mm in thickness with a kapton layer of 40µm on top of
in better understanding the process. If done correctly, it.
simulation can help visualize parts of the evaporation z
process that cannot be seen through experiments. Strotos
et al [4] studied the evaporation of water droplets n̂
deposited onto heated substrates. gas
They combined fluid flow together with heat transfer
models to simulate the heat transfer between the
surrounding air, the droplet and the wall together with tˆ
h(r,t)
liquid vaporization from the droplet’s free surface liquid

incorporating the VOF model. The heat conduction zwall
equation within the solid wall was also solved. In Solid substrate
0 r
predicting the evaporation rate, a model from the kinetic
theory was used. Mollaret et al [5] developed a numerical
model based on a finite element method that describes the Fig. 1. Physical model of the evaporation
of a droplet deposited onto a substrate
hydrodynamics inside an evaporating spherical drop and
the effect of humidity on the evaporating process. They This physical configuration is then translated into a
used the diffusion equation to compute the vapour numerical computation domain as shown in Figs. 2. r and
concentration change. Hu and Larson [6] developed and
z are the radial and axial direction respectively, n̂ and t̂
used a finite element model to solve the vapour
concentration distribution and the evaporation flux above are the unit normal and tangential vectors,  is the contact
a droplet small enough that the spherical cap angle between the droplet and wall and h(r,t) is the height
approximation can be assumed. They obtained the of the droplet that is a function of droplet radius and time,
evaporation flux that is based on radius and contact angle. t. The computation is based on an axisymmetric
Briones et al [7] studied the impingement of micro-sized two-dimensional model in cylindrical coordinate system.
water droplet and its evaporation on dry surfaces of The computational domain was made to be 50 times
aluminum tin film. They used molecular kinetic models to greater than the maximum radius of the droplet to avoid
simulate the evaporation process. Schrage’s mass flux the effect of pressure outlet boundary on the droplet.
equation was used to predict the evaporation rate. For the Denser meshes are used at critical places such as the
contact line dynamics, they used Blake’s contact line interfaces. For this, the mesh was constructed using the
velocity model which describes wetting as a dynamic aspect ratio formulation. The smallest mesh size is about
absorption/desorption process of liquid molecules to the 4.95 µm while the largest is about 3.2 mm. The following
wall surface. The objective of the present simulation was equations were solved via the commercial CFD code,
to simulate the droplet evaporation process under the Fluent [9].
constant contact line condition. A 2-D simulation was
performed in the hopes that such simulation can provide The volume fraction equation
important information with respect to droplet evaporation
such as the evaporation rate and the processes that affects     u 
l  l   l u z    l ur   l r    m (1)
it. Although the droplet evaporation process is thought of  t z r r 
to be a 3-D phenomenon, performing a 3-D simulation can
be highly challenging. If a 2-D simulation, which requires where αl is the volume fraction of liquid; ur and uz are the
less effort, can be used to accurately simulate and predict velocity components along the radial, r direction and axial,
important information with regards to droplet evaporation z direction, respectively;  is the density and m is the
such as the evaporation rate, it can be used later as a mass flow rate. The subscript l refers to the liquid phase.
design tool for various cooling applications. It is with this
motivation that this work was undertaken and this paper The momentum equation
presents the results of this work. For validation purposes Axial component:
and also to compare how well the simulation model agrees
with the actual evaporation process, the results were  u u u 
compared to experimental works.   z  u z z  ur z  
 t z r 
p  1   u z   2u z 
II. Numerical Procedure   r  2  (2)
z  r r  r  z 
The simulation is mainly based on the experimental
2 l  l
works carried out by Sefiane et al [8]. The experimental  gz 
set-up is explained clearly in the paper and hence will not l   g z
53
where p is the pressure, µ is the viscosity and g is the The energy equation:
gravitational force. The subscript g refers to the gas phase.
 T T T  1   T 
 c p   ur  uz   kr 
 t r z  r r  r 
(7)
  T 
 k  fg
  mh
z  z 
where cp is the specific heat, T is the temperature, k is the

thermal conductivity and hfg is the latent heat of
vaporization. The specific heat, cp and thermal
conductivity, k is given by:
 l l c p,l   g  g c p,g
cp  (8)
 l l   g  g

k   l kl  1   g k g  (9)
The concentration equation:
 C C C 
  FC 72  ur FC 72  u z FC 72  
 t r z 
2
(10)
 1   CFC 72   CFC 72 
 DFC 72 ,air   r r   
m
 r r   z 2 
Figs. 2. Computational domain and boundary conditions (BC). (a)
rdomain=0.1m and zdomain=0.10054m. (b) The enlarged section where the
droplet is located (indicated by the square).kapton=40µm and where CFC72 is the concentration of FC72 and DFC72,air is
silicon=500µm the binary diffusion coefficient between FC72 and air.
The rate of mass and energy transfer between phases is
Radial component: assumed to be a function of the temperature difference:
 u u u   kl  T   k g  T  
  r  ur r  u z r   m

l g
(11)
 t  z r  h fg
p   1   2u 
      rur    2r   (3)
r  r  r r  z  II.1. Boundary Conditions
2 l  l
  gr  At the walls, the concentration is:
l   g r
CFC 72
= 0 on z  zwall (12)
The effect of surface tension, , is included in the last z
term of Eqs. (2) and (3). The static contact angle, w is
specified under the curvature, , formulation: the volume fraction is:
    nˆ     nˆ w cos  w  ˆtw sin  w  (4)  l

 0 on z  zwall (13)
z
w is experimentally measured when the fluid is at rest
[10]. n̂w and tˆw are the unit vectors normal and the velocity is:
tangential to the wall respectively. The density,  and
ur  u z  0 on z  z wall (14)
viscosity,  is given by:
For temperature:
   l l  1   g   g (5)
Tsilicon  constant value on z  0 (15)
   l l  1   g   g (6)
54
At the pressure outlets: II.3. Additional Considerations

Diffusion Coefficient, DFC72,air
P  P ; αl  0 ; CFC 72  0 on
(16) A constant binary diffusion coefficient is used in the
r  rdomain and z  z domain simulation. The binary diffusion coefficient for FC72 is
calculated using the Slattery and Bird Method [13]:
T  T ; on r  rdomain and z  zdomain . (17)
1/ 2
1/ 3 5 / 12  1 1 
aTrb  Pc1Pc 2  Tc1Tc 2    
Along the axisymmetric boundary:  M1 M 2 
D12  (19)
P
 l u z CFC 72
 0; ur  0;  0; 0
r r r (18) T
T Tr 
and  0 on r  0 Tc1Tc 2 1 / 2
r
Here, Tr refers to reduced temperature, Tc and Pc is the
II.2. Initial Conditions critical temperature and pressure respectively and M is the
molar mass. The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two
Table I gives the initial conditions for the simulation as different fluids which in this case is FC72 and air. Based
compared to the experiment. The experimental initial on this method, the DFC72,air= 0.06570395 cm2/s.
radius and height was based on CCD camera images. For
the simulation, the initial droplet temperature is taken to
Surface Tension, 
be 3oK below the temperature of the substrate.
Surface tension varies with respect to temperature. By
The experiment assumed that the droplet temperature
applying a constant surface tension, the droplet shape does
was the same as that of the ambient [8]. However, based
not become a smooth semi-spherical shape. In order to get
on the infra red (IR) images of the experiment, the droplet
a formulation for surface tension in terms of temperature,
temperature just before the droplet touches the surface of
the Etvos rule was used [14]:
the substrate has about a 3oK temperature difference with
the substrate. Hence, at t=0, the simulation assumes the
droplet to be 3oK higher than the substrate and ambient.  V 2 / 3  k Tc  T  (20)
TABLE I
INITIAL CONDITIONS
where k=Etvos constant = 2.1 × 10-7 J/K.mol and V is the
Experiment Simulation molar volume.
Initial radius, ro 2.631319 mm 2.63557 mm The surface tension formulation for FC72 in air is
Initial height, ho 0.182136 mm 0.200206 mm derived to be   0.027461739  6.116200318 10 5 T
Initial substrate 28.2oC 26oC
temperature, Tsilicon where T is in Kelvin.
Initial droplet temperature, 25oC 23oC
Tdroplet Concentration of FC72, CFC72
Initial surrounding 26oC 26oC The concentration of FC72 is determined from the
temperature, T∞
vapour pressure formulation [11]. The saturated vapour
concentration, SVC, given in terms of temperature is:
A constant static contact angle, W=8o was specified
[8]. The difference between the initial radius and height  1562 
for experiment and the simulation is due to the number 3  5.729  
T 
SVC  in kg/m   1.36433  10 (21)
and size of the mesh used in the droplet region of the
computational domain.
Table II and Table III list the properties of the materials T is in Kelvin.
used in the simulation. For FC72, the properties are in
terms of temperature to account for the two phases (i.e. II.4. Experimental Procedure
vapour and liquid) that it exists in the simulation.
In the actual experiment, the top most surface of the In order to ascertain the validity of the simulation,
substrate is covered with black paint. However, because comparison was made to experiments. A few experiments
not all of the properties (namely density and specific heat) were conducted for this purpose.
of black paint required for the simulation can be obtained; In order to validate the simulation results, comparison
black paint was not included in the simulation. According was made based on residual mass of the droplet. Several
to Sefiane et al also [8], the black paint was used to experiments were conducted for the case of FC72 droplet
amplify the temperature variations thus providing a strong evaporation in ambient condition with a non-heated
thermal signal for the IR camera. Hence, its inclusion in substrate. The experiments were conducted in a similar
the simulation might be neglected. manner as described by Sefiane et al [8].
55
TABLE II
FLUID PROPERTIES
Thermophysical properties FC72 [11] Air At interface
Density,  (kg/m3)   1740  2.61T 1.225    FC 72  FC 72  1   FC 72   air
T  70C;   0.0057681kg / m  s
T  30C;   0.00163647 kg / m  s
Viscosity,  (kg/m.s) 1.7894x 10-05    FC 72  FC 72  1   FC 72   air
T  30C :   0.000581595kg / m  s
T  70C;   0.000373752 kg / m  s
Thermal conductivity, k
k  0.060  0.00011T 0.0242 k   FC 72 k FC 72  1   FC 72  k air
(W/m.C)
 FC 72   c p  
 1   FC 72   c p 
FC 72 air
Specific heat, cp (J/kg.C) c p  1014  1.554T 1006.43 cp 
 FC 72  FC 72  1   FC 72   air
Note: T is in oC.
TABLE III
SUBSTRATE PROPERTIES
Material Density,  (kg/m3) Specific heat, Cp (J/kg.K) Thermal conductivity, k (W/m.K)
Kapton tape [12] 1420 1090 0.12
Silicon 2329 700 148
The objective, however, was to obtain the residual

mass of the droplet reading simultaneously with the IR
image of the droplet evaporation. To do this, the
experimental set-up consisting of the multilayered
substrate and mirror set-up [8] was placed inside a
microbalance (Shimadzu AUW120D with measurement 3mm
precision 0.01mg). The mass reading was recorded per
second. The maximum mass of the droplet ranged from
2.3mg for maximum droplet radius of 2.87mm to 0.97mg
for maximum radius of 1.69mm. Although, the mass
changes for each experiment, the qualitative profiles of
the mass-time and radius-time plots are relatively the
same. Hence, although we cannot make comparisons of Fig. 3. Droplet IR image shown here with the reference marker
the mass and droplet values, we can still make use of the
gradients of these plots for comparisons with the Fig. 4(a) shows one of the results of the many
simulation results. experiments conducted. It shows the contact line radius as
The radius of the droplet was determined from the IR well as the residual mass together in the same graph from
images. A reference marker of size 3mm was positioned the beginning the droplet touches the substrate until the
next to the droplet in order to determine correctly the size droplet totally evaporates. Fig. 4(b) shows the enlarged
of the droplet at various instances as shown in Fig. 3. portion of it showing only the assumed constant contact
Additional experiments similar to the ones detailed out line region. The portion of the plot where the mass is
in Sefiane et al[8] were also performed. The conditions of decreasing is used for comparison with the simulation
the experiments are as described in Table I. These results results. We concentrate on the part where the mass
were compared with the simulation results in terms of the decreases because this simulation has been modeled to
temperature and heat flux results. depict that the droplet evaporation has already started and
hence the mass will decrease.
The results for the simulation are shown in Figs. 5. Due
III. Results and Discussions to the small time frame of the constant contact line region
(0.8s), the simulation mass values obtained has a greater
III.1. Validation precision (0.001mg) to account for the smaller mass
In the simulation, the constant contact line region was changes within this region. As has been explained earlier,
assumed to occur only between 0.5s to 1.3s of the the microbalance in the experiments provides mass
simulation time which amounts to a total constant contact precision of 0.01mg per each second of the evaporation.
line region time of 0.8s. This region was determined based As such, comparisons between the experiments and
on the requirements that the contact angle should remain simulation were made in terms of the gradients within the
8o which was what was obtained from the experiments and constant contact line region. Comparison between the
that the contact line radius remains the same as well. residual mass of the droplet in the constant contact line
Taking all this into consideration, the constant contact line region for both simulation and experiment is shown in Fig.
region was assumed. 6. The slope of the graph of Fig. 6 represents the change in
56
mass of the droplet with time. Comparison between the simulation

gradients of the simulation and experimental linear plots 0.307
0.306
showed about 0.58% difference. This result validates the
mass of droplet (mg)

0.305
simulation results discussed henceforth. The following 0.304
discussion on the results of the simulation is based only on 0.303
the constant contact line region. 0.302
0.301
contact line radius residual droplet mass 0.3
0.299
1 1
normalized contact line radius (r/r max)
normalized residual droplet mass

0.9 0.9 0.298
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7 elapsed simulation time (seconds)
0.6 0.6 (a)
(m/m max)
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 simulation
0.3 0.3
1
normalized droplet mass (m/m max)

0.2 0.2
0.9
0.1 0.1 0.8
0 0 0.7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.6
normalized time (t/t max) 0.5
(a) 0.4
0.3
contact line radius droplet mass 0.2
0.1
1 1 0
normalized contact line radius (r/rmax)
0.9 0.9 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

0.8 0.8 normalized time (t/t CCL)
0.7 0.7 (b)
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5 Figs. 5(a) Residual mass of the droplet for simulation time up until 2
0.4 0.4 seconds. (b) Mass profile for the constant contact line region. tCCL is the
0.3 0.3 total time that the constant contact line region occurs
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1 simulation experiment-1 experiment-2
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 1
0.9
normalized time (t/t max)
0.8
(b) 0.7
0.6
Figs. 4. (a) Experimental plot of the contact line radius with the residual 0.5
droplet mass. rmax refers the maximum radius, mmax refers to the 0.4
maximum mass, tmax is the total evaporation time. (b) The enlarged 0.3
constant contact line region of Fig. 4(a) 0.2
0.1
0
III.2. Quantitative and Qualitative Agreement 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
between Simulation and Experiment normalized time (t/t CCL)
This next part of the paper discusses the temperature Fig. 6. Comparison of the residual droplet mass between simulation and
and heat flux results by comparing it with the results of the experiment. Two experimental results were compared to the simulation.
experiment whose condition is described in Table I.
Fig. 7(a) shows the temperature along the radial Fig. 8(a) shows the heat flux obtained from the
position of the substrate while Fig. 7(b) shows the simulation along the surface of the substrate. It has been
temperature plotted from the experiment which was found that the values differ by about one order of
obtained from the top view of the IR image. The magnitude. However, the profile shows similarity in that
difference in the values of the temperature between both high heat flux is obtained around the edge of the drop.
plots of experimental and simulated substrate temperature Many researchers have agreed that the colder
is possibly due to the difference between the initial droplet temperature and higher heat flux at the droplet edge is due
temperatures specified for both experiment and to the fact that most of the evaporation happens near the
simulation. triple contact line.
The temperature is found to be lowest at the centre of The simulation results are also similar to the
the drop in both the simulation and experimental plots. experiment in that at the centre of the droplet, the heat flux
Temperature is also low at about radial position 2 mm in is also high. According to Sefiane et al[8], this high heat
the experimental plot which is at the edge of the droplet. A flux is likely due to the convection cells within the droplet
colder temperature is also evident in the simulation plot at which circulate hot fluid to the liquid-vapour interface
about radial position of 2 mm. This position is also at the where it is cooled by evaporation and then moves along
edge of the droplet. the heated substrate from the centre of the drop.
57
simulation Fig. 9 shows the temperature field predicted in the

26
constant contact line region. The temperature field region
increases with time. The time 0s is taken to be the start of
temperature (degree C)
25.99
25.98 the constant contact line region.

25.97 Fig. 10 shows the temperature variations inside and
time = 0s
25.96 time = 0.8s
outside the droplet. At t=0s, the temperature inside the
25.95
droplet is still low though a bit higher than the initial
temperature specified initially for the droplet. At t=0.8,
25.94
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 the droplet temperature increases.
radial position (mm) If we relate this observation to the heat flux explained
(a) in the previous part of the paper, initially the heat flux was
experiment high because the temperature difference inside the droplet
28.4
is higher but at a later time, the heat flux decreases
28.2 because the temperature difference is lower.
temperature (degree C)
28
27.8
27.6
27.4 time = 0s
27.2 time = 0.8s
27
26.8
26.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
radial position (mm)
(b)
Figs. 7. (a) Temperature along the surface of the substrate obtained from
the simulation. (b) Temperature obtained directly from the top view of
the IR images
simulation
0.016
0.014
0.012
heat flux (W/cm 2 )
0.01
0.008
time = 0s
0.006
time = 0.8s
0.004
0.002
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(a)
experiment
0.9
0.8
0.7
heat flux (W/cm 2 )
0.6
0.5
0.4 time = 0s
0.3 time = 1.09s
0.2 Fig. 9. Temperature field in and around the droplet in the constant
0.1 contact line region. The time 0s is taken to be the start of the constant
0 contact line region
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(b)
From the flow direction shown in Fig. 11, small
circulation patterns exist near the liquid-vapour interface.
Figs. 8. (a) Heat flux obtained from simulation There is also flow movement from the centre of the
(b) Heat flux obtained from experiment droplet to the bottom of the substrate and subsequently
towards the droplet edge. An important phenomenon that
III.3. Predicted Temperature Fields is said to affect the evaporation process is known as
hydrothermal waves (HTWs). From the works of [2], [15],
By solving the governing equations described in the [16], [17], these hydrothermal waves can be seen clearly
beginning of this paper, the concentration and temperature in the IR images obtained.
profiles inside the droplet together with its surroundings Similar observations, however, cannot be obtained
were predicted. from a 2D simulation as the IR images show the bottom
and top images of the droplet.
58
time = 0.8s
time = 0s
Fig. 10. Temperature iso-contour at time =0s and 0.8s
Fig. 11. The flow field direction at time =0s. This shows the flow movement inside and around the droplet
Nevertheless, we can still observe flow patterns inside

concentration (kg/m3 )
the droplet through the side view of the droplet. A few 2-D time = 0s
simulations have been shown to be able to show the
occurrence of hydrothermal waves inside the droplet [18],
[19]. This particular simulation also observed some wave
patterns believed to be hydrothermal waves inside the
droplet. These waves seem to dictate the movement of the
fluid inside the droplet. In Fig. 11, the flow inside the
droplet seems to start at the top centre of the droplet and
flows down the centre reaching the bottom of the droplet.
Then it moves up along the droplet surface from the
end of the droplet. Along the surface, there is some flow
movement into and out of the droplet. From the flow field
direction and the temperature contour plots of Fig. 10, it concentration (kg/m3 )
time = 0.8s
can be said that cold fluid moves downwards towards the
bottom of the droplet where it is heated up due to the
higher temperature of the adjacent substrate. The heated
fluid then moves towards the end of the droplet and
further moves along the droplet surface where it cools and
diffuses to the surrouding. The number of circulation or
waves inside the droplet was found to decrease with time.
III.4. Predicted Concentration Fields

Fig. 12 shows the concentration fields predicted from
the simulation. These concentration fields could not be
Fig. 12. Concentration profiles at t=0s and t=0.8s during the constant
validated through the experimental set-up. However, contact line region. The concentration of FC72 vapour increases its
several simulations of water predicting the concentration concentration in air as time increases
fields around the droplet have been carried out [5], [6],
[20].
59
They obtained qualitatively similar concentration fields. is shown in Fig. 14. J( n̂ ) is the flux along the normal
The concentration of the droplet decreases with time. In direction to the droplet surface. The evaporation flux at
turn, the concentration of FC72 vapour increases its the top centre surface of the droplet (Fig. 14(a)) is higher
concentration in air as time increases. Figs. 13 show the compared to the edge of the droplet along the substrate
concentration profile of the droplet above its surface. The (Fig. 14(b)).
plots show the concentration along both the r=0 and z=0. It has been theorized that evaporation flux would be
The concentration of the FC72 decreases with time at the highest at the droplet edge along the substrate. However,
droplet edge (Fig. 13(b) as well as the top centre surface of in this simulation, the evaporation flux is also high at the
the droplet (Fig. 13(a)). The evaporation flux which was top centre of the droplet. The evaporation flux decreases
calculated based on the following equation: after this point onwards.
 CFC 72
J  n    DFC 72 ,air  (22)
n
concentration along r=0 concentration along z=0
4 3.5
3.5 3
concentration (kg/m 3 )
concentration (kg/m 3 )
3 2.5
2.5
2
2
time = 0s 1.5 time = 0s
1.5
time = 0.8s 1 time = 0.8s
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5
axial position (mm) radial position (mm)
(a) (b)
Figs. 13. Concentration profiles along r=0 and z=0
evaporation flux along r=0 evaporation flux along z=0

0.03 0.018
0.016
evaporation flux (kg/m.s)
evaporation flux (kg/m.s)
0.025
0.014
0.02 0.012
0.01
0.015 0.008
time = 0s time = 0s
0.01 0.006 time = 0.8s
time = 0.8s
0.004
0.005 0.002
0
0
1 1.5 2 2.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
axial position (mm)
(a) (b)
Figs. 14. The corresponding evaporation flux along r=0 and z=0. The peak of evaporation flux occurs along the surface of the droplet
IV. Conclusion hydrothermal waves. Through the movement of this wave,

cold fluid is seen to move from the centre of the droplet
A two-dimensional sessile droplet evaporation was and heated along the bottom of the droplet. This heated
simulated for the constant contact line region. The results fluid then moves up along the surface of the droplet where
were validated and compared with experimental results. it is cooled and evaporates.
Simulation results showed similar qualitative findings to As droplet evaporation is thought to be a 3-D
the experimental results. The temperature was low at the phenomenon, a 2-D simulation might be insufficient to
centre as well as at the edge of drop and hence conversely, predict the real occurrences of the evaporation process. In
the heat flux is high at these two locations. The order to compare the 2-D simulation results and to obtain
evaporation flux is high at the edge of the droplet and at greater information on the droplet evaporation, a 3-D
the top centre of the droplet. Quantitatively, the values simulation is currently being performed. A 2-D simulation
differ by as much as one order of magnitude for the heat saves time and effort to perform and would enable the
flux. The differences can be attributed to the setting of the design of heat transfer process more efficiently in terms of
initial conditions for the simulation. time and effort. Any similarities between 2D and 3D
The temperature and concentration fields were also results can be utilized later such as the evaporation rate. It
predicted from the simulation. Some flow patterns can be is with this motivation that a 2D simulation is being
seen inside the droplet which is assumed to be affectionally pursued.
60
Acknowledgements Authors’ information

1
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia.
Number 246038. 2
Kyushu University, Japan.
3
University of Edinburgh. United Kingdom.
References
Suhaila Hussain, Malaysia, obtained MSc. in
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thermodynamic analysis of film-cooling, (2013) International College, United Kingdom and currently pursuing
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Gschwender, Micrometer-sized water droplet impingement Research. Among his research activities are on
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100, pp. 335-354, 1992. of the Research Institute for Materials and
[11] 3M Fluorinert Electronic Liquid FC-72 Product Information, 3M Processes, IMP. Among his research interests are
Specialty Materials (2003). two phase flow heat transfer, wetting and phase
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61
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Determination of the Yield of Internal Combustion Thermal Engines
Florian Ion T. Petrescu1, Relly Victoria V. Petrescu2
Abstract – This paper presents an algorithm for setting the dynamic parameters of the classic
main mechanism of the internal combustion engines. It shows the distribution of the forces (on the
main mechanism of the engine) to the internal combustion heat engines. With these strengths, and
together with velocities of kinematic couplings is established then the heat engine efficiency. The
method is applied separately for two distinct situations: when the engine is working on a
compressor and into the motor system.
For the two separate cases, two independent formulas are obtained for the engine yield. With
these relationships are then calculated about mechanical efficiency of Otto heat engine, four
stroke, two-stroke and 4-stroke V. Final yield of the engine is obtained considering and thermal
efficiency given by Carnot cycle. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Forces Distribution, Velocities, Powers, Yield, Internal Heat Engines, Compressor
System, Motor System
Nomenclature I. Introduction
Fm Is the motor force Old gasoline engine, we carry every day for nearly
F Is the tangential force, which produces the 150 years. “Old Otto engine” (and his brother, Diesel) is
rotation of the element today: younger, more robust, more dynamic, more
Fn Is the normal force, which is transmitted along powerful, more economical, more independent, more
the connecting rod reliable, quieter, cleaner, more compact, more
FR Is the radial force, who press on the cylinder sophisticated, more stylish, more secure, and more
barrel in which guides the piston especially necessary [1]-[30].
Fu The utile force, Fu, moves the piston (when the At the global level we can manage to remove annually
mechanism is in compressor system), and about 60,000 cars. But annually appear other million cars
rotates the crank (when the mechanism is in (see the Table I).
motor system)
Fc Is the force of compression, and presses on the TABLE I
WORLD CARS PRODUCED
crankpin (B) and then on the crank and bearing
Cars produced
(A) Year
in the world
1 = Is the position angle of the crank 2011 59,929,016
2’= Is the position angle of the rod (element 2), if 2010 58,264,852
the rod is considered from the point C 2009 47,772,598
2008 52,726,117
2 = Is the position angle of the rod, if the rod is 2007 53,201,346
considered from the point B 2006 49,918,578
1= The angular rotation speed of the crank (the 2005 46,862,978
motor shaft) 2004 44,554,268
2003 41,968,666
l1 Is the length of the crank 2002 41,358,394
l2 Is the length of the rod (the connecting rod) 2001 39,825,888
 Is the raport between l1 and l2 2000 41,215,653
Is the instantly efficiency of the mechanism in 1999 39,759,847
ic
the compressor system
c Is the mechanical yield of the mechanism in the Planet supports now about one billion motor vehicles
compressor system in circulation. Even if we stop totally production of heat
im Is the instantly efficiency of the mechanism in engines, would still need 10,000 years to eliminate total
the motor system the existing car park. Electric current is still produced in
m Is the mechanical yield of the mechanism in the majority by combustion of hydrocarbons, making the
motor system hydrocarbon losses to be higher when we use electric
motors.
62
Florian Ion T. Petrescu, Relly Victoria V. Petrescu
When we will have electric current obtained only from rod (element 2). The Fn (normal) force from the point C
green energy, sustainable and renewable energy sources, is divided as well in two components: Fu and FR. The
it is only then that we'll be able to enter gradually and utile force, Fu, moves the piston, and the radial force, FR,
electric motors. Otto and diesel engines are today the press on the cylinder barrel in which guides the piston.
best solution for the transport of our day-to-day work, We can write the following relations of calculation (1):
together and with electric motors and those with reaction.
For these reasons it is imperative as we can calculate  F  Fm  cos 1  2 
exactly the engine efficiency, in order to can increase it 
permanently.  Fn  Fm  sin 1  2 


 sin      sin       sin    
II. Algorithm for the Otto Engine  1 2
in Compressor System 

It presents an algorithm for setting the dynamic  Fn  Fm  sin    
parameters of the classic main mechanism of the internal  F  F  sin  F  sin  sin   
 u n m  
combustion engines [15]-[24]. It shows the distribution

of the forces (on the main mechanism of the engine) to 
the internal combustion heat engines. With these  yC  l1  sin   l2  sin
strengths, and together with velocities of kinematic 
couplings is established then the heat engine efficiency. 
The method is applied separately for two distinct vC  yC  l1  cos     l2  cos  

situations: when the engine is working on a compressor  l  cos     l  cos    sin    
and into the motor system. For the two separate cases,  1 2
sin (1)
two independent formulas are obtained for the engine 
l  
yield. We starting with the engine main mechanism in  1   sin  cos   sin   cos  
compressor system (when the motor mechanism is acting  sin

 l1  sin      
from the crank; see the Fig. 1). Now we are going to
watch forces distribution in this case (Fig. 1).  sin



 Pc  Pm  Fm  vm  Fm  l1  

 Pu  Fu  vC 

 F  sin  sin      l1  sin      
 m sin
 2
 Pu  Fm  l1    sin    


 2
 c  Pu  Fm  l1    sin     
 i Pc Fm  l1  

 sin      sin 2  ,with :     
2
It can be seen that instantly mechanical efficiency of

the engine in the compressor system is sinus square angle
beta (2):
 c Pu Fm  l1    sin 2    
i   
 Pc Fm  l1  
 2
(2)
Fig. 1. The forces distribution in engine mechanism   sin     ;     
when it is operated of the crank (element 1)  c 2 2
i  sin      sin 
The motor force Fm, perpendicular in B on the crank 1,
is divided in two components: Fn and F. The normal The angle beta is the difference between the position
force, Fn, is transmitted along the rod (connecting rod) angle of the con rod and the crank handle. It can be
from point B to the point C. The tangential force, F, is a calculated now mechanical efficiency of engine
rotating force which made the rotation of the connecting mechanism in scheme by the compressor, through the
integration of instantly yield (relations system (3)):
63
 F  l    sin 2     If they neglect losses due to friction, it can be

P
ic  u  m 1  considered mechanical efficiency of the engine Otto in
 Pc Fm  l1   scheme by the compressor equal to 0.5.
 2
 sin     ;      ;
 with    ;   0  III. Presents the Algorithm for the
 M m
 M Otto Engine in Motor System
 c  1  sin 2  d  
    Now, we shall see the engine main mechanism in
 m motor system (when the motor mechanism is acting from
 M (3) the piston; see the Fig. 2) [15]-[24].
 1  1  cos 2  d  
   2
In this case the useful power is a real one, being
 m produced by the motor piston (element 3).
 M It is to be noted that motive power on now from the
 1 piston is divided in two components, normal and

 2     1  cos 2  d  
 m tangential, only normal component being transmitted
 M through con rod to the coupler B, where shall also be
 1     sin 2      1  divided into two other components, Fu and Fc, of which
 2    2  m 2   4   only useful component is turning the handle, while

 component of compression presses on the crankpin (B)
1 1
  sin 2  M  sin 2  m    0  and then on the crank and bearing (A).
  2 2 We can write the following relations of calculation
 c 1 (4):
   0.5  50%
 2
 F  Fm  cos

 Fn  Fm  sin
 sin      sin      
 1 2
 sin    

 Fc  Fn  cos   2 

 Fu  Fn  sin    2  

 Fm  sin  sin    
 y  l  sin   l  sin
 C 1 2
vC  yC  l1  cos     l2  cos  

 l  cos     l  cos    sin    
 1 2
sin

l  
 1   sin  cos   sin   cos  

 sin
 l  sin     
 1   (4)
 sin

 Pu  Fu  vu  Fm  sin  sin      l1  

 P  F  v  F  l    sin    
 c m c m 1
sin

 m Pu
i  P 
 c
 Fm  sin  sin      l1  
 ;
 sin    
Fm  l1   
 sin

m 2
i  sin 
64
It can be seen that instantly mechanical efficiency of

the engine in the motor system is sinus square angle 
(5):
im  sin 2  (5)
The instantly efficiency of the engine in motor system

depends only on the position angle of the con rod.
It can be calculated now approximately the
mechanical efficiency of engine mechanism in scheme
by the motor, through the integration of instantly yield
(relations system (6)):
 M
1
 m   sin 2  d 

  
m

 1  M 1  cos 2
  d 
   2
m

 M
1
  1  cos 2  d 

 2    m


 1  sin 2  M
     Fig. 2. The forces distribution in engine mechanism
 2    2  m when it is operated of the piston (element 3)
  1
    sin 2 M  sin 2 m   Only are retained relations (7) in the calculation of
 2   4    mechanical efficiency for the two situations of the
 mechanism Otto cycle engine, when mechanism working
 1  1   sin 2 M  sin 2 m 
 2 4   in arrangements by the compressor, and then when
 mechanism working in arrangements by the motor:

       2  ;  c 1
M m m
   2
 M    m ; 
 (7)
 sin  2   sin  2  2    sin 2 2
 M m m  m  1    1  
cos    cos  ;   arccos    cos    2 2  arcsin 

    arcsin  ; cos   ;
 m 2 m
IV. The Final Yield

 sin m  1   2 The yield heat shield (to be used as a general rule the
 one given by Carnot cycle) is a function of the average

 temperature of the engine (see diagram in Fig. 3).
1 2  sin 2 m
 m   
 2 4  
 1 sin 2 m (6)
  
 2 2    2  m 

 1  sin m  cos m 
 2   2  m

 1 sin m  cos m
 2  2  arcsin 


 2
 m  1    1  
 2 2  arcsin 
Fig. 3. The heat yield of Carnot cycle
65
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1
Senior Lecturer at UPB (Bucharest Polytechnic University), TMR
(Theory of Mechanisms and Robots) department.
2
Senior Lecturer at UPB (Bucharest Polytechnic University), TTL
(Transport, Traffic and Logistics) department.
Ph.D. Eng. Florian Ion T. Petrescu, Senior

Lecturer at UPB (Bucharest Polytechnic
University), Theory of Mechanisms and Robots
department, Date of birth: March.28.1958;
Higher education: Polytechnic University of
Bucharest, Faculty of Transport, Road Vehicles
Department, graduated in 1982, with overall
average 9.63; Doctoral Thesis: "Theoretical and
Applied Contributions About the Dynamic of Planar Mechanisms with
Superior Joints". Expert in: Industrial Design, Mechanical Design,
Engines Design, Mechanical Transmissions, Dynamics, Vibrations,
Mechanisms, Machines, Robots. Association:
Member ARoTMM, IFToMM, SIAR, FISITA, SRR, AGIR. Member
of Board of SRRB (Romanian Society of Robotics).
Ph.D. Eng. Relly Victoria V. Petrescu, Senior

Lecturer at UPB (Bucharest Polytechnic
University), Transport, Traffic and Logistics
department,Citizenship: Romanian;Date of birth:
March.13.1958;Higher education: Polytechnic
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Transport,
Road Vehicles Department, graduated in 1982,
with overall average 9.50;Doctoral Thesis:
"Contributions to analysis and synthesis of mechanisms with bars and
sprocket".Expert in Industrial Design, Engineering Mechanical Design,
Engines Design, Mechanical Transmissions, Projective and descriptive
geometry, Technical drawing, CAD, Automotive engineering,
Vehicles, Transportations.Association: Member ARoTMM, IFToMM,
SIAR, FISITA, SRR, SORGING, AGIR.
67
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Effect of Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap in a Mixed Flow Submersible

Pump Using Computational Fluid Dynamics
J. Manikandan1, V. Senthil2, S. Nagarajan3
Abstract – The main objective of this work is to improve the performance of multi stage mixed
flow submersible pump. This pump highly depends upon the complex configuration of the Bowl-
Impeller Interaction and the flow behavior of water in the same region. A commercial
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code, namely ANSYS Fluent V13.0 with a k-ε Realizable
turbulence model was used to study the effects of Bowl-Impeller Interaction. An extensive
approach is tried to predict the flow behavior of the pump. The space between the bowl and
impeller is called as “Axial gap”. In the existing model the axial gap between the bowl and
impeller is 17mm. In this paper, the investigation of Bowl-Impeller axial gap for six different
models is varied from 2mm, 5mm and 10mm (Increase and Decrease) to predict the performance
of the pump. The numerical results are compared with the Best Efficiency Point (BEP) of
experimental data. For the present pump, 2mm Decrease Bowl-Impeller axial gap model performs
better comparably to the other models. It performs up to 2.35 % of efficiency from the existing
model. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Mixed Flow Pump, Submersible Pump, Best Efficiency Point (BEP), Moving
Reference Frame (MRF), Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap, Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD)
Nomenclature the design of centrifugal pumps at present era [1]-[13].

With the aid of the CFD approach, the complex internal
Density flows in water pump impellers, which are not fully
Ω Rotational Speed understood yet, can be well predicted, to speed up the
Dynamic Effective viscosity pump design procedure. Thus, CFD is an important tool
ε and ω Dissipation Rate for pump designers Weidong Zhou et al [1]. However
Vector fluid velocity SSoundranayagam et al [2], [3] has investigated explores
µt Turbulent Viscosity the flow field in a mixed flow impeller and attempts
k Turbulence kinetic energy obtain meaningful parameters of the aerofoil action of
Turbulence kinetic energy due to the the vanes and assess their usefulness in the selection of
mean of Velocity Gradient suitable profiles. Although so many efforts were devoted,
Turbulence kinetic energy due to there is still currently no theory or method, or even a
buoyancy reliable procedure to accurately predict the tip clearance
C1ε, C2ε and Cm Constants effects in unshrounded centrifugal impellers T. Engin [4].
Fluctuating dilatation in compressible It is known as well that, axial spacing is a very important
turbulence to the overall dissipation parameter and it has a strong influence on the
rate performance of the axial turbo machines. Several
and Defined source terms experimental and numerical investigations have been
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics performed in the past, studying the effects of axial
spacing on compressor performance Hanoca P et al [5].
On the radial gap effects on the diffuser-induced impeller
I. Introduction flow, especially on the pressure fluctuation in the
The mixed flow submersible pump is used for impeller region, in a radial pump stage consisting of an
domestic purpose and also for commercial level, so it is impeller, a vaned diffuser and a vaned return channel.
essential to increase the efficiency of the pump Two different radial gaps between the impeller outlet
nowadays. The design of this type of pump is really and the diffuser vane inlet are calculated Jianjun Feng et
complex due to the fact that the flow inside these pumps al [6]. The impact of the radial gap on the performance of
is inherently complex in nature. Computational fluid the radial hydraulic turbine stages is investigated through
dynamics (CFD) analysis is being increasingly applied in numerical flow simulations Adnan Ozturket al [7]. Has
68
J. Manikandan, V. Senthil, S. Nagarajan
been estimated the effect of tip clearance, which gives a The experimental results indicate that the maximum
simple linear effect of the tip clearance and it offers a efficiency point is close to the Best Efficiency Point
good approximation for the range of small gaps Tahsin (BEP) were the parameters are Discharge (Q) = 7.87 lps
Enginet al [8]. Plutecki and Wajdaet al [9] examined the and Head=32.29 m.
effects of axial clearance on total head, efficiency and
suction ability of four, differently bladed impellers
II.2. Model Description
operated in one casing with the axial clearance varying
from 0.5 to 2 mm. They found that the total head In this work, the multi stage submersible pump was
decreased proportionally to the tip clearance ratio up to got from an industry the PUMP STD IS: 8034-2002
about 11%, while the efficiency decreased with the Model No: ISM12/6. It is scanned based on reverse
growth of the tip clearance. The Bowl-Impeller axial gap engineering in Coimbatore Industrial Infrastructure
is varied from 2 to 10 mm for flow behavior of the multi Association (COINDIA) for which a Computer Aided
stage mixed flow submersible pump was identified. Design (CAD) drawing is generated (Figs. 1 and 2).
In this paper, the effect of Bowl-Impeller interaction
considering 3D Steady flow in various axial gap between
(2mm, 5mm and 10mm) from the existing model to be II.3. Solid Modeling of Bowl and Impeller:
investigated by the Computational Fluid Dynamics In the design of multi stage mixed flow submersible
(CFD) analysis of this pump. pump the bowl-impeller axial gap plays a vital role in
designing the required flow and head values. The solid
modeling of the Bowl and Impeller is drawn using by
II. Experimental Data Solid works 2010 software (Figs. 3 and 4). Bowl is a
II.1. Test Pump stator which has eight stationary blades and the impeller
is a rotating element which has six movable blades. The
The hydraulic performance of a multi stage mixed specifications of bowl and impeller in the (Tables III and
flow submersible pump has been tested experimentally IV). The bowl- impeller axial gap of the existing model
and the specification of the pump in the (Tables I and II). is 17 mm. The Modified (Increased and Decreased)
The running speed of the pump is 2880 rpm which has 7 model of six different Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap are 2
h.p motor. mm, 5 mm and 10 mm (Table V) and (Fig. 5).
TABLE I
TEST DATA OF MULTISTAGE SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
Total Head (m) Discharge (lps) Motor Power Inputs Performance at Rated frequency 50.0 Hz
Frequency (HZ)
Total Head (m)
Total Head (m)

Discharge (lps)
Discharge (lps)
Overall Eff. %
Delivery Head
Pump Output
Pump Speed
Motor Input
Motor Input
Current (A)
Flow meter
V.H (m)
Reading
Voltage
(rpm)
(kw)
(kw)
(kw)
S.No.
(m)
(V)
1 49.1 2880 61 9 63 0 0 415 9.43 5.1 0 65.33 5.449 0 0

2 49.1 2880 50 0 52.03 2.72 2.72 415 10.45 5.72 2.77 53.95 6.04 1.465 24.26
3 49.1 2880 40 0.2 42.18 6.23 6.23 415 10.43 5.84 6.34 43.74 6.167 2.719 44.09
4 49.1 2880 30 0.3 32.29 7.67 7.67 415 10.18 5.6 8.01 33.48 5.914 2.629 44.45
5 49.1 2880 20 0.4 22.4 9.26 9.26 415 10.27 5.5 9.43 23.23 5.808 2.148 36.98
6 49.1 2880 10 0.5 12.5 10.37 10.37 415 10.07 5.1 10.56 12.96 5.386 1.342 24.92
TABLE II TABLE IV
SPECIFICATION OF THE PUMP SPECIFICATION OF THE IMPELLER
Parameters Dimensions Specification of Impeller
Min. Bore Size (mm) 150 Parameter Dimensions
Discharge (lps) 6 Inlet Diameter (mm) 61
Number of Stages 6 Outlet Diameter (mm) 97
Total Head (m) 36 Inlet blade angle 74°
Flow Type Mixed Flow Outlet blade angle 49°
Thickness of blade (mm) 3.48
TABLE III Number of blades 6
SPECIFICATION OF THE BOWL
TABLE V
Specification of Bowl MODIFIED MODEL OF BOWL-IMPELLER AXIAL GAP
Parameter Dimensions
Model Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap variations
68-113 varying S.No
Inlet Diameter (mm) Description (Existing Model 17mm)
(Taper length= 40)
1 Model 1 2mm Increase
Outlet Diameter (mm) 129
Inlet blade angle 55.29°
Outlet blade angle 29.45°
4 Model 4 2mm Decrease
Thickness of blade (mm) 15
Number of blades 8
69
Fig. 5. Modified (Increased and Decreased) model

of six different Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap
III. Materials and Methods

The Material Construction of the Pump is in the
(Table VI). This pump has 6” (150mm diameter) bore
well Pump casing & diffusers are made up of well
designed white Profiles with Cast imp &ppo/glass filled
fibres for free of flow and high head & high discharge.
Pump shaft, sleeve & couplings are made in stainless
steel 304 grade of noncorrosive materials. Impellers are
well designed for high discharge in Bronze material.
Water inlet, outlet and stage casings, adapter & Delivery
outlets (BJL) are made up of quality casings with FG200
Fig. 1. Cross Sectional View of Submersible Pump Assembly grade.
All Pumps shaft bends are rendered in special purpose
machine to ensure vibration free/await ply. Each and
every stage is assembled within the tolerance. Motor
portion constructed with high pressed stator made up of
low watt loss material stamping sheet with TIG welding
and order shells partial/fully hovered with stainless steel
304 grade non corrosive materials.
Every spigot seatings machined in thro mandles to
ensure face out & ran outs. Housings, thrust Bearing base
& oil seal Housing are made in graded last Iron of FG200
Fig. 2. Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap
grade. Housing Journal Brushes are water imbricate head
fin bronze materials. Thrust bearing with segment & Ball
type ensures wide thrust heads. Winding made by water
cooled poly wrap wires. Pumps are made in Radial flow
and (Axial & Radial) mixed flow types for various head
range and discharge.
IV. Numerical Modeling

Fig. 3. Bowl IV.1. Governing Equations
The incompressible flow through the rotating impeller
is solved in a moving frame of reference with constant
rotational speed 2880 rpm of the impeller. The flow
through the stationary parts of the pump is solved in an
inertial reference frame.
The governing equations for the impeller are
formulated below:
∇ =0 (1)
Fig. 4. Impeller
70
∇ +2 Ω× + Ω×Ω× = V. Meshing Strategy

(2)
= −∇ + ∇
To analyze the model of the pump 8GB RAM and
Intel core i5 processor was used. The grid independence
where ρ is the density of the fluid, p is the static study are carried out to find the optimal mesh count.
pressure, is the vector fluid velocity in the rotating It was found that the geometry is complex: its surface
systems, Ω is the rotational speed and is the is discretized with tri elements and volume with
dynamic effective viscosity which is a linear combination tetrahedron elements. To capture boundary layer prism
of laminar and turbulent viscosity derived from K-ε elements are added near the walls. The maximum
model of turbulence. equiangular skewness for surface mesh is kept between
The last two terms in the left hand side of Eq. (2) are 0.6 and 0.85. The Surface mesh of the Multistage
the effects of the coriolis and centrifugal forces due to submersible pump (Fig. 6) is generated in American
the rotating frame of reference. National Space Administration (ANSA). The Contours of
TABLE VI
Static Pressure and Velocity Vectors for the Existing
MATERIAL CONSTRUCTION OF PUMP Model (Fig. 7). Then the volume mesh is generated in T-
Stage casing CI/FG 200 Grid. The volume mesh count for this case is 26 lakhs.
Impellers Bronze
Shaft & levers SS/304
GrideBrades LTB/Nitryl Rubber
Inlet & Outlet Bodies FG/200 CI
Inlet Series SS 304
Drain / Waterinletphgs Brass
Cable guards SS
For the stationary parts of the governing equations are

formulated in the stationary reference frame.
The continuity equation remains the same, but the
momentum equation reduces to:
∇ = −∇ + ∇ (3)
where u is the vector fluid velocity in the stationary

frame of reference. Transport Equation for the K-ε
Realizable Turbulence Model:
It has been shown in the previous paper J. Fig. 6. Surface Mesh of Submersible Pump Assembly
Manikandan et al [10] that the best practices of
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for the problem
was found that k-ε Realizable Model is predicted when
comparing to the other turbulence models. K-ε model
solves two transport equations for accounting µt into the
conservation of momentum equation:
( )+ (5 )= µ+ +
(4)
+ + −5 − +
Fig. 7. Contours of Static Pressure and Velocity Vectors
( )+ (5 )= µ+ + for the Existing Model
(5)
+ + − 5 + V.1. Boundary Condition and Solution Methodology
ANSYS FLUENT V13.0 is used as the solver for this
analysis. The problem is considered to be steady three
= (6)
dimensional in-compressible and turbulent in nature. It
was found that second order segregated solver with
where k is the turbulent kinetic energy, ε is the simple algorithm works well. All the impellers in multi
dissipation rate, µ is the laminar viscosity, µt is the Stage mixed flow pump are modeled as frozen impellers
turbulent viscosity, Gk is the generation of turbulent using Moving Reference Frame (MRF) methodology.
kinetic energy due to the mean viscosity gradients, k Inlet boundary condition is modeled as pressure inlet
and ε are the turbulent prandtl numbers and C1ε =1.44, with zero pressure (pa) and outlet boundary condition is
C2ε =1.92 and Cm = 0.09 are the constants of the model. modeled as total pressure is 328438.8 (pa).
71
Water at ambient condition is to be working fluid

property, and its analyzed parameters in the Table VII.
TABLE VII
SIMULATION
Computational Fluid
Parameters
Dynamics (CFD)
Fluid water at 25°C
Inlet Pressure = 0 Pa
Outlet Total Pressure = 328438.8 Pa
Density 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity 1.003e-3 kg/m-s Fig. 10. Discharge
Turbulence Model K-ε Realizable Model
VI.1. Effect of Increasing Recirculation Region

VI. Results and Discussion of the Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap:
To determine the performance curves for discharge, From the CFD analysis of various models it was
head and efficiency are plotted in the (Figs. 8, 9 and 10). clearly seen that when the bowl-impeller axial gap is
A few observations are made :(a) If the axial gap is increased, the size of the recirculation region increases
too large, water can re-circulate from the high pressure (Fig. 11). The velocity and the static pressure are found
region to low pressure region. to be minimal in this recirculation region and the flow
This not only causes a loss in efficiency of the pump, moves from high pressure zone to low pressure zone.
but it can also lead to accelerated erosion of the bowl. This reduces the flow rate and increases the head
On the other hand, (b) if the axial gap is too close, value. This is because of minimum shear stress which is
water can re-circulate from low pressure region to high induced between bowl and the impeller (Fig. 12).
pressure region. Also the surface hydraulic boundary
layers of the impeller and bowl may interfere with each
other. This causes increase in hydraulic friction due to
viscous shear between the two boundary layers, which
decreases pump efficiency.
Energy intended for pumping water is diverted and
consumed by the impeller grinding itself into the pump
Fig. 11. Contours of Velocity Vector
bowl. This contact causes permanent damage to both the (Existing Model, 2mm, 5mm and 10mm) Increased Model
bowl, impeller and shortens the service life of the
pump.(c) Thus finding the optimum bowl-impeller axial
gap is very essential for these types of pumps.
Fig. 12. Contours of Shear Stress (Existing Model, 2mm, 5mm

and 10mm) Increased Model
VI.2. Effect of Decreasing Recirculation Region

of the Bowl-Impeller Axial Gap:
When the bowl-impeller axial gap is decreased, the
size of the recirculation region decreases (Fig. 13). The
velocity and the static pressure are found maximum in
Fig. 8. Efficiency this recirculation region and the flow moves from low
pressure region to high pressure region.
This increases the flow rate and decreases the head
value. This is because of the reason that more shear stress
is induced between bowl and the impeller (Fig. 14).
Fig. 13. Contours of Velocity vector

(Existing Model, 2mm, 5mm and 10mm) Decreased Model
Fig. 9. Head
72
TABLE VIII
PERFORMANCE VARIATION OF DIFFERENT MODELS
Variations of Bowl -Impeller Axial Gap
5mm Decrease
Existing Model
2mm Decrease
2mm Increase
5mm Increase
Decrease
Model l
Model 2
Model 4
Model 5
Model 6
Model 3
Increase
Performance at Rated
10mm
10mm
Frequency 50 Hz
Discharge (lps) 9.449 9.537 9.432 9.379 9.772 9.620 9.562

Head (m) 33.884 33.945 33.930 34.008 34.190 33.830 33.823
Motor Input (kW) 5.914 5.914 5.914 5.914 5.914 5.914 5.914
Efficiency (%) 54.137 54.740 54.113 53.933 56.493 55.029 54.686
References
[1] Weidong Zhou, Zhimei Zhao, T. S. Lee, and S. H.Winoto,
“Investigation of Flow Through Centrifugal Pump Impellers
Using Computational Fluid Dynamics” International Journal of
Rotating Machinery, 9(1): 49–61, 2003.
[2] Saha, TK and Soundranayagam, S (1996) Performance of a mixed
flow pump with varying tip clearance .1. In: Proceedings of the
Fig. 14. Contours of Shear Stress Institution of Mechanical Engineers - Part A: Journal of Power
(Existing Model, 2mm, 5mm and 10mm) Decreased Model and Energy, 210 (4). pp. 305-318.
[3] Soundranayagam, S and Saha, TK (1996) Performance of a mixed
flow pump with varying tip clearance .2. In: Proceedings of the
VI.3. Efficiency Variation for the Different Models Institution of Mechanical Engineers - Part A: Journal of Power
and Energy, 210 (4). pp. 319-327.
The efficiency variations for the six different models [4] T. Engin, Study of tip clearance effects in centrifugal fans with
in the Table VIII. The model 4 (2mm Decreased) has unshrouded using Computational fluid dynamics, Proc.IMech
considerably higher value compare to the other models. It Vol.220 Part A: Power and Energy, PP.599-609.
[5] Hanoca P, Shobhavathy M T, CFD analysis to investigate the
has 53.35 % which is around 4.5 % increased from the effect of axial spacing in a single stage transonic axial flow
existing model: compressor, Symposium on Applied Aerodynamics and Design of
Aerospace Vehicle (SAROD 2011) November 16-18, 2011,
Head × Discharge Bangalore, India.
Effciency(%) = [6] Jianjun Feng, Friedrich-karlBenra, and Hans Josef dohmen,
Motor Input
Numerical Study on Impeller-Diffuser Interactions with Radial
Gap Variation, Proceedings of the 4th WSEAS International
Conference on Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamics, Elounda,
VII. Conclusion Greece, August 21-23, 2006 PP. (289-294).
[7] Adnan Ozturk, Kadir Aydin, BesirSahin and Ali Pinarbasi, Effect
A numerical model of the entire pump has been of Impeller-Diffuser radial gap ratio in a centrifugal pump,
successfully generated and analyzed. An integrated Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, Vol.68.March 2009
approach is tried to investigate the models with varying PP. (203-213).
[8] TahsinEngin, MesutGur, ReinhardScholzEffects of tip clearance
bowl-impeller axial gap are compared at the Best
and impeller geometry on the performance of semi-open ceramic
Efficiency Point (BEP) of the pump. The results have centrifugal fan impellers at elevated temperatures, Experimental
been obtained by varying six different models. The Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 565–577.
detailed information was shown in the velocity vector [9] J. Plutecki, A. Wajda, “The Influence of an Axial Clearance
between Semi-Open Impeller and a Casing on Pump Parameters”,
and shear stress contours to predict the best model. Based
By Example of H1-150 Pump, Vortrage der Konferenzfu¨ r
on the numerical simulation it can be concluded that the Stromungsmaschinen, Budapest, 1975, pp. 833–845.
Model 4 (2 mm Decrease) in which the bowl-impeller [10] J. Manikandan,V. Senthil,S. Nagarajan "Performance Evaluation
axial gap performs better comparably in head and of Mixed Flow Pump using Computational Fluid Dynamics”
European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450- 216X
discharge characteristics. It has been increased the
Vol.80 No.4 (2012), pp.479-486.
efficiency up to 2.35 % from the existing model. From [11] Kaul, R., Sapali, S.N., CFD analysis of turbulent flow over
the observation, the numerical simulation of this effect of centrifugal pump's impeller of various designs and comparison of
Bowl-Impeller axial gap is achieved using numerical results for various models, (2013) International Review
of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (1), pp. 248-260.
Computational Fluid Dynamics could demonstrate very
[12] Ragoth Singh, R., Nataraj, M., Parametric study and optimization
good predictions. of pump impeller by varying the design parameter using
computational fluid dynamics, (2012) International Review of
Acknowledgements [13] Ragoth Singh, R., Nataraj, M., Surendar, S., Siva, M.,
Investigation of a centrifugal pump impeller vane profile using
The authors would like to thank Coimbatore Industrial CFD, (2013) International Review on Modelling and Simulations
Infrastructure Association (CO-INDIA) Coimbatore, (IREMOS), 6 (4), pp. 1327-1333.
Tamilnadu. The research work is carried out with their
co-Operation and also thanks the team members for their
technical support and guidance.
73
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hindusthan College of
Engineering and Technology,Coimbatore - 641032. Anna University,
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
E-mail: maniluxshanth@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Coimbatore nstitute of
Technology,Coimbatore-641014. Anna University, Chennai.
Tamilnadu, India,
E-mail: vsenthil.me.cit@gmail.com
3
Head CFD, Sputnik Corporation, Research and development,
Coimbatore - 641020.Tamilnadu, India.
E-mail: nagarajansubramaniam@yahoo.com
Manikandan J. born on 25th July 1976 in

Erode, Tamilnadu, India. I am obtained
bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering
from Mookambigai College of Engineering,
Bharathidasan University in the year of 1998
and Master’s degree in Engineering Design
from Kongu Engineering College, Bharathiyar
University in the year of 2000. My research
paper has published in an International Journal and presented paper in
International and National Conferences. My areas of interest are Fluid
Mechanics, Computational Fluid Dynamics and Fluid Dynamics. Life
member of Indian Society for Technical Education and Member of
Institution of Engineers, India.
74
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Aluminium Alloy 7075

Reinforced with Tungsten Carbide and Fly-Ash
Vivekanandan P.1, Arunachalam V. P.2
Abstract – Aluminium based Hybrid metal matrix composite of varied weight percentage of
tungsten carbide and fly ash have to be fabricated by stir casting method with acceptable uniform
distribution of the reinforcement particles. A fair change in the hardness of the metal matrix
composite is to be observed with increase in the WC content. Considerable increase in the
hardness is expected to be observed with the addition of 5% weight of Fly ash and as the content
of the Fly ash increased, the hardness tends to drop in the AMC .The tensile strength of the AMC
is expected to increase with the increase in weight percentage of WC. With the addition of 10%
weight of Fly ash to MMC, there could be improvement in tensile strength .The mechanical
properties (Tensile Strength; Hardness) of the hybrid metal matrix composite were comparatively
less to that of the AMCs. The SEM image will also to be incorporated to ascertain that both WC
and Fly ash particles are well distributed in the AMC. From this research it is to be arrived to a
conclusion that whether Tungsten Carbide and Fly ash can be used for the production of
composites replacing the high cost aluminium alloy (7075). Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy
Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Al 7075, WC, Flyash, SEM, Tensile Strength, Hardness
I. Introduction Attempts were made to develop stir casting setup that

can overcome these problems.
Aluminium and its alloys are used in wide range of Prabhakar Kammer [2] fabricated Metal matrix
industrial applications such as Aerospace, automotive composite of Al 7075, reinforced with fly ash and e-glass
industries and Military. The working conditions of the fibre. It was found that tensile strength and compression
metal differ in various aspects like load conditions, strength improved when compared to al 7075 alloy alone.
temperature factors and other parameters. As all these Also an increase in the Ultimate Tensile strength was
required properties cannot be met in a single metal, it has evident.
lead to the development of MMCs. MMCs have gained Hari Prasada Rao [3] conducted the Microstructure
importance as they exhibit enhanced mechanical Exploration of the Aluminium -Tungsten Carbide
properties than pure metal such as greater strength, Composite with different Manufacturing circumstances
improved stiffness, reduced density, improved and revealed exciting results such as good interfacial
temperature properties, wear resistance. Especially bond between matrix and tungsten carbide particles;
aluminium metal MMCs are fast emerging as Improved Grain Structure compared to Pure Aluminium
engineering materials and competing with the common and increased the impact resistance.
metals and alloys [1]-[19]. In this study, attempts have been made to fabricate a
Based on the literature survey it is evident that though Hybrid Metal Matrix Composite from the commercially
the application scope for AMC’s is expanding, the major available Tungsten carbide and Fly ash. Aluminium 7075
hindrance is the production of these AMC’s on an is used as matrix metal for the fabrication of Al-WC-Fly
industrial scale can be either solid state processing or ash.
liquid state processing. The simplicity and scalability The thinking behind the development of Hybrid Metal
involved in a Stir casting method has made it a prime matrix composites is to combine the desirable properties
route for synthesis of AMCs amongst liquid state of Aluminium, Tungsten carbide and Fly ash. Aluminium
processing. There have been reported inherent problems has useful properties such as high strength, ductility, high
in stir casting such as good wetting between the thermal and electrical conductivity but have low stiffness
particulate reinforcement and the liquid aluminium alloy whereas Tungsten carbide and fly ash are stiffer and
metal. Moreover the problems with the finer stronger, though brittle.
reinforcement particles especially nano particles would The fabricated composites were characterized with the
be clustering, if these challenges could be overcome then help of Scanning Electron microscope. Also the hardness
stir casting would be a commercially viable technology and tensile behaviour were evaluated.
for producing AMCs.
75
Vivekanandan P., Arunachalam V. P.
II. Materials Thermal Conductivity of the Tungsten carbide is in

the range of twice that of tool steel and carbon steel.
II.1. Metal Matrix Electrical Conductivity of the Tungsten carbide is in the
The matrix metal used in the experimental same range as tool steel and carbon steel.
Investigation is an Aluminium alloy (7075) whose Tungsten carbide wears up to 100 times longer than
chemical composition (in % Wt.) is listed in Table I. steel in conditions including abrasion, erosion and
Aluminium alloy 7075 is an aluminium alloy, with galling. Wear resistance of tungsten carbide is better than
zinc as the primary alloying element and less than half a that of wear-resistance tool steels.
percent of silicon, iron, manganese, titanium, chromium,
TABLE II
and other metals. It is strong, with strength comparable to PROPERTIES OF TUNGSTEN CARBIDE
many steels, and has good fatigue strength and average Property Value
machinability. Due to their high strength-to-density ratio, Density 15.63 g/cm3
Al 7075 is often used in transport applications, including Molar Mass 195.851 g/mol
marine, automotive and aviation. Their strength and light Melting Point 2870 °C, 3143 K, 5198 °F
Boiling Point 6000 °C, 6273 K, 10832 °F
weight is also desirable in other fields. Rock climbing Solubility in Water Insoluble
equipment, bicycle components, inline-skating-frames
and hang glider airframes are commonly made from Al
7075 aluminium alloy. II.2.2. Fly Ash
TABLE I Fly ash is the most inexpensive and low density

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ALUMINIUM 7075 available in large quantities as solid waste by product
Component Wt % Component Wt % during combustion of coal in thermal power plants. Fly
Si 0.4 Cr 0.18 – 0.28 ash is produced as a resultant due to the mineral
Fe 0.5 Zn 5.1 – 6.1 component of coal and combustion techniques involved.
Cu 1.2 – 2.0 Ti 0.2
Mn 0.3 Balance Aluminium In India the stature was about 90 millions ton during
Mg 2.1 – 2.9 1995 and is likely to exceed 140 million tons in 2020.
The fly ash utilization instead of dumping as waste
material can be both on environmental and economic
II.2. Reinforcement Material grounds. Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic
The role of the reinforcement in a composite material precipitator or other particle filtration equipment before
is fundamentally one of increasing the mechanical the flue gases reaches the chimney of coal fired power
properties of the neat resin system. All of the different plant.
particulates used in composites have different properties Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal
and so affect the properties of the composite in different being burned, the components of the fly ash produced
ways. vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial
amounts of silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2), (both
amorphous and crystalline) and lime (calcium oxide,
II.2.1. Tungsten Carbide CaO). Fly ash particles are mostly spherical in shape and
Tungsten carbide (WC) known as the inorganic range from less than 1 µm to 100 µm with a specific
chemical compound contains equal parts of tungsten and surface area, typically between 250 and 600 m2/kg.
carbon atoms. It is a fine gray powder, in its most basic The specific gravity of fly ash varies in the range of
form, but it can be pressed and formed into shapes for 0.6-2.8 gm/cc. Coal fly ash has many uses including as a
use in industrial machinery, cutting tools, abrasives, cement additive, in masonry blocks, as a concrete
other tools and instruments, and jewellery. admixture, as a material in lightweight alloys, as a
Tungsten carbide compositions range from two to concrete aggregate, in flow type fill materials, in
three times as rigid as steel and four to six times as rigid roadway/runway construction, in structural fill materials,
as cast iron and brass. Young's Modulus is up to as roofing granules, and in grouting. The chemical
94,800,000 psi. Compressive strength is higher than composition of Fly ash is shown in the Table III.
virtually all melted and cast or forged metals and alloys.
TABLE III
High resistance to deformation and deflection is very Chemical Composition of Fly Ash
valuable in those many applications where a combination Component Wt% Component Wt%
of minimum deflection and good ultimate strength merits SiO2 (%) 40 – 60 CaO (%) 5 – 30
first consideration. Some of the notable properties of Al2O3 (%) 20 – 30 LOI (%) 0–3
Tungsten carbide are given in the Table II. Tungsten base Fe2O3 (%) 4-10
carbides perform well up to about 1000°F in oxidizing
atmospheres and to 1500°F in non-oxidizing
atmospheres.
III. Experimental Methodology
Tungsten carbide retains toughness and impact In the study, stir casting method was used for the
strength in the cryogenic temperature ranges. synthesis of metal matrix composite.
76
A stir casting setup consists of a resistance Muffle

Furnace and a stainless Steel stirrer assembly. The stirrer
assembly was connected to a variable speed vertical
drilling machine with range of 50 to 1000 rpm by means
of a steel shaft. The stirrer was made by cutting and
shaping a Stainless Steel block to desired shape and size
manually. Clay graphite crucible of 1.5 kg capacity was
placed inside the furnace. The graphical representation of
stir casting was shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Stir Casting Setup
Approximately 500gm of alloy in solid form (plate)

was melted at 800°C in the resistance furnace. Preheating
of reinforcement (Fly Ash at 450°C, tungsten carbide at
780°C) was done for one hour to remove moisture and
gases from the surface of the particulates. The stirrer was
then lowered vertically up to some centimetres from the Fig. 2. Fabricated Samples
bottom of the crucible.
The speed of the stirrer was gradually raised to It was found that the hardness of the aluminium and
700rpm and the preheated reinforced particles were Tungsten carbide composite increased gradually as the
added with a spoon at a constant rate into the melt. The percentage of WC mixture was increased. Whereas the
speed controller maintained a constant speed of the Aluminium and fly ash composite‘s hardness increased
stirrer, as the stirrer speed got reduced due to the increase initially and as the Percentage of Fly ash was increased, a
in viscosity of the melt when particulates were added into drop in the hardness was observed. The hardness of the
the melt. Hybrid Metal Matrix Composite had a drastic drop in the
After the addition of reinforcement, stirring was hardness compared to the other MMCs.
continued for 2 minutes for proper mixing of prepared TABLE V
particles in the matrix. The melt was kept in the crucible HARDNESS OF SAMPLES
for approximate half minute in static condition and then Sample Rockwell Hardness Number on Superficial 30T
it was poured in the mould. Six different samples were Aluminium - Fly Ash Composite
made whose compositions are given in Table IV. Sample 1 54
Sample 2 34
The fabricated samples are shown in the Fig. 2. Sample 3 39
Aluminium - Tungsten Carbide Composite
Sample 4 46
IV. Results and Discussion Sample 5 53
Sample 6 54
IV.1. Hardness Test Aluminium – Fly Ash – Tungsten Carbide Hybrid Composite
Sample 7 44.2
The hardness test was carried out in lab environment
as per IS: 1586 – 2000. The Rockwell Hardness of each
sample was investigated and the results are tabulated in IV.2. Tensile Test
the Table V.
TABLE IV The Tensile test was carried out under Laboratory
SAMPLES - MIXTURE COMPOSITION environment using a Computerized Universal Testing
Sample
Total wt. of Aluminium- Tungsten Fly Ash Machine. The dimension of the tested sample is shown in
Specimen (gms) 7075 (gms) Carbide (% wt.) (% wt.) the Fig. 3. It was observed that as the percentage of WC
Sample 1 525 500 - 5
Sample 2 550 500 - 10
mixture increased there is a gradual increase in the
Sample 3 575 500 - 15 Tensile Strength. While adding fly ash there was a drop
Sample 4 510 500 2 - in the tensile strength of the Composite initially and a
Sample 5 520 500 4 - notable increase in the tensile strength was observed,
Sample 6 530 500 6 -
Sample 7 545 500 4 5
which dropped slightly at the third stage.
77
Fig. 3. Tensile Testing Sample Dimension
However there was not much improvement in the

value of tensile strength of the Hybrid metal matrix
composite. The Tensile strength values of the various
samples are tabulated in the Table VI.
TABLE VI Fig. 5. SEM image of Sample 5
TENSILE STRENGTH OF SAMPLES
Sample Tensile Strength (Mpa)
Aluminium - Fly Ash Composite
Sample 1 134.7
Sample 2 189.6
Sample 3 166.4
Aluminium - Tungsten Carbide Composite
Sample 4 171.4
Sample 5 195.7
Sample 6 199.9
Aluminium – Fly Ash – Tungsten Carbide Hybrid Composite
Sample 7 169.4
IV.3. SEM Analysis

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of
electron microscope that images the sample surface by Fig. 6. SEM image of Sample 7
scanning it with a high-energy beam of electrons in a
raster scan pattern. The electrons interact with the atoms
that make up the sample producing signals that contain V. Conclusion
information about the sample's surface topography, Aluminium based Hybrid metal matrix composite of
composition and other properties such as electrical varied weight percentage o tungsten carbide and fly ash
conductivity. The SEM image of the fabricated have been successfully fabricated by stir casting method
composite shows the distribution of WC and Fly ash with acceptable uniform distribution of the reinforcement
particles in uniform pattern and no obvious micro particles. A fair increase in the hardness of the metal
porosity defect are observed in all the selected samples, matrix composite was observed with increase in the WC
as shown in the Figs. 4, 5, 6. content. Considerable increase in the hardness was
observed with the addition of 5% weight of Fly ash and
as the content of the Fly ash increased, the hardness tends
to drop in the AMC. The tensile strength of the AMC
increased with the increase in weight percentage of WC.
With the addition of 10% weight of Fly ash to MMC,
improved tensile strength was observed.
The mechanical properties (Tensile Strength;
Hardness) of the hybrid metal matrix composite were
comparatively less to that of the AMCs. The SEM image
revealed that both WC and Fly ash particles are well
distributed in the AMC.
From this study it is concluded that Tungsten Carbide
and Fly ash can be used for the production of composites
replacing the high cost aluminium alloy (7075). The
usage of the later can turn industrial waste into industrial
wealth, solving the problems of storage and disposal of
Fig. 4. SEM image of Sample 1
Fly ash.
78
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[1] Tosun, N., 2006. Determination of optimum parameters for multi-

performance characteristics in drilling by using grey relational Authors’ information
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[2] Prabhakar Kammer, Experimental Studies on Mechanical Associate Professor & Head, Mechatronics Engineering, SNS college
Properties of E-Glass Short Fibres & Fly Ash Reinforced Al 7075 of Technology, Coimbatore, India – 641035.
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M., Microstructure and dry sliding wear behavior of AA2218 Technology - Coimbatore, India. He has long academic career of 14
based self-lubricating metal matrix composites, (2013) years of experience at various capacities from Lecturer to Associate
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pp. 1142-1146. in the department of Mechatronics Engineering, SNS College of
[6] Dhavamani, C., Alwarsamy, T., Optimization of cutting Technology, Coimbatore, India. He has published 5 papers in
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investigations of silicon carbide - Fly Ash reinforced Aluminium member of ISTE& IE. He had more than 35 years of academic
metal matrix composite, (2013) International Review of experience at various capacities. Currently he is serving as a Director (
Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (5), pp. 930-938. Academics ) in SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore. He published
[10] Ramesh, B., Senthilvelan, T., Statistical modeling of aluminium more than 115 papers in International Journals, 25 National Journals
based composites and aluminium alloys using design of and presented more than 75 papers at National and International
experiments, (2010) International Review of Mechanical Conferences. He has guided 18 Ph.D Scholars and he has been guiding
Engineering (IREME), 4 (7), pp. 799-804. 8 Research scholars and his areas of interest are Production
[11] Safarzadeh, D., Sulaiman, S., Aziz, F.A., Ahmad, D.B., Majzoobi, Engineering, Quality Management, Composite materials and
G.H., Computer-aided FEM to analyze the composite materials Maintenance Managements etc.
for replacing with steel in crane structure, (2010) International
[12] Reddy, S., Mukunda, P.G., Suresh Hebbar, H., Wear and
machinability study of SiCp reinforced and Al2O3p reinforced
Al-Si alloy composites, (2010) International Review of
[13] by the stir casting method, Journal of Materials Processing
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[14] Er. Sandeep Kumar Ravesh, Prepration & Analysis for Some
Mechanical Property of Aluminium Based Metal Matrix
Composite Reinforced with Sic & Fly Ash, International Journal
of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-
9622 Vol. 2, Issue 6, November- December 2012, pp.727-731.
[15] Mahendra Boopathi. M, Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of
Aluminium alloy 2024 Reinforced with Silicon Carbide and Fly
Ash Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites, American Journal of
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[16] Hashim J, L.Looney & M..S.J.Hashmi, Metal matrix composites:
Production Sciences, 10(3): 219-229, 2013, ISSN: 1546-9239.
[17] L. Cao, Y. Wang, C.K. Yao, The Wear Properties of an SiC–
whisker reinforced aluminium composite, Wear 140 (1990) 273–
277.
[18] T.P.D. Rajan, R.M. Pillai, B.C. Pai, K.G. Satyanarayana, P.K.
Rohatgi, Proceedings of National Conference on: Recent
Advances in Materials Processing (RAMP-2001), India, 2001.
[19] Hossein Bisadi, Fabrication of Al7075 / TiB2 Surface Composite
Via Friction Stir Processing, American Journal of Material
79
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Experimental Investigation on Electrochemical Micro Machining

of Al-10%wt SiCp Based on Taguchi Design of Experiments
S. Dharmalingam1, P. Marimuthu2, K. Raja3, C. Nithyapathi4, B. Babu5, M. Siva6
Abstract – Micro Electro chemical machining manufacturers and users are to achieve a better
stability and high economical productivity of the manufacturing process is the main objectives of
this investigation. This paper investigates the influence of the process parameters like machining
voltage, electrolyte concentration, frequency on the over cut and Material Removal Rate (MRR).
This paper discusses a methodology for the optimization of the machining parameters on drilling
of Al-SiCp Metal Matrix composites using Electrochemical Micro Machining (EMM). The taguchi
L27 orthogonal array and analysis of variance are employed to study the influence of machining
parameters such as machining voltage, Electrolyte concentration, Frequency on the over cut and
Material Removal Rate (MRR). Based on the Taguchi analysis, optimum level of parameters is
determined and the same to validate through the confirmation test. Experimental results are in
close agreement with the developed model. It is observed that the machining performance can be
effectively improved with respect to initial parametric setting. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy
Keywords: Metal Matrix Composite (MMC), Material Removal Rate, Overcut, Electrochemical
Micromachining (EMM), Taguchi, ANOVA, Design of Experiment
Nomenclature Electrochemical machining is widely recognized that

has great potential and many applications in
S/N Signal-to-noise ratio micromachining. The micro hole is the most demanding
Y Responses for the given factor level important basic element while fabricating the micro parts
Combination and micro devices which are best made in micro ECM.
n Number of responses in the factor level To meet the demanding technology various micro
combination machining methods are developed. Out of that, micro
DOF Degree of Freedom electro chemical machining having more advantages like
good surface finish, zero tool wear and good quality
Subscripts product and no heating zone.
1, 2,3 Low Medium and High
II. Literature Review

I. Introduction
Stir casting method is very popular due to its unique
Electrochemical Micro Machining (EMM) is a advantages [1]. Al-fly ash composites fabricated by stir
nontraditional non contact [tool and work piece] casting process, it could be considered as an excellent
machining process in which material is removed by the material in sectors where light weight, enhanced
mechanism of anodic dissolution during an electrolysis mechanical properties and wear resistance are prime
process. MMCs having outstanding properties like high consideration especially in automobile applications [2].
modules, low ductility, high thermal conductivity and ECM technology and summarized that have been
low thermal expansion, high strength-to-weight ratio, successfully adapted to produce macro, micro
high toughness, high-impact strength, high wear components with complex features and high aspect ratios
resistance, low sensitivity to surface flaws, and high for biomedical and other applications with the help of
surface durability. As a result, many of the current extensive research work needed in the area of machining
applications for MMCs are in many industrial parameter and tool design [3]. A very serious problems
applications including electronics, bio medicine, optics, in machining MMCs because of the hard particles in the
bio technology, home appliances, Fuel injection system matrix present [4].
components, ordnance components mechanical machine However, because of the poor machining properties of
parts like turbine blades, engine castings, bearing cages, MMCs, drilling MMCs is a challenging task for
gears, dies and molds and all other major parts in manufacturing engineers.
automobile and aerospace industries.
80
S. Dharmalingam, P. Marimuthu, K. Raja, C. Nithyapathi, B. Babu, M. Siva
Most of the current literature presents experimental III. Experimental Details

results in terms of tool life, quality of drilled hole, and
induced force when drilling MMCs. III.1. Preparation of the Hybrid Composites
Shorter pulse period machining voltage produces The material used in this investigation consists of
lower side gap and it also increases the unit removal [5]. 6063 aluminum alloy as matrix and its chemical
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for composition is shown in Table I. It is well suitable for
identifying the significant parameters affecting the high temperature application due their high thermal
responses [6], [7]. In Taguchi’s analysis method, the conductivity. The aluminum matrix was reinforced with
design parameters and noise parameters which influence 10%wt of SiCp.
the product quality are considered [8],[9]. The The average particle size SiCp was 20 microns. The
application of ANOVA and ANN analysis for composites were prepared through stir casting route as
optimization of machining parameters on AMC were shown in Fig. 1. The aluminum alloy was preheated in a
studied [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]. resistance furnace at 400º C for 2 to 3 hour before
Electrochemical micromachining (ECMM) is an melting. SiCp was also preheated in a resistance furnace
emerging nonconventional technology for producing at 1200º C for 2 hour. The preheated aluminum were
micro/meso scale components [16]. Investigates the first heated above the liquidus temperature to melt them
effect and parametric optimization process parameters of completely, then slightly cooled below the liquidus to
electro chemical micro machining of 304 stainless steel maintain the slurry in the semisolid state. This procedure
[17]. Experiments conducted with the developed setup by has been adopted while stir casting aluminum composites
varying the machining voltage, electrolyte concentration, [25],[26]. The preheated reinforcements were added and
pulse-on time, and frequency on copper plate. In the mixed manually.
study, they reported that a considerable amount of MRR Manual mixing was used because it was very difficult
at a moderate accuracy can be achieved with a machining to mix using automatic device when the alloy was in a
voltage of 6–10 V, pulse-on time of 10–15 ms, and semisolid state. The composite slurry was then reheated
electrolyte concentration of 15–20 g/l [18]. The micro to a fully liquid state, and mechanical mixing was carried
ECM process is complex, and it is not easy to decide the out for about 15–20 min at an average mixing speed of
optimal machining parameters for improving the output 150–300 rpm. The final temperature was controlled to be
quality. The optimization of process parameters is within 750°C±20°C, and pouring temperature was
essential for the realization of a higher productivity, controlled to be around 720°C. After thorough stirring,
which is the preliminary basis for survival in today’s the melt was poured into steel molds of size 100x100x10
dynamic market conditions. Optimal quality of the work mm and allowed to cool to obtain cast sheet [27],[28].
piece in ECM can be generated through combinational Then the thickness was reduced to 0.4 mm through
control of various process parameters [19]. An attempt rolling and the same was cut in to 50×50×0.4 mm to
made to machine the A356/SiCp composite work accommodate into the EMM.
material using the ECM process to study the effects of
various parameters such as applied voltage, electrolyte
concentration, feed rate, and percentage reinforcement on III.2. Electrochemical Micro Machining (EMM)
maximizing the MRR [20]. This process produces no tool Electrochemical micro machining (EMM) (Fig. 2) is
wear, having shorter machining time and cost effective. one of the nonconventional machining processes. It
The ECMM is still in its initial stages of development offers the unique advantage of better accuracy with high
and a lot of research needs to optimize the various surface integrity of hard-machined components; also it
process parameters [21], [22], [23]. Aluminum matrix has wider application because it produces good quality
composites are generally regarded as extremely difficult surfaces without affecting the metallurgical properties of
to machine, because of the abrasive characteristics of the the work material.
reinforced particulates [24]. During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the
In the view of the above, an attempt has been made in electrodes i.e. at the anode or work-piece and at the
this present investigation the influence of voltage, cathode or the tool along with within the electrolyte. Ion
electrolyte concentration, frequency on MRR and overcut and electrons crossing phase boundaries (the interface
of the Aluminum matrix composites using Electro between two or more separate phases, such as liquid-
chemical micro machining through Taguchi method and solid) would result in electron transfer reaction carried
Analysis of variance (ANOVA). Optimization of cutting out at both anode and cathode. It does not induce any
parameters is important for achievement of high quality. deformation because no heat is generated while
Taguchi’s method of experimental design is one of the machining.
widely accepted techniques for offline quality assurance Tool electrode feeding system, electrolyte supply
of products and processes. system, mechanical machining system, inter electrode
Taguchi’s robust design method is a unique statistical gap control system, pulse rectifier system are the major
tool and it has potential for savings in experimental time components of the EMM. The tool electrode feed
and cost on product or process development and quality mechanism, with resolution of 2 µm along Z – axis
improvement [19]. designed with stepper motor and 8051 micro controller.
81
for through micro – hole machining. MRR was derived

as work piece removal weight over machining time.
Overcut of the micro hole has been related with the
machining accuracy, hence it is the difference between
the diameters of the tool electrode and machined micro
hole. With the support of optical microscope the diameter
of the machined micro – hole was measured.
III.3. Methodology
The optimization of process parameters is the key step
in the Taguchi method. Twenty seven experimental runs
(L27) based on the Orthogonal Array (OA) of Taguchi
methods have been carried out.
The multi-response optimization of the process
Fig. 1. Stir Casting Set up parameters viz. MRR, Over cut has been performed for
making a micro hole in the process of micro-ECM of
hybrid Al-6% wt SiCp -3% Gr metal matrix composites,
each experiment was replicated twice. Machining time,
over cut, MRR noted for every trial. There are three
categories of quality characteristic in the analysis of the
S/N ratio:
1. Larger is better
2. Nominal is best
3. Smaller is best
Larger is better
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio is calculated for each
factor level combination. The formula for the larger-is-
better S/N ratio using base 10 log is:
Fig. 2. EMM Setup S/N = - 10log [sum (1/Y2)/n)]
The electrolyte supply system consists of filter and where Y = responses for the given factor level
pump arrangement. A pulsed power supply of 20 V and combination and n = number of responses in the factor
30 A with capability for varying voltage, current, and level combination.
pulse width was used [15]. The electrolyte of varying
concentrations used in this study was sodium nitrate Nominal is best (I)
(NANo3) and Al-10%wt SiCp - of thickness of 0.4 mm as The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio is calculated for each
work piece. Based on the literature review and factor level combination. The formula for the nominal-is-
preliminary experiments conducted, the initial process best I S/N ratio using base 10 log is:
parameters and their corresponding levels are chosen.
The work piece thickness 0.4 mm, machining current S/N = -10 log ( 10 s2)
0.6A as maintained. Table II shows the machining
parameters and their level indentified for this where s = standard deviation of the responses for all
investigation. Electrochemical micro machining (EMM) noise factors for the given factor level combination.
characteristics (MRR and Overcut) as output responses
TABLE I
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF AL 6063
Component Cr Fe Cu Mn Mg Si Ti Zn Al others
Wt % 0.2 max 0.7 0.25 0.1 1.0 0.6 max 0.1 max 0.15 98.1 remaining
TABLE II
MACHINING PROCESS PARAMETERS AND THEIR CORRESPONDING LEVELS
Symbol Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A Machining Voltage ( V) 5 7 9
Electrolyte concentration
B 18 24 30
( g/l)
C Frequency ( Hz) 30 40 50
82
Nominal is best (II) This analysis is carried out for significance level of α
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio is calculated for each = 0.05, i.e., for a confidence level of 95%.
factor level combination. The formula for the nominal-is-
best II S/N ratio using base 10 log is:
IV.1. Analysis for MRR
2 2
S/N = 10log((Y ) / s ) Table IV shows the response table for S/N ratio of
MRR and its ranking order. Fig. 4 shows the main effects
where Y = mean of responses for the given factor level at each level. it can be seen that the optimal values for
combination, s = standard deviation of the responses for maximum MRR were machining voltage of 7 V,
the given factor level combination, and n = number of electrolyte concentration of 24 g/l, and frequency of 50
responses in the factor level combination. Hz. The MRR increases with an increase in pulse
frequency then the dissolution efficiency increases
Smaller is better rapidly, causing a rapid increment of MRR in the
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio is calculated for each machining zone. Fig. 5 shows the residual plot for MRR.
factor level combination. The formula for the smaller-is-
better S/N ratio using base 10 log is:
S/N = -10log [sum(Y2)/n)]
where Y = responses for the given factor level

combination and n = number of responses in the factor
level combination.
In this study higher MRR and Lower over cut are
desired. Therefore MRR is Larger is better and Overcut
is Smaller is better chosen for this study.
IV. Major Results and Inferences

Minitab 16 statistical software has been used for the
analysis of the experimental work. The software studies
the experimental data and then provides the calculated
Fig. 3. Optical image for Micro hole 7V / 30 g/l / 50 Hz
results of signal-to-noise ratio.
TABLE III
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR L27 ORTHOGONAL ARRAY
Over S/N
Trial No. A B C MRR mg/min cut S/N Ratio for MRR ratio for
(µm) Over cut
1 5 18 30 0.254 201.36 -11.903 -46.079
2 5 18 40 0.277 144.12 -11.150 -43.174
3 5 18 50 0.376 142.20 -8.496 -43.058
4 5 24 30 0.286 158.70 -10.873 -44.012
5 5 24 40 0.309 163.26 -10.201 -44.258
6 5 24 50 0.407 97.20 -7.808 -39.753
7 5 30 30 0.263 185.64 -11.601 -45.373
8 5 30 40 0.286 195.90 -10.873 -45.841
9 5 30 50 0.385 219.24 -8.291 -46.818
10 7 18 30 0.263 87.06 -11.601 -38.796
11 7 18 40 0.285 91.56 -10.903 -39.234
12 7 18 50 0.384 94.86 -8.313 -39.542
13 7 24 30 0.310 105.06 -10.173 -40.429
14 7 24 40 0.333 95.46 -9.551 -39.596
15 7 24 50 0.431 108.48 -7.310 -40.707
16 7 30 30 0.254 192.18 -11.903 -45.674
17 7 30 40 0.276 180.72 -11.182 -45.140
18 7 30 50 0.375 192.48 -8.519 -45.688
19 9 18 30 0.252 75.42 -11.972 -37.550
20 9 18 40 0.275 76.98 -11.213 -37.728
21 9 18 50 0.374 75.90 -8.543 -37.605
22 9 24 30 0.245 88.08 -12.217 -38.898
23 9 24 40 0.268 87.42 -11.437 -38.832
24 9 24 50 0.367 81.90 -8.707 -38.266
25 9 30 30 0.241 138.48 -12.360 -42.828
26 9 30 40 0.263 147.00 -11.601 -43.346
27 9 30 50 0.362 133.20 -8.826 -42.490
83
TABLE IV
TAGUCHI ANALYSIS: MRR VERSUS VOLTAGE, ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION, FREQUENCY
RESPONSE TABLE FOR SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIOS (LARGER IS BETTER)
Level Voltage Electrolyte.concentration Frequency
1 -10.133 -10.455 -11.622
2 -09.940 -09.809 -10.901
3 -10.764 -10.573 -08.313
DELTA 0.824 0.764 3.310
RANK 2 3 1
Fig. 4. S/N ratio graph for MRR
Fig. 5. Residual graph for MRR
IV.2. Analysis for Over Cut 50 Hz. Fig. 7 shows the residual plot for Over cut.
The response table shows the average of selected
characteristics for each level of the factor. This table IV.3. ANOVA for MRR and Over Cut
includes the ranks based on the delta statistics, which
ANOVA is performed to identify the process
compare the relative value of the effects. It is the
difference between the highest and lowest averages for parameters that influence the MRR and Over cut of this
the factor chosen. Rank starting from 1 is assigned in the investigation. Table VI and Table VII show the ANOVA
result for the material removal rate and over cut of Al-
descending order of the delta values.
10%wt SiCp under electrochemical micro machining. The
Table V shows the response table for S/N ration of
Overcut and its ranking order. Fig. 6 shows the main F-ratio, which is used to measure the significance of
factor at the desired significance level, is the ratio
effects at each level it can be conclude that the optimal
between variance due to the effect of a factor and
values for minimum overcut were machining voltage of 9
V, electrolyte concentration of 18 g/l, and frequency of variance due to error term.
TABLE V
TAGUCHI ANALYSIS: OVER CUT VERSUS VOLTAGE, ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION, FREQUENCY
RESPONSE TABLE FOR SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIOS (SMALLER IS BETTER)
Level Voltage Electrolyte.concentration Frequency
1 -44.26 -40.31 -42.18
2 -41.65 -40.53 -41.91
3 -39.73 -44.80 -41.55
DELTA 4.54 4.49 0.63
RANK 1 2 3
84
Fig. 6. S/N ratio graph for Over cut
Fig. 7. Residual graph for Over cut
From Table VI and VII results it is obvious that all the concentration contributes by 4.75 %. Similarly the
selected factors have statistical and physical electrolyte concentration was the most significant
significances on the material removal rate and over cut machining parameters for affecting the Over cut by 47.28
during machining of composite at 95% confidence level. and Voltage by 36.61. With the increase in electrolyte
The results of ANOVA, the Frequency was the most concentration, ions associated with the machining
significant primary influencing factor then Voltage and operation in the machining zone also increase. A higher
electrolyte concentration, affecting the MRR as concentration of ions reduces the localization effect of
secondary. Based on the F value (234.96), Frequency electrochemical material removal reactions. This leads to
was the most significant factor that influences the MRR the higher overcut and thus reduces the machining
with 86.74 % contribution. The second ranking factor is accuracy [29].
Voltage, which contributes 4.82 % and then Electrolyte
TABLE VI
ANOVA TABLE FOR MRR
Factors DOF Sum of squares Mean square F value F 0.05 % of contribution
Voltage 2 0.004175 0.002088 13.07 0.000 04.82 Significant
Elec. Concentration 2 0.004107 0.002053 12.86 0.000 04.75 Significant
Frquency 2 0.075059 0.037529 234.96 0.000 86.74 Significant
Error 20 0.003195 0.000160 03.69
Total 26 0.086535 100
S = 0.0126383 R-Sq = 96.31% R-Sq(adj) = 95.20%
TABLE VII
ANOVA TABLE FOR OVER CUT
Factors DOF Sum of squares Mean square F value F 0.05 % of contribution
Voltage 2 20467.0 10233.5 23.83 0.000 36.61 Significant
Elec. Concentration 2 26430.7 13215.4 30.77 0.000 47.28 Significant
Frquency 2 418.8 209.4 00.49 0.621 07.50 not significant
Error 20 8589.1 429.5 09.61
Total 26 55905.6 100
S = 20.7233 R-Sq = 84.64% R-Sq(adj) = 80.03%
85
IV.4. Confirmation Test MRR is improved by 35.5 %. Therefore, the parameter

combination suggested for the higher MRR is machining
Confirmation test is carried out to verify the accuracy
voltage of 7 V, electrolyte concentration of 24 g/l, and
of the model developed. The experimental data obtained
frequency of 50 Hz. Fig. 8 and Fig 9 show the interaction
are compared with the values predicted by the developed
plot for SN ratio for MRR and Overcut respectively.
model and presented in Table VIII and Table IX. It is
Table IX shows the comparison of the S/N ratio of the
observed that the model close to agreeable degree of
predicted overcut with the actual overcut. Based on the
approximation. The errors were minimal and therefore
confirmation test, the Overcut is improved by 18.04 %.
the regression models can be effectively employed to
The parameter combination suggested for the lesser
predict the MRR and over cut during the EMM of hybrid
overcut is machining voltage of 9 V, electrolyte
composites.
concentration of 18 g/l, and frequency of 50 Hz.
Table VIII shows the S/N ratio of the predicted MRR
and the actual MRR. Based on the confirmation test, the
TABLE VIII
CONFIRMATION TEST TABLE FOR MRR
Initial levels of machining Optimal combination levels
parameters of machining parameters
Prediction & Experiment Improvement
Level A1B1C1 A2B2C3
S/N ratio of MRR value (dB) -11.903 -7.7310 35.5 %
Fig. 8. Interation Plot for S/N Ratios of MRR
Fig. 9. Interation Plot for S/N Ratios of Overcut
86
TABLE IX
CONFIRMATION TEST TABLE FOR OVER CUT
Initial levels of machining
Optimal combination levels of machining parameters
parameters
Prediction & Experiment Improvement
Level A1B1C1 A3B1C3
S/N ratio of Overcut value (dB) -46.079 -37.605 18.04 %
V. Conclusion Taguchi method using genetic algorithm’, Int. J. Adv.

Manuf.Tech., Vol. 30, Nos. 9–10, pp.870–878.
The Present investigation is focused on optimization [9] H. Joardar, N.S.Das1, G. Sutradhar,’ An experimental study of
effect of process parameters in turning of LM6/SiCP metal matrix
and analysis electrochemical micro machining of Al- composite and its prediction using response surface methodology
10%wt SiCp metal matrix composites machining ‘, Int. Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology ,Vol. 3,
parameters. No. 8, 2011, pp. 132-141.
From the study of result in EMM was using Taguchi’s [10] Muthukrishnan; (2008,a) Optimization of machining parameters
of Al/sic – MMC with ANOVA and ANN analysis,
techniques and ANOVA. The following can be J.Mater.Process.Tech, Vol.209, pp.225-232.
concluded from the present study: [11] Muthukrishnan; (2008,b) Machinability issues in turning of
1. Based on the confirmation test, the improvements of AlSiC(10p) metal matrix composites, Int.Journal of Adv.
the MRR from the initial machining parameters to the Mfg.Tech, Vol.39, pp.211-218.
[12] Dhanabalan, S., Sivakumar, K., Narayanan, C.S., Optimization of
optimal machining parameters are about 35.5 % . machining parameters in EDM of Inconel 718 for form tolerance
2. Based on the confirmation test, the Overcut is using grey relational analysis, (2012) International Review of
improved by 18.04 % Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 6 (7), pp. 1453-1459.
3. The optimal values for maximum MRR were [13] Savadamuthu, L., Muthu, S., Rakhul, T., Jothimani, S., Multi
characteristic optimization in wire cut EDM by using taquchi data
machining voltage of 7 V ,electrolyte concentration envelopment analysis based ranking methodology, (2013)
of 24 g/l, and frequency of 50 Hz. International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (3),
4. The optimal values for minimum overcut were pp. 468-473.
machining voltage of 9 V ,electrolyte concentration [14] Hussin, R., Mohd Saad, R., Hussin, R., Hafiezal, M.R.M., Fairuz,
M.A., Optimization of the plastic injection molding parameters
of 18 g/l, and frequency of 50 Hz. for sport equipment by using design of experiment, (2013)
5. Frequency was the most significant factor that International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (3),
influences the MRR with 86.74 % contribution. The pp. 453-462.
second ranking factor is Voltage, which contributes [15] Ramesh, S., Natarajan, N., Optimization of wire electrical
discharge machining of hybrid metal matrix composite material,
4.82 % then Electrolyte concentration contributes by (2013) International Review of Mechanical Engineering
4.75 %. (IREME), 7 (1), pp. 110-114.
Similarly the electrolyte concentration was the most [16] D. Saravanan, M. Arularasu and K. Ganesan, ‘a study on
significant machining parameters for affecting the Over electrochemical micromachining of super duplex stainless steel
for biomedical filters’, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied
cut by 47.28 and Voltage by 36.61. Sciences- VOL. 7, NO. 5, MAY 2012
[17] R.Thanigaivelan, RM Arunachalam ,’optimization of process
parameters on machining rate and over cut electro chemical micro
References machining using grey relational analysis, Journal of scientific and
industrial research ‘ ,Vol. 72, January2013, pp. 36-42.
[1] Hashim, J., L. Looney and M.S.J. Hashmi, 1999. Metal matrix [18] Bhattacharyya B, Munda J (2003) Experimental investigation into
composites: Production by the stir casting method. J. Mater. electro-chemical micromachining (EMM) process. J Mater
Process. Technol., 92-93: 1-7. Process Technol 140:287–291.
[2] P.Shanmughasundaram, R. Subramanian, G. Prabhu, ‘Some [19] R. Thanigaivelan & R. M. Arunachalam & Pelden Drukpa,’
Studies on Aluminium – Fly Ash Composites Fabricated by Two Drilling of micro-holes on copper using electrochemical
Step Stir Casting Method, European Journal of Scientific Micromachining’ Int J Adv Manuf Technol, DOI 10.1007/s00170-
Research, Vol.63 No.2 (2011), pp.204-218 012-4093-4
[3] Rajurkar, K.P., et al., Review of Electrochemical and [20] Senthil Kumar KL, Sivasubramanian R, Kalaiselvan K (2009)
Electrodischarge Machining. Procedia CIRP 6 ( 2013 ) 13 – 26. Selection of optimum parameters in non conventional machining
[4] S. Jahanmir, M. Ramulu, P. Koshy (Eds.), Machining of of metal matrix composite. Portugaliae Electrochimica Acta 27
Ceramics and Composites, Marcel Dekker, New York, 2000. (4):477–486.
[5] Malapati Manoj Kumar Reddy, Influence of Pulse Period and [21] Bhattacharyya B., Doloi B. and P.S. Sridhar. 2001.
Duty Ratio on Electrochemical Micro Machining (EMM) Electrochemical micro machining: new possibilities for micro
Characteristics, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering manufacturing. Journal of Material Processing Technology. 113:
and Applications. Vol. 1, No. 4, 2013, pp. 78-86. 301-305.
[6] Marimuthu, P. and Chandrasekaran, K. (2012) ‘Machinability [22] Ross PJ (2005) Taguchi techniques for quality engineering. Tata
study on stainless steel and optimum setting of cutting parameters McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
in turning process using Taguchi design of experiments’, Int. J. [23] Bhattacharyya B., Malapati M., Munda J. and Sarkar A. 2007.
Materials and Product Technology, Vol. 43, Nos. 1/2/3/4,pp.122– Influence of tool vibration on machining performance in
133. electrochemical micro-machining of copper. International
[7] Ghani, J.A., Choudhury, I.A. and Hasan, H.H. (2004) Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture. 47(2): 335-342.
‘Application of Taguchi method in the optimizations of end [24] Bhattacharyya B., Mitra S. and Boro A. K. 2002.Electrochemical
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[8] Jeyapaul, R., Shahabudeen, P. and Krishnaiah, K. (2006) [25] S.Senthil babu, B K.Vinayagam ,’ Study of some parameters on
‘Simultaneous optimization of multi-response problems in the drilling of Al based Metal Matrix Composites – a review’,
87
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Dr. K. Raja did his B.E in Mechanical
Volume 3, Issue 7, June-2012 Engineering from Government Engineering
[26] Riaz Ahamed A, Asokan P, Aravindan S (2008) EDM of Hybrid College, Salem, M.E. in Industrial Engineering
Al-SiCp-B4Cp and Al-SiCp-Glass metal matrix composites. J from PSG Technology., Coimbatore and Ph.D
Adv Manuf Technol. doi:10.1007/s00170-008-1839-0 from National Institute of Technology,
[27] Pandey A, Bains HS, Manna A (2007) Particulate reinforced Al- Tiruchirappalli. Presently he is working as
MMC: Opportunity and production. CPIE 22-24 March, NITJ- Assistant Professor, Anna University of
India Technology Maduari, Ramanathapuram
[28] Riaz Ahamed A, Asokan P, Aravindan S ,Prakash.M.K ,’Drilling Campus. His areas of Interest includes Fuzzy logic, Operating
of hybrid Al-5%SiCp-5%B4Cp metal matrix composites. Int J Research, Manufacturing Technology, Optimization Techniques and
Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 49:871–877,DOI 10.1007/s00170- Engineering Economics.
009-2453-5. E-mail: rajaegce@gmail.com
[29] Balasubramanian L, Dharmalingam S , ‘Performance study on
Influence of Tool design on Electro Chemical Micrmachining C. Nithyapathi, currently working as Assistant
‘International Journal of Information Technology & Computer professor in the Department of Aeronautical
Sciences Perspectives Vol 2, No 1 (2013) , 426-430. Engineering, Karpagam University, Coimbatore,
India. His research interests are Aircraft
structures and Composite materials.
Authors’ information E-mail: shribathi2024@gmail.com
1
Research scholar, University College of Engineering, Anna University,
Ramanathapuram Campus, India.
B. Babu is currently pursuing M.E Mechanical
2
Principal, Syed Ammal Engineering College, Ramanathapuram, India. Engineering at Karpagam University,
Coimbatore, India. His research interest is in
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Composites.
University College of Engineering, Anna University, Ramanathapuram, E-mail: babuamr11@gmail.com
India.
4
Assistant Professor, Department of Aeronautical Engineering,
Karpagam University, Coimbatore, India.
M. Siva is currently pursuing M.E. Aeronautical
5 Engineering at Excel Engineering College, Anna
PG Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering , Karpagam
University, Coimbatore, India. University, India. His research interest is in
Composites.
6 E-mail: sivavins@gmail.com
PG Scholar, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Excel
Engineering College, Kumarapalayam, India.
S. Dharmalingam (Corresponding author),

Currently Pursuing Ph.D Degree Program in
Anna University, Chennai, India. Composites,
Electro Chemical Machining, Taquchi
Methodology, Grey relational analysis, and
Response Surface Methodology are the research
interest area.
E-mail: dharmanit2003@gmail.com
Dr. P. Marimuthu, B.E., M.E., PhD, MISTE,

obtained his Bachelor degree in Mechanical
Engineering and Master Degree in Production
Engineering from Thiagarajar College of
Engineering, Madurai. He obtained his PhD in
the area of Machining of Metal Matrix
Composite from Anna University, Chennai. He
had served in many Institutions at various
positions as Lecturer, Assistant Professor, Professor, Head of the
Department and Principal. Now he is working as a principal in Syed
ammal Engineering College, Ramanathapuram. Presently he is board of
study member for PG course at Anna University of Technology,
Madurai. He is also Life member in Indian Society for Technical
Education. He received “RASTRIYA VIDYA SARASWATI
PURASKAR AWARD” during March 2010for his achievement and
remarkable role in the field of education, honored by the International
Institute of Education and Management, New Delhi. His research areas
include Manufacturing, Composites, Machining Science, Modeling and
optimization. He is guiding PhD scholars in different areas. He is active
Doctoral committee member for PhD scholars, Question paper setter
and Examiner for various autonomous Institutions and Universities.
E-mail: pmarimuthu69@gmail.com
88
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Material Properties of Random Oriented Pressed Mat

Coir Fibre/ Epoxy Composites
Mohd Amirul Abdul Rahman, Munaim Ali Omar Baki,

Azmin Shakrine Mohd Rafie, Renuganth A/L Vartharajoo
Abstract – The material mechanical properties of coir fibre/epoxy composite were evaluated.
High increase in consumption of coconut fruit for food processing and other industrial usage
nowadays lead to increase in th production of coconut trash in the form of coir fibre. These coir
fibres mostly disposed as unwanted waste since there are not much further applications to utilize
the coir fibres. Furthermore, the aerospace industries currently are looking for more to optimize
the performance of the existing materials (e.g. metal and synthetic fibre composite) that would be
introduced in aircraft structure which relatively cut the cost in production, maintenance, and in-
service aircraft, eco-friendly, and low in weight factor. Therefore, natural fibre reinforce
composite might be recommender answers to solve these existing problems whereby this solution
already been introduced in the automotive and civil application. The existing raw coir fibres used
are in the form of pressed mat and originally in the random oriented fibre form. They have been
used directly in the compression moulding process together with different fibre weight ratio of
20% to 50% with epoxy resins under room temperature and controlled pressure for composite
fabrication process. The fibres underwent no modification at all. Then the fabricated panels have
undergone mechanical material tests; tensile, flexural and torsion test with accordance to ASTM
standard to obtain mechanical properties of the material including tensile strength, tensile
modulus and shear modulus. These properties data will be recorded and might be used for further
analysis such as aeroelastic analysis. The results shown the composite with the higher fibre
percentage being more flexible (higher tensile strength) and less than 50% of fibre loading, rigid
composites were obtained. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Coconut Coir Fibre, Material Mechanical Properties, Natural Fibre Composites,
Epoxy Resin, Random Oriented Fibre Composite
I. Introduction This growing environmental concern also might

attract the aerospace industries in the future for their
The introduction of natural fibre in the design and application of green technology ranging from design and
fabrication of composite could be added up as the manufacturing to in-service aircraft. In addition, other
advantage especially in term of the utilization of green criteria that would affect aircraft performance such as
technology and low in cost material in the modern weight and cost reduction also would be taken into
aircraft design process. account particularly in the material selection process for
Natural fibres such as coconut fibres are the fibres that aircraft primary structure. Coir fibre is the one of natural
extracted originally from coconut plant. The increment in fibres that abundantly available in tropical regions
consumptions of coconut fruit for food processing and including India, Sri Lanka, Philippines, and Malaysia [1].
other industrial usage in the presence day lead to increase Brown fibre that extracted from matured coconuts are
in the production of non-recyclable coconut trash in the thicker, stronger, and higher abrasion resistance
form of coconut husks. compared to white fibre that extracted from immature
Therefore, any recommended utilization of this waste coconuts. Brown fibre is mostly used in engineering and
coir fibre that extracted from coconut husks might be research applications and normally available in semi-
seen as a good respond to make use this abundantly finished product forms namely bristle (long fibres),
available raw material. Until presence day, they have mattress (relatively short), and decorticated (mixed
been used for a several applications including civil and fibres) [2].
mechanical structures. The benefits of coir fibres include provide excellent
Nowadays, they might regard as one of the insulation against temperature and sound, not easily
significance value in commercial sector since the rapid combustible, flame-retardant, unaffected by moisture and
growth in public awareness towards the utilization of dampness, tough and durable, resilient, spring back to
environmental friendly materials.
89
Mohd Amirul Abdul Rahman et al.
shape even after constant use, totally static free, and easy low mechanical resistance in both tensile and
to clean [2]. Epoxy resin (thermoset resin group) is one compressive. The purposes of this research are to
of the commonly used matrix materials and have the evaluate and establish preliminary data for material
advantages of low in densities, good corrosion resistance, mechanical properties from standard mechanical test;
low thermal and electrical conductivities, translucence, tensile, flexural and torsion test on the random
and aesthetis colour effects while the limitations of them oriented and non-modify pressed mat coir fibre/epoxy
are low in transverse strength and operational composite. The increase of cost due to the treatment
temperature limits [3]-[4]. of the fibres should be a point of concern.
In addition, the curing time of epoxy resin is much The preliminary data obtained might be served in
higher than polyester resins and it has a greater binding the aerospace research area including aeroelastic and
property. In case of coir fibre reinforced composites, ballistic analysis or can be used as a replacement in
there are several reported works done on them. Arylmis automotive components and construction products.
et al. [5] worked on preparation of coir composite panel The details of research methodology and result
for automotive interior applications. He found the analysis will be discussed in the next section.
optimal use of composite contents for that specific
purpose are 60% wt coir fibre, 37% PP powder, and 3%
MAPP. II. Materials and Methods
Mujahid et al. [6] came out with the dynamic A commercially available semi-finished product of
characteristics of the coconut coir fibre reinforced raw brown coir fubres as shown in Fig. 1 were used in
composite are greatly dependent on the volume the form of pressed mat and originally in the random
percentage of fibre by using experimental modal analysis oriented fibre form. The fibres were untreated (no
[EMA] on the composite sample but the increase of surface modification).
fibres will make composite tend to have low stiffness and Epoxy resin (Zeepoxy HL002 TA) and hardener
ductility. Aireddy et al [7] studied coir dust reinforced (Zeepoxy HL002 TB) that generally being used for hand
epoxy matrix composites of different compositions. The lay-up that cure at room temperature were used as matrix
experimental results shown that, the abrasive wear of the composites. The low viscosity of the resins allows
resistance of the composite depends on the coir dust easy handling and gives good wetting of reinforcement
concentration, sliding distance, and applied normal load. and substrates. Other special features of this resin are
The abrasive wear resistance decreased with increased long pot-life, high heat distortion temperature, and good
in normal load and coir dust concentration. Lai et al. [8] mechanical properties.
have done the experiment on coir fiber-reinforced Custom made mould made from two rectangular mild
polypropylene composite and has found out the steel sheets having dimensions of 600mm x 600mm with
composite with treated coir fiber have a higher tensile rectangular frame with uniform frame width of 40mm
modulus and greater flexural strength than untreated one. and thickness of 3 mm were prepared.
Verma et. al [4] state that chemical modifications are The functions of these plates and frame are to
commonly considered to optimize the interfacial compress the fibre after epoxy is applied, maintain
properties between natural fibre and polymer matrix specimen thickness, and also as a cover to avoid the
because of the hydrophilic nature of natural fibers. debris from entering into composite parts during the
However, the others research done on fiber treatment had curing time. The mould then was cleaned and release
reported that the usual fiber treatments so far did not agent (wax) was applied on the mould before being lay-
significantly modify the mechanical performance of coir- up with the fibre.
polyester composites as reviewed by Monteiro [9].
Razzoqi et. al [12] have studied the influence of
compression pressure on mechanical properties of
ceramic matrix composite and found out that the
mechanical properties improved for all composites
generally at increasing of compressing pressure. Lynda
and Faycal [13] investigated the effects of shear
deformation on the natural frequencies of antisymmetric
cross-ply and angle-ply laminated composite plates.
The shear deformation showed a considerable effect
on the natural frequencies for composite plates. Bourouis
and Mili [14] studied the effect of the fibre orientation on
static failure of composite sandwich beams
carbon/epoxy, kevlar epoxy, glass epoxy of stacking
sequence [+θ/-θ] 3s, [0°/90°] 3s and [45°/-45°] 3s.
They found out that the sandwich beams with
carbon/epoxy, and glass epoxy face sheets shows the best
characteristics compared to kevlar/epoxy which facing
Fig. 1. Semi-finished product of coconut coir fibre pressed mat
90
Epoxy resin and epoxy hardener with weight ratio 2:1 The sample dimension used for the test is 100mm x
were thoroughly mixed together before uniformly poured 25mm x 2.5mm and flexural modulus and flexural
on the fibre. The cure was done when fibre and epoxy strength data were recorded. Shear modulus, G data
mixture being compressed using compressed machine were recorded from torsion test by using Norwood 50
with applied pressure 1.64 MPa for curing time of 48 Nm Torsional Testing Machine under room temperature
hours at room temperature (303K). and rate of twist of (0.16 rad/m) /min. All the tests are
Fig. 2 shows the sample of fabricated panel. Six repeated for each fibre weight percentage to obtain the
categories of samples were prepared for different fibre average values for each type of mechanical properties
weight ratio ranging from 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40% data.
and 50% with epoxy resins.
III. Results and Discussion
Table I below presents the calculated average tensile
modulus and flexural for 20% to 50% weight coir fibre
composite compositions. The results had shown the
composites with 25% fiber loading percentage recorded
average highest tensile modulus, E which is 17.42 MPa
while the lowest is 1.754 MPa that belongs to 40% fiber
loading percentage sample. One should say there is
decrement in value of E for increasing amount of fiber
loading and decreasing amount of epoxy resins.
Therefore, the greater fibre loading composition, the
stiffer the composite or the higher composite resistance
to elastic deformation that results from the application of
a given stress.
Fig. 2. Random oriented pressed mat coir fibre/epoxy composite
TABLE I
The fabricated samples were cut into the required AVERAGE FLEXURAL MODULUS AND TENSILE MODULUS
sizes and numbers prescribed in the standard mechanical OF ELASTICITY
test and undergone tensile, flexural and torsion test with Tensile
accordance to ASTM D 3039, ASTM D 790, and ASTM Flexural Modulus Modulus of
Weight % of coir fiber
of Elasticity (Mpa) Elasticity
D 198 relatively to obtain mechanical properties of the (Mpa)
material including tensile strength, tensile modulus and 20 42.8 9.906
shear modulus. 25 74.02 17.423
The data have been recorded. 30 44.661 5.324
35 12.451 1.868
For the tensile test, the samples which dimension of 40 7.043 1.622
250 mm × 25 mm × 2.5 mm were prepared and test under 50 13.327 1.754
room temperature and test speed of 2 mm/min on a 10
kN Instron Universal Testing Machine to obtain average The similar pattern also shown in the flexural modulus
Young Modulus for each fiber weight percentage. The and flexural strength data as depicted in Table I and Fig.
three point flexural test was done by using 5kN Instron 4 where the amount of coir fibre influenced the
Universal Testing Machine test speed of 2 mm/min under mechanical properties recorded.
room temperature. The flexural strength and modulus tends to decrease
with the amount of fibre and the highest flexural modulus
is 74.02 MPa and the highest flexural strength is 58.59
MPa, both belong to 25% fibre loading while the lowest
belongs to 40% fibre loading. As a first comment, the
higher than 35% coir fiber loading panels shown the
higher flexibility behaviour which are soft and
deformable while the less than 35% wt coir fibre loading
panels show more rigid behaviour which are stiff and
relatively hard.
Therefore, up to 35% fibres loading the fabricated
composite panels is structural-like materials while above
this percentage, the epoxy resins does not properly
impregnate the fibres.
Lack of efficient reinforcement by coir fibres might
attribute to their low modulus of elasticity as common
Figs. 3. Mechanical tests: (a) tensile test (b) flexural test behaviour for other natural fibres.
(c) torsion test
91
80 Therefore, the average elastic modulus in flexural

should be identified to any avoid confusions for the
Flexural Strength (MPa)
60 interpretation of the mechanical behaviour of the material

[10]-[11]. The determination of torsional properties,
40 shear modulus, G was done by using torsion test.
20 From Fig. 6 of the average shear modulus for each
fibre loading percentage, the 20% fibre loading
0 percentage recorded highest average shear modulus
0 20 40 60 while 50% fibre loading percentage recorded the lowest.
The imposition of torsional stresses also evokes elastic
Weight of Coir Fiber (wt.%) behaviour same like tension stress since the randomly
oriented fibres composite could be considered as an
isotropic materials.
Fig. 4. Variation of the flexural strength with the mass fraction Therefore, the shear modulus data obtained could be
of coir fibre used for further supporting the tensile modulus and
flexural modulus data obtained which agreed that the
The results than compared to the flexural strength for higher than 35% coir fiber loading panels shown the
pressed mat coir fiber-polyester composite under two higher flexibility behaviour which are soft and
different fabrication compression pressures which are 2.6 deformable while the less than 35% wt coir fiber loading
MPa and 5.2 MPa that was done by Monteiro et. al [9] as panels show more rigid behaviour which are stiff and
shown in Fig. 5. This suggests the strength tends to relatively hard.
decrease with the amount of fiber and reveals that the
randomly oriented coir fibers are not reinforcing neither
epoxy matrix nor polyester matrix at all. Several
Avg. Shear Modulus, G 0,004
measurement points (25% and 35% wt fibre) had not 0,003
been included in Monteiro work. Besides that, the
different in pressures did not be a major influence to the 0,002
(GPa)
value of flexural strength compared to the difference type

0,001
of matrix that has been used.
0
80 0 20 40 60
Flexural Strength (MPa)
60 Pressure Fiber wt. (%)

40 1.3MPa
20 Pressure Fig. 6. Variation of the average shear modulus with

2.6MPa the mass fraction of coir fibre
0
Pressure For the further commercial and research interest, the
0 20 40 60 5.2MPa coir fibre composite might be further used as a
Weight of Cor Fiber (wt.%) alternatives replacement material for non-critical
structure for furniture, building furnished, automotive
and aerospace parts. It might be tailored, modified, or
Fig. 5. Variation of the flexural strength with the mass fraction hybridize into other conventional composite or material
of coir fibre for different compression fabrication pressures
in order to increase the material performance for the
Table I shows the comparison between flexural future works and use depending on the purposes.
modulus of elasticity and tensile modulus of elasticity.
Generally, the elastic moduli achieved from the flexural IV. Conclusion
test are generally close to the elastic modulus obtained
from tensile test using the same material. It can be concluded that the amount of cir fibre
However, there are several factors that might affect loading played an important role in determination of
the elastic modulus, which are 1) elastic and plastic stiffness level of the composite. T the less than 35% wt
deformation at the rollers at the supports or the loading coir fiber loading panels show more rigid behaviour
points might not be sufficiently small in comparison to which are stiff and relatively hard while greater than 35%
the beam deflection; 2) if a short specimen is flexural coir fiber loading panels shown the higher flexibility
tested, deformation due to shear stress may take place, behaviour which are soft and deformable.
which are not ideal for the calculation according to the The coir fibre shows the common behaviour similar
beam theory; 3) materials might have different elastic likes other natural plant fibre which is lack of efficient
modulus under flexural and tension. reinforcement that lead to their low stiffness level
92
compared to other conventional composites. The Authors' information

preliminary data established in this research might be
Mohd Amirul Abdul Rahman born in 14
served as a reference for further studies. November 1986 in Muar, Johor, Malaysia.He
obtained his Bachelor Degree in Engineering
(Aerospace) in 2010 from International Islamic
Acknowledgements University Malaysia. Currently studying Master
of Science Aerosapce Engineering by research
The author acknowledge all the members of the in Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor,
research for their support. Malaysia. His major field of study is
experimental aeroelasticity and natural composite.
E-mail: amirulmier@gmail.com
References Munaim Ali Omar Baki was born in 1985.
[1] Taj, S., Munawar, A. M., Khan., S. (2007). Natural fibre- The author started his tertiary education at
reinforced polymer composites. Proceeding Pakistan Academic matriculation level in 2003 at Kolej Matrikulasi
Science, 44(2), 13-144. Johor, Tangkak, johor. He obtained his
[2] Ali, M. (2010). Coconut fibre: a versatile material and its Bachelor Degree of Aircraft Engineering
applications in engineering. Proceedings second international Technology (Mechanical)in 2011 at UniKL
conference on sustainable construction materials and Malaysia Instituite of Aviation Technology
technologies. (MIAT), Dengkil, Selangor. Currently studying
[3] Gay, D., & Hoa, S.V. (2007). Composite materials: design and Master of Science Aerospace Engineering by research in Universiti
applications. New York: CRC Press. Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. He concentrating in
[4] Verma, D., Gope, P.C., Shandilya, A., & Gupta, A. (2012). Coir study of ballisctic impact and natural composite.
fibre reinforcement and application in polymer composites: a E-mail: munaim1985@yahoo.com
review. Journal Material & Environment Science., 4(2), 263-276
[5] Aryilmis, N., Jarusombuti, S., & Fueangvivat, V. (2011). Coir Dr. Azmin Shakrine Mohd Rafie is a lecturer
fibre reinforced polypropylene composite panel for automotive in Aerospace engineering department at
interior applications. Fibers and Polymers, Vol. 12, 919-926 Universiti Putra Malaysia. He was enrolled to
[6] Mujahid, A.Z., Nurul Aliaa, M.A., Norashida, A., Balamurugan, Dip. Eng. Program in 1192 at Universiti
A.G., Norazman, M.N., & Shohaimi, A. (2011). Experimental Teknologi Malaysia for three years. Then he
modal analysis (EMA) on coconut fibre reinforced composite. continued his study n bachelor program in the
Global Engineers and Technology Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, 15-20. same iuniversity. He graduated in 1998 with
[7] Aireddy, H., & Mishra, S.C. (2011). Tribological behaviour and B.Eng in Mechanical Engineering (Aeronautic).
mechanical properties of bio waste reinforced polymer matrix He joined the same university as a research assistant from 1998 to 2001
composites. Journal metal and material science, 53(2), 139-152. and at the same time enrolled the master program in aeronautic
[8] Lai, C.Y., Sapuan, S.M., Ahmad, M., Yahya, N., & Dahlan, engineering. In 2002 he obtained his M.Eng Degree and joint Universiti
K.Z.H.M. (2005). Mechanical and electrical properties of coconut Putra Malaysia as tutor. In November 2003, he further his studied in
coir fiber-reinforced polypropylene composite. Polymer-plastics PhD program in aerospace engineering at Universiti Putra Malaysia. He
technology and Engineering, 4, 619-632. then received his PhD in 2007. His research dedicated to the
[9] Monteiro, S.N., Terrones, L.A.H., & D’Almeida, J.R.M. (2008). Experimental Aerodynamic and Aeroelasticity. He his among the
Mechanical performance of coir fibre/polyester composites. pioneer in developing the experimental work on aeroelasticity field in
Polymer Testing, 27, 591-595. Malaysia. His current research interest is primarily in developing
[10] Dowling, N.E. (1999). Mechanical behaviour of materials: experimental aeroelasticity and aerodynamic especially in composite
Engineering methods for deformation, fracture and fatigue (2nd material.
ed.). Singapore: Prentice Hall. E-mail: shakrine@upm.edu.my
[11] Hibbeler, R.C. (2005). Mechanics of material (2nd ed.).
Singapore: Prentice Hall. Renuganth Varatharajoo received Ph. D. In
[12] Razzoqi, R.N., Mahmood, L.A., Ahmed, M.S., Fayyadh, S.M., Spacecraft Sysytems from Dresden University
Influence of the chemical composition and pressure of the of Technology (germany) in 2003. He is
compressing on some physical and mechanical properties of currently a lecturer/ reseacrcher at University
Ceramic Matrix Composite, (2012) International Review of Putra Malaysia. He teaches sapce realted
Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 6 (3), pp. 332-338. courses. His research focuses on 1) spacecraft
[13] Lynda, B., Faycal, M., A first order finite element theory for free navifgation and control; 2) combined attitude
vibration of composite plates, (2011) International Review of control systems; and 3) rocket trajectory
Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 5 (3), pp. 459-464. optimisation. He has authored numerous publications on the subject
[14] Bourouis, F., Mili, F., The effect of the fibre orientation on the matter. He is also acting as a reviewer for a few aerospace journals.
failure load of face sheets composite sandwich beams, (2011) E-mail: renu@upm.edu.my
pp. 968-972.
93
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Numerical Simulation of the Three-Phase Flow Formed within

the Riser Tube of a System Designed to Remove Leaking Oil
from Maritime Accidents
Dimitrios-Periklis A. Giannoulis, Dionissios P. Margaris
Abstract – Maritime accidents that can lead to major environmental pollution occur regularly.
A simple system based on the fact that oil does not dissolve and is of lower density than sea-water,
is proposed. The leaking oil is collected by a dome and it relies on gravity to channel the flux of oil
along with sea-water, through a long riser tube to the sea surface, forming a two-phase buoyancy
driven flow. A parametric axisymmetric CFD study is carried out in order to examine the solution
of injecting air in the two-phase buoyancy driven oil-water flow, to avoid the formation of regions
with single-phase flow of oil that can lead to flow blockages in the riser tube of the system. The
present analysis studies the dome and the first 20 m of the riser tube. Computed distributions of
flow regimes developed as well as radial mixtures velocities and flow pattern maps for the studied
cases are presented. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Maritime Accident, Leaking Oil, Numerical Simulation, Dome, Riser Tube, Three–
Phase Flow
Nomenclature They also presented [5] an experimental method for

-3
the prediction of slug-churn transition in two-phase flow
ρw Sea-water density (kg m ) and introduced [6] two new flow pattern maps. Li and
ρo Oil density (kg m-3) Kong [7] showed that chaotic recurrence plots can reflect
ρa Air density (kg m-3) the-three phase oil-gas-water flow pattern evolution.
ui.j Velocity component in corresponding direction Kefalas and Margaris [8] carried out experimental studies
Uin Air inlet velocity on the two-phase flow in a centrifugal separator.
μw Sea-water dynamic viscosity (kg m-1 s-1) Androulakis et al. [9] studied the impact of liquid
μo Oil dynamic viscosity (kg m-1 s-1) pressure losses and solid-phase, in the performance of a
μa Air dynamic viscosity (kg m-1 s-1) three-phase flow in an air-lift pump.
σo/w Oil-water interfacial tension Patel [10] carried out numerical calculations with gas-
σa/w Air-water interfacial tension liquid-solid three-phase flow system to investigate the
effect of solid loading, solid particle size and solid
density on the hydrodynamic characteristics of internal
I. Introduction
loop air-lift reactor with different superficial gas
Crude oil is the most important energy carrier on a velocities.
global scale. As such, it is vital to achieve extraction and Giannoulis and Margaris [11], [12], [13] carried out
transportation by oil tankers and pipelines of large CFD simulations of oil-water two-phase buoyancy driven
quantities. However, these efforts can lead to maritime flows in vertical pipes for different types of crude oil.
accidents that cause major ecological damage. Andritsos The vertical pipes of 1 m and 2 m diameter and 20 m
et al. [1] proposed an oil spill prevention system that can and 100 m length represented parts of DIFIS system and
minimize the environmental impact by confining the simulations depicted that 2 m diameter is most
pollution. appropriate to channel the oil-water mixture. In addition,
During the recent years, a number of studies dealt with flow pattern maps with the results of the simulations
the examination of oil-water two-phase flow and air-oil- plotted with respect to oil and water superficial velocities
water three-phase flows in vertical pipes have been were presented. The overall objective of these studies
carried out. Samaras and Margaris [2] studied was to simulate the flow within DIFIS system to show
experimentally the flow regimes formed in three-phase that oil from a maritime accident such as ship wreck or
air-lift pumps, predicted [3] the air-lift pump oil rig explosion, can be easily channelled through the
performance and made air-lift pump experiments [4] in system to the sea-surface. The position of the wreck and
order to correlate homogeneous flow theory and drift- size and number of leaks has no influence on the
flux model. simulation.
94
D. - P. A. Giannoulis, D. P. Margaris
In order to achieve the desired results, the system III. CFD Models
relies on the density difference between oil and water but
the results of the simulations showed that there are The computational fluid dynamics analysis is carried
regions with single-phase flow of oil within the riser tube out with the commercial software package Fluent [14],
of the system. which has been widely used in the field of fluid
Although this situation seems to have no influence on mechanics and the pre-processor Gambit 2.2.30 [15] is
the flow, it is useful to examine the solution of injecting used for the grid formation.
air in the flow so as to prevent the formation of oil The grid is presented in Fig. 2. The riser diameter and
blockages within the pipe. length are 2 m and 20 m respectively and the dome-riser
angle 45o. Cells of 2 cm width are used for the pipe
where the main flow structures occur. A total of 56500
II. Description of the System quadrangles are used.
DIFIS system (Double Inverted Funnel for the
Intervention on Shipwrecks) is constituted from an
inverted funnel (dome) where the leaking oil from a
maritime accident is collected and a vertical pipe through
which the collected oil, along with sea-water, is
channelled to the sea surface. Due to the fact that oil is of
lower density than sea-water, two-phase oil-water
buoyancy driven flow is formed within the pipe.
The present analysis studies, through the 2D
numerical simulation of small parts of the dome and the
riser tube of the system, the flow formed within the riser
tube at 2 possible cases. The two cases correspond to
three-phase flows of air-sea water-heavy crude oil with
different air inlet velocities.
The scope is to examine the solution of injecting air in
the two-phase oil-water flow in order to avoid the
formation of regions with single-phase flow of oil that
can lead to flow blockages in the riser tube of the system.
In addition, the examination of these three-phase
flows can be considered as a necessary step in order to
prepare simulations of three-phase natural gas-crude oil-
sea water flows that may occur within DIFIS system due
to the presence of natural gas dissolved in the leaking oil
from a maritime accident.
Fig. 2. General view (left) and closer view

(right) of the structured mesh
All computations have been led with RNG k-ε

turbulence model which is appropriate for low Reynolds
numbers and Volume of Fluid (VOF) multiphase model.
The turbulence kinetic energy, k, and its dissipation
rate, ε, are obtained from the following transport
equations:
    k 
  k     kui    ak eff 
t xi x j  x j  (1)
Gk  Gb    YM
     
      ui    a eff 
t xi x j  x j 
(2)
 2
Fig. 1. DIFIS system  C1  Gk  C3 Gb   C2* 
k k
95
where  k and  are the inverse effective Prandtl transfer from phase q to phase p. This volume fraction
numbers for k and  , Gk is the generation of equation will be solved for the secondary phase. It will
not be solved for the primary phase. The primary-phase
turbulence kinetic energy due to the mean velocity volume fraction will be calculated based on the following
gradients, Gb represents the generation of turbulence constraint:
kinetic energy due to buoyancy, YM is the contribution n
of the fluctuating dilatation in compressible turbulence to  p  1 (8)

p 1
the overall dissipation rate and C*2 is given by:
The momentum equation is as follow:
C 3 1   / 0 
C*2  C2  (3)   
1   3   
 u     uu  
t
 T  (9)
where 0  4.38 ,   0.012 and S  2 Sij Sij with
 
 p      u  u    g
 
1  u j ui 
mean strain rate Sij    .
2  xi x j  Geo-Reconstruct scheme is best suited for volume
fraction, SIMPLE algorithm is used for the Pressure-
Turbulence viscosity for low-Reynolds numbers is
Velocity coupling as it is recommended for flows in
given by the following differential equation:
closed domains and PRESTO interpolation scheme is
used for pressure since gravity is the predominant force
  2k  vˆ acting on the flow. Every other spatial discretization
d   1.72 dvˆ (4)
  scheme is second order for precision issues while for the
  v̂3  1  Cv
accuracy of the solutions, a value of 10-4 is used for all
residual terms.
where: The working fluid is sea-water with density ρw=1030
v̂  eff /  (5) kg m-3 and viscosity μw=155E-05 kg m-1 s-1. The
secondary phases are Canadian extra-heavy crude oil
which for high-Reynolds numbers gives: [16], with density ρo=1000 kg m-3 and viscosity μo=10
kg m-1 s-1 and air with density ρa = 1.225 kg m-3 and
viscosity μa = 1.7894E-05 kg m-1 s-1. Surface tension
k2
t   C  (6) between oil and sea-water is σo/w=0.03 N/m while
 between air and sea-water is σa/w=0.075 N/m. The air
inlet velocity is Uin=0.1 m/s for the first case and 1 m/s
Model constants C1 , C2 and C are: for the second.
As the dome and riser materials are undefined, a no
C1  1.42 , Cv  100 and C2  1.68 slip boundary condition is the most appropriate. In
addition, other boundary conditions are 'wall' for the
dome and riser tube, 'pressure outlet' for the bottom of
In computational fluid dynamics, the Volume of fluid
the domain and 'velocity inlet' to represent the air intake.
method is one of the most well known methods for
volume tracking and locating the free surface. The
motion of all phases is modelled by solving a single set IV. Results and Discussion
of transport equations with appropriate jump boundary
conditions at the interface. It can model two or more The aim, as mentioned earlier, is to study the three-
immiscible fluids by solving a single set of momentum phase flow formed within the first few meters of the riser
equations and tracking the volume fraction of each of the tube after injecting air in the buoyancy driven flow of oil
fluids throughout the domain. and water. Three-phase gas-oil-water flow patterns are
For the pth phase, the continuity equation for the actually a combination of gas-liquid and oil-water flow
volume fraction has the following form: patterns. The combination of those gas-liquid and oil-
water flow patterns gives us several different three-phase
   flow patterns which are not practical in use. Therefore, it
1 
  
 t  p  p     p  p u p    can be used a new classification of gas-oil-water three-
 (7) phase flow patterns. In an air-oil-water pipe flow, when
n
 p  S   one liquid phase as well as air are completely dispersed
 p   
m pq  mqp   in the other liquid phase, we have mono-continuous flow.
 p 1 
The continuous phase is either oil or water. Water in oil
dispersion (w/o) and oil in water dispersion (o/w) flow
where ρp is the density of the pth fluid. Also mpq is the patterns are examples of this kind of flow. When one
mass transfer from phase p to phase q and mpq is the mass
96
liquid forms an annular film on the pipe wall and the In the first case, the initial oil plug is released after a
other flows in the centre of the pipe with air dispersed in few seconds and then an oil core is formed with air
these regions, there is annular flow. In addition, churn dispersions in it, surrounded by a water film with
flow can be observed with complex and irregular decreasing thickness.
structures of continuous oil phase and continuous water By the time, this film disappears and there are only
phase and again small dispersions of air. some water dispersions concentrated near the riser tube
Based on the above classifications, 5 individual three- wall. After the last amount of oil trapped in the dome is
phase gas-oil-water flow patterns in vertical upward pipe channelled through the riser tube, oil forms a cover on
have been identified and listed below: the riser tube surface with thickness decreasing with
 Annular-Oil Continuous (AN-OC); time. In the second case, the flow development is almost
 Annular-Water Continuous (AN-WC); the same but with two main differences. In the first flow
 Dispersed Bubble-Oil Continuous (DB-OC); steps, oil filaments are released and form with air
 Dispersed Bubble-Water Continuous (DB-WC); bubbles and water some kind of churn flow while the
 Churn flow. mixture velocity is generally increased, as shown in Fig.
Figs. 3 and 4 show the results of the simulations at 5. The existence of churn flow is explained due to the
different time steps. For better understanding, symmetry fact that oil bubbles move faster and reach the initial oil
is applied to the pictures although this is an axisymmetric plug that pops up. As such, the flow in this region is
model. The leaking oil is initially collected in the 6m disturbed and the annular configuration cannot be
high dome. developed as in the first case where the air bubbles do
not reach the front oil plug before it exits from the part of
the riser tube examined.
Fig. 3. Computed distributions of water (light) and air-oil (dark)

volume fraction at different time steps for the first case Fig. 4. Computed distributions of water (light) and air-oil (dark)
(0.1 m/s air inlet velocity) volume fraction at different time steps for the second case
(1 m/s air inlet velocity)
97
Figs. 5. Computed contours of velocity (in m/s) for the first case
Fig. 7. Radial mixture velocity for different flow patterns
(a) at 45 s and second case (b) at 40 s
for the second case (1 m/s air inlet velocity)
In addition, compared to the two-phase oil-water flow
within the system due to buoyancy [12], in these two
cases there is no single-phase flow in the riser tube while
the mixture velocity is also increased.
Figs. 6 and 7 present the radial mixture velocity for
each case at different flow patterns formed in the riser
tube. The effect of the gas voids on the velocity profiles
is significant due to the reduction in the local effective
viscosity of the flow which gives rise to high velocity
gradients and this is the reason for the various peaks that
are observed.
Finally, the flow patterns described above are plotted
with respect to liquid and gas superficial velocities to
form flow pattern maps, Figs. 8 and 9, corresponding to
the three-phase flow formed within the riser tube of
DIFIS system for the examined two cases.
Fig. 8. Flow pattern map for vertical upward three-phase flow
(0.1 m/s air inlet velocity)
Fig. 6. Radial mixture velocity for different flow patterns

for the first case (0.1 m/s air inlet velocity) Fig. 9. Flow pattern map for vertical upward three-phase flow
(1 m/s air inlet velocity)
Although oil and water are not fully mixed, they are
presented as liquid mixture at the flow pattern maps
below because the aim is to show the influence of the air V. Conclusion
on the two-phase buoyancy driven flow that already A parametric axisymmetric CFD study of a small part
exists in the system. The main difference between the of DIFIS system is carried out in order to examine the
two cases studied, apart from the increased mixture solution of injecting air in the two-phase buoyancy
velocity in the second, was the churn flow observed. driven oil-water flow, to avoid the formation of regions
98
with single phase flow of oil that can lead to flow Authors’ information
blockages in the riser tube of the system. It is concluded
Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics
that mixture velocity is increased compared with the two- Department, University of Patras, GR-26500 Patras, Greece.
phase flow of oil and water and also no region with
single-phase flow of oil is formed. Computed Dimitrios-Periklis Giannoulis Born in Piraeus,
distributions of flow regimes developed as well as radial Greece on March 25th, 1985.He is an officer in
mixtures velocities and flow pattern maps for the studied Hellenic Air Force and works as an aircraft
engineer in 117 CW at Andravida, Greece. He
cases are presented. studied in Athens, at the Hellenic Air Force
Academy in the department of aeronautics,
graduated in 2007 and his diploma thesis was
References ‘Preliminary Design of an Unmanned Combat
Air Vehicle’. His research fields are multiphase flows of oil-water two-
[1] F. Andritsos, P. A. Konstantinopoulos, K. J. Charatsis, phase flow, gas-oil-water three phase flow and oil drilling.
Recuperation of Oil Trapped in Ship Wrecks: the DIFIS Concept, He participated in 5th International Conference from Scientific
Proceedings of SSE07, vol. Track A, pp. 1-9, 2007. Computing to Computational Engineering in Athens (2012) and in 5th
[2] Samaras, V.C., Margaris, D.P., Investigating experimentally flow International Conference on Experiments/Process/System
regimes in three-phase air-lift pumps, (2010) International Modelling/Simulation/Optimization (2013). He is a PhD student in the
Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 4 (6), pp. 726-732. department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics at University
[3] Samaras, V.C., Margaris, D.P., Predicting three-phase air-lift of Patras.
pump performance, (2009) International Review of Mechanical
Engineering (IREME), 3 (3), pp. 339-344. Dionissios P. Margaris Born in Zakinthos
[4] Samaras, V.C., Margaris, D.P., Correlating homogeneous flow island, Greece on September 28th, 1953. He is
theory and drift-flux model through air-lift pump experiments, Associate Professor in Mechanical Engineering
(2009) International Review of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics Department at the University of
(IREME), 3 (2), pp. 147-155. Patras, Patras, Greece. His research
[5] Samaras, V.C., Margaris, D.P., A drift-flux model-based activities/fields are multiphase flows of gas-
experimental method of predicting the slug-churn transition in liquid-solid particles, gas-liquid two-phase flow
two-phase flow, (2010) International Review of Mechanical air-lift pump performance, centrifugal and T-
Engineering (IREME), 4 (1), pp. 65-70. junction separation modeling in gas-liquid two-phase flow,
[6] Samaras, V.C., Margaris, D.P., Two-phase flow regime maps for experimental and theoretical investigation of hot air dehydration of
air-lift pump vertical upward gas-liquid flow-part II, (2009) agricultural products, experimental and theoretical investigation of
International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 3 (6), capillary pumped loops, steady and transient flows in pipes and
pp. 721-725. network and numerical simulation of centrifugal pump performance.
[7] Y. W. Li, N. Xie, L. F. Kong, Chaotic Recurrence Analysis of Also he is dealing with fluid dynamics analysis of wind turbines and
Oil–Gas-Water Three-phase Flow in Vertical Upward Pipe, aerodynamic installations, aero-acoustic analysis and environmental
Information Technology Journal, Vol. 10, pp. 2350-2356, 2011. impacts of wind turbines. He is participating in over 100 international
[8] Kefalas, P.I., Margaris, D.P., Experimental study on the two conferences on the above scientific areas and has over 70 publications
phase flow in a centrifugal separator, (2009) International Review on high-interested impact factor Journals.
of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 3 (2), pp. 209-215. Prof. Dionissios P. Margaris is participating in several research projects
[9] Androulakis, D.N., Vlachos, A.N., Margaris, D.P., Impact of supported by HAI, GSRT, CEC-THERMIE. Also he is member of
liquid pressure losses and solid-phase, in the performance of a AIAA, AHS, ASME and EUROMECH unions as well as of TCG
three-phase flow air-lift pump, (2012) International Review of (Technical Chamber of Greece).
[10] G. N. Patel, CFD Simulation of Two-phase and Three-phase
Flows in Internal-loop Airlift Reactors, Master’s thesis, Dept. of
Mathematics and Physics, Lapeenranta University of Technology,
Lapeenranta, 2010.
[11] D. P. A. Giannoulis, D. P. Margaris, Oil Leakages Caused by
Maritime Accidents: Computational Study of a Recuperating
Method Based on Buoyancy Driven Flows, Proceedings of 5th
International Conference from Scientific Computing to
Computational Engineering, Vol. II, pp. 368-375, 2012.
[12] Giannoulis, D.-P.A., Margaris, D.P., Computational study of the
two-phase oil-water flow formed within the vertical pipe of a
system designed to remove leaking oil from maritime accidents,
(IREME), 6 (7), pp. 1694-1699.
[13] D. P. A. Giannoulis, D. P. Margaris, Oil Leakages Caused by
Maritime Accidents: Computational Study of a Recuperating
Method Based on Buoyancy Driven Flows, Proceedings of 5th
International Conference on Experiments/Process/System
Modeling/Simulation/Optimization, Vol. II, pp. 401-409, 2013.
[14] Fluent Inc., Fluent 6.2 Documentation-User’s Guide, 2005.
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99
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Determination of Rational Geometrical Parameters

of Cellular Cylinders According to Characteristics
of Strength and Stability
A. Žiliukas, M. Kukis
Abstract – The article analyzes advantages of cellular constructions compared with

constructions from monolithic materials. Strength and stability analysis of cellular cylinder is
being carried out by using numerical method. Cellular cylinders in various sizes are being
analyzed. Research showed that V-shaped cylinders have the greatest sustainable capability. The
strength and stability analysis was carried out, results of geometrical dimensions of cellular
cylinders were obtained, which are important in the production of construction elements of high
technologies. In the application of cellular contsructions, it is possible to produce lightweight,
multifunctional constructions and to select suitable materials to ensure the sustainable capacity
and economy. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pressure Vessel, Sandwich Plate, Stability, Strength, Cellular Core
I. Introduction These elements became the most lightest among the

competitors in the market. In the pot, of which the
When technologies are getting more and more modern bottom is made from the aluminum foam plate, it was
and more innovative or new materials emerge, their observed that the water in it boils more evenly than
usage provides one or another advantage. One of these normal [6]. One of the main characteristics why these
materials - sandwich plates with polymeric core. Plates plates are very attractive - multifunctionality. For
of this type are widely used in the construction industry example, to damp vibrations, to dissipate the heat and
and other fields as a cheap and effective alternative. remain stiff at the same time and the addition
Wherever necessary, plates of this type are not construction must be lightweight. For these and other
suitable, for example, to lightweight construction, energy characteristics sandwich plates are widely used in various
absorption properties. For this purpose metal sandwich areas - aviation, aerospace, civil engineering [17], the
plates of various core structures are being used. These naval industry [18] and so on.
plates are widely studied [1] - [12] and in comparison As it has been proven by the analysis of these works,
with monolithic ones in many ways they are superior to cellular constructions are examined more often, applying
[7], [13] - [15]. Metal foam plate can be used as a them to plates and there are too little work examining the
firewall between the engine and passenger in car section, cellular pressure vessels. Plate construction production
where mechanically strong enough construction is requires high technologies.
needed, good energy and sound absorbing, capable of Thus, in this article, it is:
stopping the spread of fire. Auto producers such as 1. proposed a simple core construction plates that do not
Volkswagen and Audi are considering the use of details require high-tech manufacturing;
of this type [16]. 2. by using numerical methods to assess the behaviour
German company Teupen increased operating length of finite-length cellular cylinders when running
of telescopic boom crane arm without leaving the car internal and external pressure, using the proposed
with as much weight after using metal foam plate for the plates for the construction;
construction. Another German company added to their 3. to evaluate impact of geometric parameter variation
product - plates of high precision and rigidity, aluminum of the cylinder and core elements for the maximum
foam plate which ensured the same strength properties sustainable capability.
and has become 50% lighter than the previously used The object of the research is a specially designed
alternatives. European conical adapter of the rocket pressure vessel, intended to contain liquids, steam, gas
“Ariane 5” was manufactured using aluminum foam and to hold their mixtures under elevated pressure
plate, which was much cheaper and guaranteed the same (higher than atmospheric).
conditions of strength and operating.Also, this type of Definitions of pressure vessels vary in different
plate by a few tenths reduced crank handle mass of countries, usually, the maximum safe pressure (which
racing bicycle. vessel can withstand), and the maximum product of
100
pressure and volume (normally only in the gas phase) Dimensions for each case are provided in appropriate
that indicates the potential energy of the current vessel order of precedence - corrugated V and X-shaped cores.
are specified describing these vessels. If the dimension is one, then it repeats.
Definitions of pressure vessels vary in different
countries, usually, the maximum safe pressure (which
vessel can withstand), and the maximum product of II.1. Research Methodology for Strength
pressure and volume (normally only in the gas phase) Fig. 5 shows the investigated cellular cylinder for the
that indicates the potential energy of the current vessel strength with fixations and loadings. Since the
are specified describing these vessels. construction is vertically symmetrical, thus only a tenth
Pressure vessels are used in many areas: industry as of geometry is being used for the simplification of the
well as science or household: calculations - that is, construction with one cellular
 compressed air tanks - skin-divers’ air balloons, the element.
air containers for pneumatic weapons, compressed air
balloons designed to blow away the dust, pneumatic
brake compressed air balloons etc.;
 hot water tanks - eg in central heating systems;
 Vessels of water sterilization by steam - medical and
industrial sterilized (autoclaves);
 distillation Vessels - oil and petrochemical industries;
 premises - space ships, orbital stations, submarines;
 aerosol vessels - Vessels with dsigned pressure
nozzles for spraying the aerosols (eg, hair spray,
deodorant, etc.);
 compressed gas containers - balloons of acetylene, Fig. 1. Schematic image of investigation object
oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen, butane, propane and
other gases.
Pressure vessels: may be of any shape, but are usually
spherical, cylindrical, conical, or mixed combinations of
these forms are used. Other forms are used less
frequently because it is difficult to estimate their
mechanic resistance pressure (higher than atmospheric).
Theoretically, the optimal pressure form is a sphere,
but vessels shaped in this way are difficult to produce
and thus are more expensive.The most commonly used
form is cylinder, often with hemispherically shaped or
similarly domed ends. Pressure vessels are made of any Fig. 2. Cellular cylindrical cross-section with corrugated core
material which withstands stretching and is chemically
resistant to the materials, which will be held in the
vessel. The most commonly used material is steel.
Although welding can egrade on the durability of
steel, manufacturing the hemispheric pressure vessels the
extruded parts are welded, strictly supervising the
quality. Pressure vessels are of a high risk, so their
manufacturing and exploitation are closely supervised, it
is governed by the Special Authorities, which work
relying on the national and international standards for
pressure vessels.The basic standard which is followed by Fig. 3. Cellular cylindrical cross-section with the V-shaped core
the European Union in designing pressure vessels is the
EN 13445 “Unheated pressure vessels”.
II. Research Methodology

This work examines the strength and stability of the
cellular cylinder with thick blind flanges as shown in Fig.
1. This is done by using the finite element system
ANSYS. Investigated core constructions are presented in
Figs. 2-4, and their dimensional variations in varying
research cases are presented in Table I. Fig. 4. Cellular cylindrical cross-section with the X-shaped core
101
TABLE I
TABLE OF CELLULAR CYLINDER DIMENSIONS FOR RESEARCH CASES
a, b, Dv, Di, tv, tk, ti, La, Lv, Hk, Hp,
Atvejis α
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
tv=tk=ti=2,
La=100,
b=65,
Dv=500, -, -,
56 65 500 630 2 2 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
L=700, 33
L=1700,
L=2700,
L=3700
-, -,
tv=3 56 65 500 630 3 2 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
tv=4 56 65 500 630 4 2 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
tv=5 56 65 500 630 5 2 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
ti=3 56 65 500 630 2 2 3 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
ti=4 56 65 500 630 2 2 4 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
ti=5 56 65 500 630 2 2 5 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
tk=3 56 65 500 630 2 3 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
tk=4 56 65 500 630 2 4 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
tk=5 56 65 500 630 2 5 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
La=118 38 65 500 630 2 2 2 48º, 79º, 116º 118 55, -, 100 71, 72, 68
37
-, -,
La=137 19 65 500 630 2 2 2 58º, 85º, 118º 137 55, -, 100 73, 72, 71
41
-, -,
La=155 0 65 500 630 2 2 2 66º, 90º, 120º 155 55, -, 100 76, 77, 73
44
-, -,
b=75 53 75 500 640 2 2 2 32º, 64º, 105º 100 55, -, 100 81, 80, 76
38
-, -,
b=85 53 85 500 650 2 2 2 28º, 58º, 98º 100 55, -, 100 91, 90, 86
43
-, -,
b=95 53 95 500 660 2 2 2 26º, 53º, 92º 100 55, -, 100 101, 100, 96
48
-, -,
Dv=525 64 65 525 655 2 2 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
Dv=550 72 65 550 680 2 2 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
-, -,
Dv=575 80 65 575 705 2 2 2 36º, 71º, 113º 100 55, -, 100 69, 70, 66
33
This is illustrated by the arrows on the sides. In order

to limit the remaining degrees of freedom, construction
displacements from the bottom are limited as well,
whereas the central point of the lower bottom is
embedded fixedly. This is illustrated by the arrow from
the bottom. Arrows from inside illustrates the operating
loads. In this case operating load the pressure and the
hydrostatic medium pressure.
Each construction will be investigated for 5 different
cases, finding the most effective construction variant.
In the first three cases - thickness of inner cylinder tv,
core element tk and the outer cylinder ti are being
changed from 3 to 5 mm, while the remaining two
elements remain at 2 mm. Then, the width of core
elements is being changed - it is increased in proportion
to the three steps, in the last case core elements are in
Fig. 5. Sample fixation and the loading by testing for the strength contact with each other in research case tv=tk =ti=2.
Finally, core height impact on sustainable capability is
To preserve the symmetry conditions, the construction being investigated. Core height is increased through three
is fixed to axisymmetric fixation. steps as well. In each of case the gap between the core
102
cylinders increases by 10 mm. In this case, as well as in In the stability research there will be analyzed the
previous case tv=tk=ti=2. same 19 different cases of each cylinder. There will be
Aforementioned analyses have been carried out in presented images and graphics, when the construction is
order to find the impact of diameter and cylinder length affected by a critical vacuum pressure at which the
alteration for the maximum sustainable capability. construction reaches the limiting coefficient of stability
Diameter of the cylinders increases in three steps as well which equals to 1,00.
as in the searches for effective construction. Diameter In order to make sure that the cellular cylinder
was increased in each of the cases for 25 mm. In case of buckled due to the stability loss and not due to plastic
cylinder elongation the length increased by 1000 mm in 3 deformation, there will be carried out nonlinear buckling
steps as well. analyses in each case. As well as in the case of strength
To ensure that the construction under pressure is not investigation, there were compared masses of monolithic
only strong, but also remains stable - in every case of the and cellular cylinders at the same maximum sustainable
research there will be construction resistance for capability. There was also performed optimization of
buckling examined, but because of the information cellular cylinder wall tickness, as described in Chapter 3,
abundance these results will not be illustrated. If the only in this case the state variable was buckling factor. It
construction under the maximum pressure will lose varied from 1,000 to 1,001.
stability, maximum pressures in the graphs will be
simply adjusted to a value at which the construction is
stable. In executing the calculations of strength there III. The Results of the Research
have been established models by using finite elements of III.1. Strength Test Results
SHELL63 type.
In order to find out advantage of cellular plate usage As can be seen from the graphs provided below in Fig.
instead of monolithic ones, a comparison of mass ratios 8, tv thickness of inner cylinder has the greatest impact
was carried out at the same maximum sustainable on the maximum sustainable capability of the
capability. Obtained ratios were compared with the construction. Core element thickness tk, and the
results obtained by optimizing wall thicknesses of thickness of the outer cylinder ti have a minimal effect
cellular cylinders. For optimization was used on the maximum sustainable capability compared with
“SUBPROBLEM” optimization method. Optimization the tv impact. It can be seen from obtained graph that
parameters: the maximum iteration number - 100; increasing the core width, maximum sustainable
inappropriate number of iterations - 99; optimization capability increases, hence it can be concluded that by
variable wall thicknesses of cylinder elements, varying using corrugated core it is beneficial to use the widest
from 0,5 to 2 mm; optimization state variable - the possible core construction.
maximum stress, varying from 303 to 304 MPa; It can be concluded from the obtained graph that the
optimization purpose - the minimum volume. highest maximum sustainable capability is achieved
when the core is increased from primary 30 mm. Further,
the effectiveness of core rise decreases. Varying the
II.2. Research Methodology for Stability diameter of the cylinder maximum pressure decreases
Fig. 6 shows a researched cellular cylinder for the gradually.
stability with fixations and loadings. Construction Varying the length of the cylinder diameter, the
fixations remain the same as in the investigation of maximum pressure gradually decreases, but the pressure,
strength. In this case differs the loading - vacuum. varying in the length at each 1000 mm reduces very little.
Fig. 6. Sample fixation and loading investigating stability Fig. 7. Distribution of cellular cylinder with a corrugated core
of reduced Von Mises stress at the case of tv=tk=ti=2
103
weight, the monolithic cylinder has become 2,26 times

lighter. As can be seen from the graphs, provided in Fig.
14, tv thickness of inner cylinder has the greatest impact
on the maximum sustainable capability.
Core element thickness tk, and the thickness of the
outer cylinder ti have a minimal effect on the maximum
sustainable capability compared with the tv impact.The
increase of the thickness of the outer cylinder even
reduces the maximum sustainable pressure.
Fig. 8. Variation impact of cellular cylinder element thicknesses

tv, tk, ti on the maximum sustainable capability
Fig. 12. Variation impact of cylinder length L on the maximum

sustainable capability
Fig. 9. Variation impact of core element width La

on maximum sustainable capability
Fig. 10. Variation impact of core element b on the maximum

Fig. 13. Distribution of cellular cylinder with V-shaped core of reduced

Von Mises stress at the case tv=tk=ti=2
Fig. 11. Variation impact of inner cylinder Di

on the maximum sustainable capability
After the comparison of masses of monolithic and

cellular cylinders at the same maximum sustainable
capability, it was revealed that a monolithic cylinder is Fig. 14. Impact of cellular cylinder element thicknesses tv, tk
3,47 times lighter than the cellular one. and ti on the maximum sustainable capability
Case of mass ratios was investigated, when cellular
cylinder dimensions are of case tv=tk=ti=2. After In Fig. 15 it can be seen that the slight increase in the
optimization of the cellular cylinder for minimum width of the core element can even reduce the maximum
104
sustainable capability. Meanwhile, the increase in the maximum sustainable pressure. Especially great leap is
width of the core member the maximum sustainable noticeable after increasing the height of the core for
capability increases and after increasing it to the width 10mm from the original dimension. Varying the diameter
when core members support each other - sustainable of the cylinder, sustainable pressure decreases gradually
capability reaches the maximum value. Varying the length of the cylinder diameter, the
maximum pressure decreases, but this decrease is very
little. After the comparison of masses of monolithic and
capability, it was revealed that a monolithic cylinder is
3,47 times lighter than the cellular one. Case of mass
ratios was investigated, when cellular cylinder
dimensions are of case tv=tk=ti=2. After optimization of
the cellular cylinder for minimum weight, the monolithic
cylinder has become 3,12 times lighter.
As can be seen from the graphs, provided in Fig. 20, tv
thickness of inner cylinder has the greatest impact on the
maximum sustainable capability. Core element thickness
Fig. 15. Variation impact of core element width La on maximum tk, and the thickness of the outer cylinder ti have a
sustainable capability minimal effect on the maximum sustainable capability
compared with the tv impact.

Fig. 19. Distribution of cellular cylinder with X-shaped core of reduced

Von Mises stress at the case tv=tk=ti=2
Fig. 17. Variation impact of inner cylinder Di on the maximum

Fig. 20. Impact of cellular cylinder element thicknesses tv, tk

and ti on the maximum sustainable capability
It can be seen in Fig. 21 that increase of the core width

increases the maximum sustainable capability. After
increasing the core element width to 137, the sustainable
pressure reaches the maximum value. Further distribution
of core member is harmful - the maximum sustainable
capability decreases.
It is obvious from the obtained graph that the core It can be concluded from the obtained graph that the
element increase makes a negative impact on the core element increase increases the maximum sustainable
105
pressure. Greater pressure leap is observed in the range Especially small maximum pressure decrease is at
from 75 to 85 mm. varying the length from 700 mm to 1700 mm.
Varying the diameter of the cylinder, sustainable After the comparison of masses of monolithic and
pressure decreases gradually. Varying the length of the cellular cylinders at the same maximum sustainable
cylinder diameter, the maximum pressure decreases, but capability, it was revealed that a monolithic cylinder is
this decrease is very little. 3,87 times lighter than the cellular one. Case of mass
III.2. Results of Stability Test

As can be seen from the graphs provided in Fig. 26,
the increase of thickness tv of inner cylinder has the
greatest impact on the maximum pressure. Core wall
thickness tk also slightly influences the endurance of the
Fig. 21. Variation impact of core element width La construction by increasing pressure.
on the maximum sustainable capability The increase of the outer cylinder thickness has no
significant effect on the maximum sustainable capability.
After increasing the core width from 100 to 118 mm
the maximum sustainable capability reaches the
maximum. By increasing the core width the maximum
external pressure decreases.
After the increase of the width when the core members
support each other - sustainable capability is even lower
than at the standard core width.

Fig. 25. Image of buckling of cellular cylinder with a corrugated core

Fig. 23. Variation impact of inner cylinder Di on the maximum at case tv=tk=ti=2
Fig. 26. Impact of cellular cylinder element thicknesses tv, tk, ti

Fig. 24. Variation impact of cylinder length L on the maximum on the buckling
106
Increasing cylinder length from 700 to 1700 mm, a

maximum pressure significantly reduces; however,
further increasing of the length decreases insignificantly.
capability, it was revealed that a monolithic cylinder is
Fig. 27. Variation impact of core element width La on maximum As can be seen in the graphs, provided in Fig. 32, the
sustainable capability increase of inner cylinder thickness tv has the greatest
impact on the maximum pressure. The increase of wall
thickness tk, and increase of cylinder thickness ti do not
have significant impact on the maximum sustainable
capability.
After increasing the width of the core from 100 to
118 mm, the maximum sustainable capability reaches a
maximum. Increasing the width of the core further, the
maximum the external pressure slightly decreases.
It can be concluded from the obtained graph that the
rise of the core element increases the maximum
sustainable pressure. After increasing core height b to
95 mm the external pressure reaches a maximum.
Varying the diameter of the cylinder, maximum pressure
sustainable capability decreases gradually.

It can be concluded from the obtained graph that the

rise of the core element increases the maximum
sustainable pressure. Varying the diameter of the Fig. 31. Image of buckling of cellular cylinder with a V-shaped core at
case tv=tk=ti=2
cylinder, sustainable pressure decreases gradually.
Fig. 32. Impact of cellular cylinder element thicknesses tv, tk

the on the buckling
107

capability, it was revealed that a monolithic cylinder is 2,
15 times lighter than the cellular one. Case of mass ratios
was investigated, when cellular cylinder dimensions are
of case tv = tk = ti = 2. After optimization of the cellular
cylinder for minimum weight, the monolithic cylinder
has become 2,14 times lighter.
Fig. 33. Variation impact of core element width La

Fig. 37. Image of buckling of cellular cylinder with X-shaped core at

the case tv=tk=ti=2
Fig. 38. Impact of cellular cylinder element thicknesses tv, tk, ti

on buckling
As can be seen in the graphs, provided in Fig. 38 the
increase of inner cylinder thickness tv has the greatest
impact on the maximum pressure. The increase of wall
thickness tk, and increase of cylinder thickness ti do not
have significant impact on the maximum sustainable
capability.
Fig. 36. Variation impact of cylinder length L

Increasing cylinder length from 700 to 1700 mm, a

maximum pressure significantly reduces; however,
further increasing of the length decrease insignificantly. Fig. 39. Variation impact of core element width La
on maximum sustainable capability
108
In distributing the core a maximum pressure increase the variation is greater than in the other two steps, the
was observed. By increasing the width of the core from further decrease is less significant.
137 to 155 mm the maximum external pressure reaches After the comparison of masses of monolithic and
its peak, but the increment is not as significant as it was cellular cylinders at the same maximum sustainable
in the preceding steps. capability, it was revealed that a monolithic cylinder is
the cellular cylinder for minimum weight, the mass ratio
remained unchanged.
IV. Conclusion
After investigation of behaviour of three different core
constructions for the strength at case tv = tk = ti = 2, it
was observed that the cellular cylinder with a V-shaped
core has maximum sustainable capability. In this case the
Fig. 40. Variation impact of core element b on the maximum cellular cylinder had 1,15 MPa of the maximum
sustainable capability sustainable capability. The worst was a cylinder with an
X-shaped core - 1,033 MPa. Compared the mass of these
It can be concluded from the obtained graph that the cylinders with monolithic cylinder at the same, internal
rise of the core element raising increases the maximum pressure cylinder with a V-shaped core is the lightest
sustainable pressure. By increasing the height of the core among the competitors.This cylinder is heavier for a
from 85 to 95 mm the sustainable capability reaches its monolithic one for 3, 25 times. And after the
peak, but the increment as well as the distribution is less investigation of cylinders under external pressure for the
significant. same cases - a cylinder with a corrugated core has the
highest sustainable capability – 2,19 MPa.
The worst among competitors was X-shaped core –
1,6 MPa. After the comparison of the mass ratios - the
lightest among competitors is the cylinder with a
corrugated core - 2.12 times heavier than a monolithic
cylinder, and the heaviest - the X-shaped core –
2,57 times. Thickness of cylinder elements were changed
in searching for construction. In all cases, the changing
of both the strength and stability invsetigations, thickness
of core and the outer cylinder has no significant effect on
the maximum sustainable capacity. Thus, wile producing
cellular cylinder it is best to produce it with a thicker
Fig. 41. Variation impact of inner cylinder Di on the maximum inner shell. After performing the changes of cylinder
geometry to find effective variant of increasing the
maximum internal and external pressure,a core member
Varying the diameter of the cylinder maximum width La and core height b have been changed.
pressure decreases gradually. Distribution of all core members to investigated
constructions was effective - the maximum sustainable
capability was increasing. Of course, the results showed
that not in all cases the maximum value is the best.
Changing of the core heigth b did not affect
tendentiously the maximum sustainable capability. Thus,
the variation of parameter b has no direct impact on
increasing the maximum sustainable capability. Its
influence depends on the core construction.
Therefore, while constructing cellular cylinder, one
should do the calculations at finding effectice width and
height of the core. By changing the diameter size and
Fig. 42. Variation impact of cylinder length L on the maximum length of the cylinders it was sought to figure out how do
sustainable capability the variations of these parameters affect the maximum
sustainable capability of cellular cylinders. After
Increasing cylinder length, the maximum pressure accomplishing the aforementioned analyzes of strength,
reduces. Increasing the length from 1700 to 2700 mm, it has been observed that the least sensitive to changes in
109
the diameter is the cylinder with a currogated core, and [13] Ji-Hyun Lim, Ki-Ju Kang, Mechanical behaviour of sandwich
panels with tetrahedral and Kagome truss cores fabricated from
the most sensitive - with an X-shaped core. For the best
wires, International Journal of Solids and Structures, Vol. 43, pp.
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plastic deformation. Lithuania. He wrote over 250 articles and 5
monographs. His research interests are strength
and fracture mechanics. Prof. habil. dr. Žiliukas
is the head of project in Klaipėda University.
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110
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Modeling Vaporous Cavitation in Transient Pipe Flow

Using the Zielke’s Friction Model
M. Tamani1, B. Bahrar2, K. Gueraoui1
Abstract – This study provides a theoretical and numerical modeling of transient vaporous
cavitation in a horizontal pipeline, anchored to the upstream reservoir. The model approach is,
essentially, based on that of the column separation model (CSM). The basic system of partial
differential equations to solve is a hyperbolic type and adapts perfectly to the method of
characteristics. This code, allows us, taking into account the unsteady part of the friction term, to
determine at any point of the pipe, and at each instant, the average piezometric head, the average
discharge and the change in volume of the vapour cavity. This study illustrates the effect of the
presence of air pockets, resulting in cavitation, on the amplitude of the pressure wave. The
calculation results are in good agreement with those reported in the literature. Copyright © 2014
Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cavitation Model, Column Separation Model of Vapour, Method of Characteristics,

Transient Flow, Unsteady Friction Model, Vapour Pressure Head
I. Introduction The column separation model in systems (tank-

horizontal-pipe valve) are described by the hyperbolic
In the transient flow in pipes, vaporous cavitation system formed by Eqs. (1) and (2) derived from the
occurs when the pressure falls below the saturation conservation of mass and momentum averaged over a
vapour pressure. cross section of the pipe.
This may, by implosion, cause damage of the different
components of a hydraulic system [1]-[2]-[3]. Generally,  H a2  Q
one can distinguish two types of cavitation steam: steam  0 (1)
cavitation localized (large void fraction) and cavitation  t gS  x
steam distributed (small void fraction). In some regions
where evaporation is produced by pressure drop, there is H 1 Q 4 f
  (2)
a break in the continuous medium by creating separate  x gS  t  gD
the liquid column, the model of the separation column
(CSM). In this system of partial differential equations, we
Several studies have been developed, Mars et al [4], have designated by H and Q respectively, the pressure
especially the works of Kyparissis and Margaris using head and the average discharge of the flow in a section S
the finite volume method [5], other authors adopting this of the pipe, g the acceleration of gravity, τf is the global
model, including Anton Bergant et al [6], Jian-Jun Shu shear stress, ρ and D, are respectively the density of
[7]. In this paper we will study the discrete model of the water and the internal diameter of pipe:
vaporous cavitation (DVCM) with consideration of the
shear stress of Darcy-Weisbach that reflects the unsteady 1 / 2
a    1 /    D / e E 
friction term introduced by Zielke [8], we then examine
the evolution of the pressure head and velocity of the
flow at the valve and in the middle of the pipe, and the is the speed of the hammer;  coefficient anchor, and,
changes in the volume of air bubbles resulting from
cavitation. 
  1  2  where ν is the wall poisson’s ratio, κ is the
bulk modulus of water, e and E, are respectively the wall
thickness of pipe and Young modulus of material:
II. Assumptions and Basic Equations
The flow is assumed unidirectional compressible   Re ,  / D   Q Q
q 
barotropic and constant entropy. Assume also that the 8 S2
waterhammer speed is very large compared to the
average flow velocity, and it is not affected by its
is the quasi-steady shear stress:
biphasic nature.
111
M. Tamani, B. Bahrar, K. Gueraoui
4
t
 Q  t'   vap i,t   vap i,t 2t 
u 
DS  W  t  t'   t'
d t'
0


  Q    Q  
d i,t u i,t  
2t
(8)
 
is the unsteady shear stress and τf = τq + τu: global shear
stress.  
  1    Qd i,t  2 t   Qu i,t  2 t  

The shear stress is composed of the quasi-steady part
related to the quasi-steady friction  and depending on (Qu)i,t and (Qd)i,t are, respectively, the upstream and
the flow regime and the relative roughness of the pipe downstream rate of discharge at each air pocket column.
which, in the case of turbulent flow, is derived from the When the cavity collapses, its calculated volume
Colebrook-white equation: becomes less than zero, the single-phase nature of the
flow is re-established and the water hammer solution
1  2 ,51   / D   using Eqs. (6) and (7) with  Qu i, j   Qd i,t is valid
  2 log 10    (3)
  Re  3 ,71  again [10].
where Re is the Reynolds number; ε is the roughness of

II.1. Approximation of the Friction Term
the pipe wall. The unsteady part τu linked to the
convolution product is: Recent approaches were used to calculate, quite
wisely, the term associated with the convolution of
t
4 Q  t'  Zielke from a determined by the finite sum of N
u  W  t  t' 
 dt' (4) exponential underweight [11]-[12]:
DS 0 t'
N
μ is the dynamic viscosity of water, W the weighting Wapp   ml en  l
(9)
function related to Zielke’s model. l 1
In the event of cavitation, must be added to the basic
system of Eqs. (1) and (2), the continuity equation for the t  D2
vapour cavity volume vap : with   and T  .
T 4
T is the scale of time and  is the dimensionless
t time. The coefficients ml and nl related to the weighting
vap    Q  Qu  dt (5) function Zielke are determined according to the nature of
tm laminar flow [12], in turbulent pipe to smooth walls,
Vardy et al [13] and turbulent rough wall by Vitkovsky
where tm is time of cavitation inception. The integration et al [14]. The unsteady part of the friction term can be
of this equation becomes [9]: written as:
t
4 Q  t ' 
 vap i,t   vap i,t 2t  u  W  t  t' 
 dt ' 
DS 0 t '
(10)


  Q    Q  
d i,t u i,t  
 2t
(5’)
4 N
    yl  t 
 
  1    Qd i,t  2 t   Qu i,t  2 t  

D S l 1
In the latest equation,  is the weighting factor. It is where:

t Q
ml e l   dt'
 n t t' / T
normally taken between 0.5 and 1. The transformation yl  t   
Eqs. (1) and (2) along the characteristic lines of slope
0 t'
d x / d t   a leads to the finite difference equations:
II.2. Explicit Form of Frictional Term
a
H i,t  H i 1 ,t  t 
gS
Q 
u i,t 
  Qd i 1,t  t  After integration by part, recurrent relation is obtained
on time:
(6)
4 a f  t
 e  n l  t / T yl  t   
gD
yl  t  2t   e  n l  t / T   (11)
a  ml Q  t  2t   Q  t   
H i,t  H i 1 ,t  t 
gS
Q 
d i,t   Qu i 1,t  t 
(7)
4 a f  t which allows to dispense with the calculation of
 convolution products and leads to the expression of the
gD
112
friction term  f of the form: Figs. 1 and 2 show at the valve, for permanent flow
regimes of velocity V0 = 0.3 m/s and V0 = 1.4 m/s, the
N
change in friction stress with taking into account or not
 Q Q 4 the unsteady part, over time.
f 
8S 2

DS
 yl  t  (12)
Figs. 3 and 4 show, the pressure head variation HV
l 1
versus time at the valve and at the pipe midpoint Hmp for
Writing the Eqs. (6) and (7) and taking into account permanent regime velocity V0 = 0.3 m/s with taking into
the friction term in Eq. (12) the compatibility equations account or not unsteady term.
become: 5
quasi-steady shear stress
4
a global shear stress
H i,t  H i 1 ,t  t 
gS
Q 
u i,t 
  Qd i 1,t  t  3
2
 Q   Qd i 1,t t 
frictional stress (Pa)

 i 1,t t d i 1,t t  (13) 1
 2 g D S2  0
at 
N
 4 1  -1
 yl  t   
 T g S l 1  -2
-3
a
H i,t  H i 1 ,t  t 
gS
Q 
d i,t 
  Qu i 1,t  t  -4
-5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
 Q  Q   time (s)
 i 1,t t u i 1,t t u i 1,t   (14)
 2 g D S2  Fig. 1. Variation of the shear stress for V0 = 0.3 m/s
at 
 4 1 N  25
 
yl  t   quasi-steady shear stress
 T g S l 1  20 global shear stress
15
The boundary conditions of the problem are a pressure
frictional stress (Pa)
head imposed by the upstream reservoir height, a fast

10
closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipe,
and the liquid-vapour pocket interface conditions 5
H  HVap ; resulting in case of cavitation.
0
III. Applications and Results -5
In this application, we consider a turbulent flow, for -10

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
two steady-state flow values V0 =0.3 m/s and V0 =1.4 time (s)
m/s. The flow is in the horizontal copper pipe anchored
to the upstream to a tank filled with water and of height Fig. 2. Variation of the shear stress for V0 = 1.4 m/s
H0, ending at the downstream to a valve that closes 100
abruptly. The parameters of the fluid and the pipe are quasi-steady shear stress
summarized in Table I. In this study, we analysis the global shear stress
80
evolution over time, of the pressure head, the volume of
the discrete vapour cavity and friction stress.
60
TABLE I
Hv (m)
PARAMETER VALUES OF FLOW 40

Components Values
Tank height H0 (m) 26
20
Internal pipe diameter (mm) 22.1
Length of pipe (m) 37.23
Thickness of the pipe (mm) 1.63 0
Dynamic viscosity of water at 20° (Pa s) 1.11×10-3
Poisson’s ratio 0.34
Bulk modulus of water (GPa) 2.2 -20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Young’s modulus of copper (GPa) 120 time (s)
Density of water at 20°C (kg/m3) 1000
Vapour pressure of water at 20°C (m) 0.23
Fig. 3. Head at the valve for V0 = 0.3 m/s
113
100 250
quasi-steady shear stress quasi-steady shear stress
global shear stress
80 global shear stress
200
60
150
Hmp (m)
40
Hmp (m)
100
20
50
0
0
-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time (s)
-50
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Fig. 4. Head at the pipe midpoint for V0 = 0.3 m/s time (s)
Fig. 5 shows, in the same conditions, the behaviour of Fig. 7. Head at the pipe midpoint for V0 = 1.4 m / s
the volume of the discrete vapour cavity formed at the
Figs. 8 and 9 correspond to the evolution of air
valve, with taking into account or not the part of the
pockets formed over time at the valve and at the pipe
unsteady friction term.
midpoint with taking into account or not the unsteady
-6 friction term.
x 10
-5
quasi-steady shear stress x 10
global shear stress 5
2 quasi-steady shear stress
global shear stress
4
1.5
vapour volume (m3)
3
vapour volume (m3)
2
0.5
-0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time (s) -1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
time (s)
Fig. 5. Evolution of the vapour pocket at the valve for V0 = 0.3 m/s
Fig. 8. Evolution of the vapour pocket at the valve
Figs. 6 and 7 show the evolution in time of pressure for V0 = 1.4 m/s
head at the valve HV and at midpoint Hmp, taking into x 10
-7
4.5
account or not the unsteady term for permanent regime quasi-steady shear stress
velocity V0 = 1.4 m/s. 4
global shear stress
3.5
250 3
quasi-steady shear stress
vapour volume (m)
3
global shear stress 2.5

200
2
1.5
150
1
Hv (m)
0.5
100
0
-0.5
50
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0 time (s)
Fig. 9. evolution of the vapour pocket at the pipe midpoint

-50
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 for V0 = 1.4 m/s
time (s)
Fig. 6. Head at the valve for V0 = 1.4 m / s

This study demonstrates, clearly, the fact that the
114
cavitation is a phenomenon that results from turbulent [7] J. J. Shu, Modeling vaporous cavitation on fluid transients,
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Vol. 80, n.
flow. It is, essentially, localized to the valve. It has; also,
3, pp. 187-195, February 2003.
highlight the combined effects, the presence of air [8] W. Zielke, Frequency dependent friction in transient pipe flow,
bubbles resulting from cavitation and shear stress on ASME, Journal of Basic Engineering, Vol. 90, n. 1, pp. 109-115,
reducing the pressure wave in the flow. Mars 1968.
[9] E. B. Wylie, Simulation of Vaporous and Gaseous Cavitation,
This code calculation clearly shows relative effect of Journal of Fluids Engineering, ASME, Vol, 106, n. 3, pp. 307-
unsteady term shear stress. Also, we see that for high 311, September 1984.
steady state velocity, the maximum pressure is reached [10] J. P. Tullis, Hydraulics of pipelines, Pumps, Valves, Cavitation,
after a period of 2L/a closure of the valve, while for Transients (John wiley & Sons 1989).
[11] J. P. Vítkovský, M. L. Stephens, A. Bergant. A. R. Simpson, M.
lower steady state velocity, the maximum pressure is
Lambert, Numerical Error in Weighting Function-Based Unsteady
observed after the first collapse of the first pocket air Friction Models for Pipe Transients, journal of hydraulic
formed. engineering ASCE, Vol. 132, n. 7, pp. 709-721, July 2006.
The values of the maximum pressure and maximum [12] J. Vítkovský, M. L. Stephens, A. Bergant, M. Lambert, A. R.
Simpson, Efficient and accurate calculation of Zielke and Vardy-
volume of air pockets for both speeds are grouped in the
Brown unsteady friction in pipe transients, Proc. 9th International
Table II. Conference on Pressure Surges (Ed. Murray, S.J.), BHR Group,
Chester, UK, 2004, Vol. 2, pp. 405-419.
TABLE II [13] A. E. Vardy, J. M. B. Brown, Transient Turbulent Friction in
PRESSURES HEAD AIR POCKETS VOLUME AT THE VALVE Smooth Pipe Flows, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 259, n.
FOR DIFFERENT STEADY STATE FLOW VELOCITIES 5, pp. 1011-1036, January 2003.
V0 = 0.3 m/s V0 = 1.4 m/s [14] A. E. Vardy, J. M. B. Brown, Transient Turbulent Friction in fully
 max rough Pipe Flows. Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 270, n. 1-
1.0183 40.468 2, pp. 233-257, February 2004.
10 -6
m
3

t
max
 ms  115.7 225.8 Author’s information
ère
1 collapse (s) 0.1256 0.4163 1
Laboratory of Mechanics & Energy, University Mohamed V Agdal -
(Hvalve)max (m) 87.8724 214.4760
Faculty of Sciences, Rabat, Morocco.
t(HValve) max (s) 0.1806 0.0565 = 2L/a
2
Fluid Mechanics Group, Energy & Environment, Hassan II University
– Laboratory ,SSDIA ENSET, Mohammedia, Morocco.
IV. Conclusion
This study, clearly, shows the possibility of a simple
numerical treatment of cavitation.
It has highlighted, in addition to the local nature of
cavitation, the importance of the turbulent flow regime,
the value of the velocity of the permanent regime of the
flow, the shear stress and the air pockets resulting of
cavitation. In view of a practical level where the
important is the knowledge of the maximum pressure
likely to occur, it is logical to think that this computer
code is a relevant understanding of the tool in transient
cavitation flow in pipes.
References
[1] M. H. Chaudhry, Applied hydraulic transients (Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, USA, 1987).
[2] E. B. Wylie, V.L. Streeter, Fluid transients in systems
(Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, USA, 1993).
[3] Kyparissis, S.D., Margaris, D.P., Experimental investigation of
cavitation in a centrifugal pump with double-arc synthetic blade
design method, (2011) International Review of Mechanical
[4] J. Mars, F. Dammak, A. Dhieb, Homogenous Numerical Models
For Porous Hyperelastic Materials, (2008) International Review of
[5] Kyparissis, S.D., Margaris, D.P., CFD analysis of flowfield and
cavitation in a Sharp-Edged circular orifice, (2010) International
[6] A. Bergant, J. P. Vítkovský, A. Simpson, M. Lambert, A.
Tijsseling, Discrete vapour cavity model with efficient and
accurate convolution type unsteady friction term, Int. J.Kurokawa,
Proc. 23rd IAHR Symposium on Hydraulic Machinery and
Systems, Yokohama,Japan, 2006 pp 109 IAHR.
115
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Taguchi Approach for the Optimization of Process Parameters

of Wear in AISI 202 Tested at Elevated Temperature
K. Arul Raj1, M. Karthikeyan2, R. Mariappan3, S. Sakthisubaraja1, A. S. Akilan4
Abstract – Taguchi method has been a successful technique in improving the product quality and
process performance for the past couple of decades. The present study optimizes the wearing rate
of AISI 202. Since the price of nickel is so high, low nickel or non-nickel grade stainless steel is
recommended to design the product. Dry sliding wear test was conducted to understand the wear
and friction characteristics of samples. The tests were carried out in a purpose built-in vacuum
pin-on-disc tribometer capable of testing the material up to a temperature 1000˚C and in vacuum.
Relationships between the weight loss and applied load, time in seconds and friction coefficient
were established. It was observed that reduction in the applied load reduces the friction factor and
reduction in load reduces the weight loss. Also, the friction coefficient reduces when temperature
increases, for all the parameters considered. The design of experiment approach was employed to
determine the optimal combination of the testing parameters in a controlled way using Taguchi
method for minimum wear rate. An orthogonal array and signal-to-noise ratio were employed to
investigate the wear behaviour of AISI 202. The confirmation test was conducted to verify the
experimental results. SEM images have been taken for certain wear specimens and the
observations have been reported in this paper. The morphology of the worn surface was examined
using scanning electron microscope and the micro-structure of the sub surface is also studied. It is
observed that at temperatures above 400˚C, this material exhibits adhesive wear and the evidence
of self-welding of mating parts has been observed in microstructures. It is also observed that the
SS202 undergoes shear deformation during sliding wear. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize
Keywords: Wear, Elevated Temperature, SEM, Tribo-Graphs, Micro-Delamination, Taguchi

Method, Orthogonal Array, S/N Ratio
I. Introduction Without conducting additional tests, the existing data

can be re-represented using the variable “wear index".
The wear characteristics of stainless steel under Sliding wear tests were conducted on SS 304L and the
elevated temperature influence the operating parameters influence of test duration on material damage have been
like sliding velocity, sliding distance, and applying load. investigated [3]. The damage to the contact zone have
Making perfection in these factors contributes to a been evaluated by Van Herpen et al. They have
successful application for preventing the wearing rates developed a methodolgy to test slidng wear. [4] Maatta et
and impulsive product failure. Researches are conducted al. have conducted adhesion wear test on tool steels and
on un-lubricated sliding with a wide range of ferrous and reported that the surface roughness and topography of the
non-ferrous metals as a basis for the development of tool affect the friction between tool and work piece. They
materials for applications such as vehicle braking and also concluded that local contact pressures cannot break
space technology, particularly as the conditions become the oxide layers on the mating surfaces [5].
more onerous with increasing operating speeds. [1] Sun Sumitha et al have discussed the importance of the
et al. have reported that the sliding wear characteristics nickel free stainless steel. They have reviewed the
of low temperature plasma nitride 316 austenitic stainless improvement properties by nitrogen addition in stainless
steel. They have concluded that combined corrosion and steel. Hubner et al. have investigated that stainless steel
wear resistance of 316 steel can be achieved by low Cr-Ni steel has phase stability at low temperatures [6].
temperature plasma nitriding to produce a single ‘S’ Also the use of inert environment eliminates the
phase layer with high hardness and good corrosion chemical influences. The phase transformation at
resistance. [2] A. Ravikiran has discussed the operating temperature 4.2 K during wear had been
quantification of tribological properties. He focused on reported [7].
the scatter created while calculating the tribological Koji Kameo et al. studied the wear behaviour
properties and he made an attempt to quantify the wear characteristics under self- mating; dry sliding conditions
more appropriately. using a pin-on-disk type wear configurations.
116
K. Arul Raj, M. Karthikeyan, R. Mariappan, S. Sakthisubaraja, A.S. Akilan
They reported the wear characteristics in SS316L, Then they have found the optimized wear parameters
precipitated stainless steel and ball bearing steel. Yong- using taguchi method. Hemanth Kumar.T.R. et al., [18] in
suk Kim et al. have investigated that the high wear the year of 2011 have made an attempt to optimize the
resistance of the steel was attributed to the solid solution tribological properties such as wear rate and frictional
strengthening and high strain hardening effects of the force of aluminum metal matrix composite. Ali Kaya Gur
nitrogen. et al., [19], discussed about the orthogonal arrays to
Also, they have reported that precipated nitrides maximize the effect of controllable parameters and to
exhibites low wear rate at higher loads [8]. [9] Magnus minimize the effect of uncontrollable process parameters.
Hansen et al. have made an attempt to understand the Ferit Ficici et al., [20] have studied that AISI 1040 steel
surface oxides effects in the sliding experiments was boronized using the packed boronizing technique.
performed. The tests were conducted in SS304 material. Processes were carried out at the temperature of
They also reported that the austenitic stainless steel is 950°C for 2 and 4 h of treatment. The wear resistance
a very sticky material in sliding contact. They concluded model for AISI 1040 steel was developed in terms of
that there is no material transfer for the SS 304 when the boronizing time, applied load, sliding distance and
test is conducted at 800oC. [10] Staffan Jacobson et al. sliding speed using the taguchi method. V.C.Uvaraja et
have elucidated with few examples that the tribofilms al., [21] published a paper in the year of 2012.
and modified surfaces have an influential effect on the They discussed that Novel LM24 hybrid composite
performance of various mechanical components and materials varying in the percentage of SiC particulate
tools. A.Devaraju et al., [11] have analyzed tribological reinforcement were fabricated by stir casting technique
behaviors of the plasma nitrided AISI 316 LN type (liquid metallurgy route) and optimized at different
austenitic stainless steel specimens (both pins and rings) parameters like applied load, sliding speed, sliding
in the year of 2010. The wear resistance of plasma distance by taguchi method.
nitrided (CrN) 316LN has been assessed by mating itself The ANOVA test concluded that as applied load
(CrN coated pin against CrN coated Ring) in air and its increases the wear rate also increases significantly. From
result has been compared with the result of self-mating of confirmation tests, the errors associated with wear rate
untreated 316LN. Many researchers attempted to find the ranges from 1.20% to 6.34% resulting in the conclusion
optimum wear parameters and some others found the that the design of experiments by Taguchi method was
optimum process parameters for good surface finishing successful for calculating wear rate from the regression
in machining processes. S. Ranganathan et al.,[12] in the equation. In the year of 2012, H. B. Bhaskar et al., [22]
year 2010 made a work to find the influence of the have investigated that the influence of wear parameters
cutting parameters namely cutting speed (Vs) feed rate like sliding speed, applied load and sliding distance on
(fs) and depth of cut (ap) at 2000 C, 4000 C and 6000 C. the dry sliding wear of aluminium metal matrix
Optimal cutting parameters for each performance composites. A.M. Zaharudin et al., [23] have discussed in
measure were obtained. their paper about the optimization of manufacturing
M. Sudheer et al.,[13] have studied that the influence parameters (moulding pressure, moulding temperature
of independent parameters such as sliding velocity (A), and moulding time) for friction materials using the
normal load (B), filler content (C) and sliding distance Taguchi Method. [26] D. Philip Selvaraj, et al. have
(D) on wear performance in Potassium Titanate Whiskers made experimental investigations on Surface Roughness,
(PTW) reinforced epoxy composites using a statistical Cutting Force and Tool Wear of Duplex Stainless Steel
approach. P.Dhanapaul et al., [14] have concluded that in End Milling Using Taguchi Method. A. Anandha
Carbidic austempered ductile iron [CADI] was the family Moorthy et al. have studied the microstructure of
of ductile iron containing wear resistance alloy carbides AA2218 based Self-Lubricating Metal Matrix
in the ausferrite matrix. This CADI was manufactured by Composites tested for its dry sliding behavior.
selecting proper material composition through the Based on the above literature survey, this research
melting route. They made an effort to obtain the optimal work is an attempt to study the wear behaviour in AISI
production parameters, by applying Taguchi method. 202 stainless steel at elevated temperatures and to
Ram.subbiah et al., [15] have investigated wear investigate the influence of wear parameters like sliding
behaviour of gas nitrided stainless steel. [16] Devaraju et speed, applied load and sliding distance on the dry
al. have analyzed tribological behaviors of the plasma sliding wear. The experiments were conducted for three
nitrided AISI 316 LN type austenitic stainless steel sliding velocities, three applied loads and three
specimens (both pins and rings). The wear resistance of temperatures.
plasma nitrided (CrN) 316LN has been assessed by The design of experiment approach was employed to
mating itself (CrN coated pin against CrN coated Ring) determine the optimal combination of the testing
in air and its result has been compared with the result of parameters in controlled way using Taguchi method for
self-mating of untreated 316LN. Mohammed Yunus et minimum wear rate.
al., [17] conducted wear tests on three types of industrial Design of experiments was done on the basis of an
coatings, namely, Alumina, Alumina-Titania (AT) and orthogonal array L9 (34). An orthogonal array and signal-
Partially Stabilized Zirconia (PSZ) under three control to-noise ratio were employed to investigate the wear
parameters at different levels. behaviour of AISI 202.
117
II. Material Selection The power calculation is calculated by using the

equation (2) [25].
Investigation on AISI 202, based on un-lubricated In equation (2), V is the voltage, I is current in ampere
sliding has been conducted as an origin for the and ηmech = Mechanical efficiency of DC motor = 0.75.:
development of materials in vehicle braking, propeller
shaft and space technology. The chemical composition of VI
the AISI 202 is given in Table I. p (2)
1000 mech
TABLE I
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF AISI 202
From the friction factor the friction coefficient can be
Grade Cr in % Ni in % Mn in % N in % Fe
0.25 calculated. We know that, m= µ × √3, where, µ= Friction
AISI 202 17-19 4-6 7.5-10 Balance coefficient.
max
III. Experimentation
III.1. Specimen Preparation
The specimen of AISI 202 grade had been purchased
in the form of rod of diameter 20mm and it is reduced to
10 mm as per the mechanics of contact. The real area of
contact is designed to be a diameter of 4 mm and 2mm to
a length of 7mm from one end of the diameter reduced
test pin.
The disc is prepared to a diameter of 180 mm and
thickness 10mm. The surface is finely finished in a
surface-grinding machine. The prepared specimen is Fig. 2. Wear test rig
shown in the Fig. 1.
III.3. Taguchi Approach
Real area Taguchi method has been used to study the effect of
of contact three wear parameters (Temperature, load, sliding
velocity) on wear of AISI 202. To find the optimal
combinations the following step by step procedure is
followed for the DOE [12]:
 Select noise and control factors;
 Select Taguchi orthogonal array;
 Conduct experiments;
Fig. 1. Real area of contact of the prepared specimen  Weight loss measurements;
 Analyze results;(Signal-to-noise ratio);
 Predict optimum performance;
III.2. Wear test  Analysis of variance.
Wear tests were conducted on the pin on disc
apparatus as shown in Figure 2. The pin and disc are of III.3.1. Plan of Experiments
similar material of grade AISI202. The wear tests were
carried out at various loads (13 MPa, 18 MPa, 22 MPa The degree of freedom is calculated for selecting
and 27 MPa), sliding velocities (0.2 m/sec and 2 m/s) and proper orthogonal array [24]. The total degree of freedom
at temperatures (200°C, 400°C, 600°C) and vacuum for three wear parameters at each level (3 level) is given
condition (600mm of Hg). The wear was measured by as 6 [3 × (3-1)]. Therefore, a three level orthogonal array
the loss in weight. with at least 6 DOF has to be selected. So, L9 orthogonal
The wear rate is calculated by using Archard’s wear array is selected for the study.
equation. The load applied was measured in terms of In this study, it is assumed that, no interaction exists
ampere and volt, from which the friction factor could be between the wear parameters. DOF=number of levels-1,
calculated from the equation 1[25]. In Eq. (1), ‘m’ is For A; DOF=3-1=2; For B DOF=3-1=2; For C DOF=3-
Friction factor: 1=2. In Taguchi method, it is possible to select suitable
factors. Table II indicates factors and their levels in the
wear experiment with pin on disc apparatus. Table III
 Input power with load 
  shows the form of orthogonal array L9 for data collection.
m  - Input power with no load  (1) Table IV shows the experimental layout based on L9
Input power with no load orthogonal array.
118
TABLE II
WEAR PARAMETERS
Levels
Factors Wear parameters Unit
1 2 3
1 Temperature 200 400 600 ºC
2 Load 13 22 27 Mpa
3 Sliding velocity 0.2 1 2 m/sec
TABLE III
TABLE OF TAGUCHI DESIGNS (ORTHOGONAL ARRAYS L9)
Wear parameter level
Experiment A B C
number Load Sliding velocity Fig. 3. Wear rate as a function of load for 200oC.
Temperature (oC)
MPa m/s Comparison is made between 0.2m/s and 2m/s
1 1 (Level 1) 1 (Level 1) 1 (Level 1)
TABLE IV
EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT
Wear Parameter Level
Experiment A B C Parameter
number Temperature Load Sliding Setting
(ºC) (MPa) velocity (m/s) Fig. 4. Wear rate as a function of load for 400oc
1 200 13 0.2 A1B1C1 Comparison is made between 0.2m/s and 2m/s
2 200 22 1 A1B2C2
3 200 27 2 A1B3C3
4 400 13 1 A2B1C2
5 400 22 2 A2B2C3
6 400 27 0.2 A2B3C1
7 600 13 2 A3B1C3
8 600 22 0.2 A3B2C1
9 600 27 1 A3B3C2
IV. Results and Discussions

IV.1. Tribo-Graphs
From Figs. 3, 4 and 5, it is observed that when the
temperature increases, the wear rate is more. This is due Fig. 5. Wear rate as a function of load for 600oC.
to the plastic deformation of the pin. This change occurs Comparison is made between 0.2m/s and 2m/s
due to the loose formation of wear particles as the
temperature increases and kind of chemical changes At very low speed, the μ is quite high. Again at very
which loosens the material formation. When applied high sliding speed, surface melting occurs which works
force is enough and tangential motion occurs, the friction as lubricant and produces a very low coefficient of
force always acts in an opposite direction to that of the friction.
relative velocity of the surfaces. The friction force is The friction force has weak dependence on the
proportional to the normal force load. roughness of the sliding surfaces. From Figs. 6, 7 and 8,
At higher loads, the thin hard layer is broken off and the friction coefficient as the function of time for
the properties of the substrate becomes more important. constant sliding velocity, constant temperature and four
The friction force is independent of the apparent area loads applied have been reported. A non-linear decrease
of contact but is dependent on real area of contact. in friction coefficient is observed as the time is increased.
Deviation to this law, is also very minor and occurs This behaviour is noticed irrespective of the sliding
only with few very smooth and very clean surfaces where velocity and temperatures taken for the study. However,
real area of contact becomes closer to apparent area of it was observed that increase in load applied increases the
contact. The friction force has weak dependence on the friction coefficient. It was also noticed that when there is
sliding velocity. The kinetic friction coefficient is a an increase in real contact area there is a very minor
function of velocity; it reduces at a faster rate just after variations in the friction coefficient. The coefficient of
start (low sliding speed) but the variation decreases as the friction reduces at faster rate after start and the variation
sliding speed increases. decreases as the time increases.
119
This is due to the increase in area, throwing-out and

squeezing-out of some surface films. Also at higher
temperatures, surface melting occurs which works as
lubricant and produces a very low coefficient of friction
when the time duration of the test is increased.
IV.2. Analysis of S/N Ratio

Taguchi method emphasizes the importance of
studying the response variation using the signal – to –
noise (S/N) ratio, resulting in minimization of quality
characteristic variation due to uncontrollable parameter
[24]. The wear rate was considered as the quality
characteristic with the concept of "the smaller-the-
better". The S/N ratio for the smaller-the-better is: S/N = -
10×log (mean square deviation):
S/N = -10 log10 (1/n∑ y2) (3)

o
Fig. 6. Friction-time curve at 200 C.
Comparison was made between 0.2m/s and 2m/s where n is the number of measurements in a trial/row, in
this case, n=1 and y is the measured value in a run/row.
The S/N ratio values are calculated by Eq. (3).
The weight loss values measured from the
experiments and their corresponding S/N ratio values are
listed in Table V. Regardless of the category of the
performance characteristics, a smaller S/N value
corresponds to a better performance. Therefore, the
optimal level of the machining parameters is the level
with the smallest S/N value. To obtain optimal testing
parameters, the-lower-the-better quality characteristic for
weight loss was taken. The S/N ratio for each level of
testing parameters was computed based on the S/N
analysis. Moreover, a statistical analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed to see which test parameters
are statistically significant. With S/N ratio and ANOVA
analyses, the optimal combination of the testing
parameters could be predicted for a 95% confidence
level. In the response Table VI, the control factor with
the strongest influence was determined by difference
Fig. 7. Friction-time curve at 400oC values. The higher the difference, the more influential
Comparison was made between 0.2m/s and 2m/s was the control factor. The strongest influence was found
by sliding velocity(C), Temperature (A) and Load (B)
respectively. The main effects and their interaction plots
for S/N ratios are shown in Fig. 9. Optimal testing
conditions of these control factors can be easily
determined from this graph.
TABLE V
L9 (33) ORTHOGONAL ARRAY, EXPERIMENT RESULTS AND S/N RATIO
Wear Parameters
Experiment Sliding Weight S/N
Temp Load
number Velocity Loss ratio
(oC) MPa
m/s (mg)
1 200 13 0.2 8 -18.06
2 200 22 1 134 -42.54
3 200 27 2 260 -48.29
4 400 13 1 102 -40.17
5 400 22 2 190 -45.57
6 400 27 0.2 14 -22.92
7 600 13 2 120 -41.58
8 600 22 0.2 12 -21.58
Fig. 8. Friction-time curve at 600oC. 9 600 27 1 66 -36.39
Comparison was made between 0.2m/s and 2m/s
120
TABLE VI TABLE VII

RESPONSE TABLE FOR S/N RATIO ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR S/N RATIOS
Temperature Load Sliding velocity Degrees Mean
Level Sum of
(oC) MPa m/s Factor of sum of F-ratio P%
Square
1 -36.296 -33.27 -20.85 Freedom Square
2 -36.22 -36.563 -39.7 Load 18.93 2 9.46 1.0726 1.83848
3 -33.183 -35.866 -45.14 Temp 18.08 2 9.04 1.0248 1.75651
Delta -3.113 -3.293 -24.29 Sliding
975.204 2 487.602 55.243 94.6909
Rank 3 2 1 velocity
Error 17.65 2 8.826 1.71408
The best weight loss value was at the smaller S/N ratio Total 1029.881 8 100
values in the response graphs. It could be seen in Figs. 5
and 6 that the optimum condition for the tested samples The last column of the above table indicates the
becomes A1B3C3 percentage of each factor contribution (P) on the total
variation, thus exhibiting the degree of influence on the
result. It may be observed in this table that the Sliding
Main Effects Plot for Means
Data Means Velocity factor (P ≈ 94%), and the Applied load (P ≈
A B 1.84%) had a significant influence on the weight loss of
200
AISI 202 while temperature (P = 1.75%) had a much
150
lower effects on it.
100
Mean of Means
50
0
1 2 3 1 2 3
IV.4. SEM Observations
C
200 In Fig. 11, SEM images are reported for AISI 202
150 specimen, which is tested at 200oC, Vacuum condition.
100 The mechanisms of micro-grooving, adhesion and
50
micro-delamination are noted. In micro-delamination
0
1 2 3
mechanism, small flakes of material are pulled out from
the surface during the pin sliding on the disc.
Fig. 9. Main effects plot for Means
Fig. 12 reveals that the pin surface shows the
mechanism of the de-lamination when the pin specimen
is tested at 400oC, Vacuum condition. The worn surface
consists of debris, cracks and pores.
Fig. 10. Main effects plot for S/N ratio Fig. 11. Specimen tested at 200oC
IV.3. Analysis of Variance

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to
investigate the design parameters that significantly affect
the quality characteristic.
It is accomplished by separating the total variability of
the S/N ratios, which is measured by sum of the squared
deviations from the total mean S/N ratio, into
contributions by each of the design parameters and the
errors. Examination of the calculated values of variance
ratio (F), which is the variance of the factor divided by
the error variance for all control factors showed a much
higher influence of factor A and high influence of factor Fig. 12. Specimen tested at 400oC
C on the wear of AISI 202 (Table VII).
121
The material has under gone severe plastic significant factor which induces the wear rate,
deformation. This behaviour is noticed due to the loose whereas applying load and temperature has least
wear particles formation, as the temperature is increased. contribution towards wear rate induced by the test
So, the adhesive bond is stronger. specimen.
Fig. 13 shows the worn surfaces of the AISI 202
tested at temperature 600 oC. The worn surface of the
stainless steels consists of debris with the ploughs. Acknowledgements
These ploughs are parallel to the sliding direction. The authors extend their sincere thanks to Prof. Sheik
From the fractured surface analysis the wear mechanism Mohammed, Department of English, Einstein College of
associated with this material is plastic deformation. At Engineering for his extensive support to complete the
high temperature, there is increase in area, throwing-out work. Also the authors express their gratitude to Nano
and squeezing-out of some surface films of AISI 202 in Technological Research Centre, SRM University,
pin. Also at higher temperatures, surface melting occurs Chennai for SEM images.
which works as lubricant.
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Sathish Vasu Kailash., Venugopal Srinivasan, “Sliding Wear and a life member of Indian Society for Technical
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1
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Einstein
College of Engineering, Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India.
2
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kurinji College of
Engineering and Technology, Manapparai, Tamilnadu, India.
3
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, VEL Tech Dr. R.
R. and S.R Technical University, Chennai
4
PG Student, Centre for Engineering Design, Einstein College of
Engineering, Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India.
123
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Exergy and Performance Analysis of Three Stage Auto Refrigerating

Cascade (3 Stage ARC) System Using Zeotropic Mixture
of Eco-Friendly Refrigerants
M. Sivakumar, P. Somasundaram, P. Thangavel
Abstract – To Rule out the CFC’s from Vapour Compression Refrigeration, the Zeotropic
mixture of HC’s and HFC’s being the only alternates to cater to the needs of Cryo-cooling and
Cryo-chamber technology, the Three Component Zeotropic Mixture of R1270/R170/R14 was
studied for the existence of the 3 stage ARC system. Exergy Analysis was carried out on this
system for Confirmation of the 3 stage ARC System and the results confirmed the Existence of the
system. The effect of mass fraction on Coefficient of Performance (COP), Exergy lost, Exergic
efficiency, Efficiency defect and the Evaporating temperature achieved were investigated for
different mass fractions. In accordance with the Environmental issues and the process of
sustainable development, the Three Component Zeotropic Mixture of R1270/R170/R14 with the
mass fraction of 0.265:0.18:0.55 was performing best with the suggestion of an alternative
refrigerant for Three stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade (3 stage ARC) System operating at Very
low evaporating temperature in the range of 183K (-900C) at COP of 0.267 and comparatively
increased Exergic efficiency up to 6.02% (66.9%). The better performance with COP of 0.316 and
the Exergic efficiency of 63.1% at around 194K (-790C) have eliminated based on the fact that the
lower most evaporating temperature was not achieved. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize
Keywords: Exergy Analysis, Exergic Efficiency, Efficiency Defect, 3 Stage ARC, Zeotropic
Mixture of R1270/R170/R14, Performance Analysis, COP
Nomenclature mRIII Mass Flow rate of Refrigerant III (kg s-1)

QACC Heat removed at Air cooled condenser [Heat
 Exergy flow (J kg-1) rejected by The Mixture of First, second and
x Exergy Efficiency (%) third refrigerant at the Air cooled condenser
 Efficiency Defect as Hot fluid link] (W)
COP Coefficient of performance Qcondenser-I Heat removed at condenser-I [Heat rejected
h Specific Enthalpy (J kg-1) by The Mixture of second and third
T0 Ambient temperature (0K) refrigerant at the inner tube of cascade
Tevaporator-I Evaporating temperature of cascade condenser-I as Hot fluid link] (W)
condenser-I [Refirigerant-1] (0K) Qcondenser-II Heat removed at condenser-II [Heat rejected
Tevaporator-II Evaporating temperature of cascade by third refrigerant at the inner tube of
condenser-II [Refrigerant-II] (0K) cascade condenser-II as Hot fluid link] (W)
Tevaporator-III Evaporating temperature of Evaporator-III Qevaporator -III Refrigerating effect [Refrigerant-III] (W)
[Refrigerant-III] (0K) Qevaporator -II Refrigerating effect at cascade condenser-II
TACC Condensing temperature of Air cooled [Refrigerant-II] (W)
condenser [Refrigerant-I] (0K) Qevaporator -I Refrigerating effect at cascade condenser-I
Tcondenser-I Condensing temperature of cascade [Refrigerant-I] (W)
condenser-I [Refrigerant-II] (0K) ITotal Exergy loss of the system (J s-1)
Tcondenser-I Condensing temperature of cascade Icomp Exergy loss at compressor (J s-1)
condenser-II [Refrigerant-III] (0K) IACC Exergy loss at Air cooled condenser
s Specific Entropy (J kg-1 K-1) (J s-1)
Wc Compressor work input (W) Icondenser-I Exergy loss at cascade condenser-I in hot
m Mass (Total Refrigerant) flow rate fluid link by mixture of second and third
( m  m RI  m RII  m RIII ) (kg s-1) refrigerant (J s-1)
mRI Mass Flow rate of Refrigerant I (kg s-1) Icondenser-II Exergy loss at cascade condenser-I in hot
mRII Mass Flow rate of Refrigerant II (kg s-1) fluid link by third refrigerant (J s-1)
124
ITEV-I Exergy loss at Thermostatic Expansion cycling times of air source heat pumps and 5% efficiency
valve-I [Refrigerant-I] (J s-1) gain in the case of geothermal heat pumps by the
ITEV-II Exergy loss at Thermostatic Expansion recovery of the ground probe during the off time.
valve-II [Refrigerant-II] (J s-1) J.H. Lee et al [4] have suggested the numerical code to
ITEV-III Exergy loss at Thermostatic Expansion predict the performance of Condenser and found the
valve-III [Refrigerant-III] (J s-1) acceptable deviation of calculated and experimental
Ievaporator-I Exergy loss at cascade condenser-I in clod values with the use of R-22 were 10.1% greater than
fluid link by first refrigerant experiment data and with the use of R-407C the results
(J s-1) were 10.7% less than experiment data and thus they
Ievaporator-II Exergy loss at cascade condenser-II in clod suggested the numerical code to be used as a design tool
fluid link by second refrigerant (J s-1) to develop better condenser paths.
Ievaporator-III Exergy loss at Evaporator as cold link by Zanjun Gao et al [5] have studied the absorption
Third refrigerant (J s-1) refrigeration system with the binary mixture of
Trifluoromethane (R23) and N,N-dimethyl formamide as
a promising new working fluid and found the average
I. Introduction relative deviation of 1.8% between experimental and
Ozone level in the Arctic region as was measured as calculated values of system parameters.
320 DU (Dobson units) or about 150 DU below spring Pradeep Bansal, Edward Vineyard and Omar
time as normal as of 450DU in 1956 at first as an Abdelaziz [6] have studied the alternative technologies
unknown phenomenon of Ozone Hole by G.M.B Dobson. for refrigeration such as thermo-acoustic refrigeration,
But the CFC’s lead the world of Refrigeration thermoelectric refrigeration, thermo-tunneling, magnetic
industries for over 6 decades before the harmful effect on refrigeration, Sterling cycle refrigeration, pulse tube
the Ozone layer was identified in 1974 by Frank refrigeration, Malone cycle refrigeration, absorption
Sherwood Rowland and his postdoctoral associate Mario refrigeration, adsorption refrigeration, and compressor
J. Molina. driven metal hydride heat pumps. They suggested going
A Steady decline of 4% per decade in Total Volume of for integrated heat pump system serving both heating and
Stratospheric Ozone was found and much greater air conditioning applications in domestic applications.
depletion level during springtime was identified in early X. Boissieux, M.R. Heikal and R.A. Johns [7] studied
1980’s. The results of global warming effect of these with the use of Mixtures R407C (R32/R125/R134a of
refrigerants 8500 times greater than CO2 over hundred quality 0.23:0.25:0.52), R404a (R125/R143a/R134a of
years have directed the HVAC Engineers towards quality 0.44:0.52:0.04) and Isceon 59 (R125/R134a/R600
Production of HFC’s and HC’s as well as the ban on of quality (0.47:0.50:0.03) and stated that the Dobson
usage of CFC’s and HCFC’s. The Montreal Protocol and Chato correlation provided the best prediction for
which was an agreement signed on 16 September 1987 these refrigerant mixtures and the Shah correlation fitted
and came into force on 1 January 1989 has also enriched the measurements of the local heat transfer coefficients
the recent researches. well and seems to cope well with refrigerant mixtures.
The London, Copenhagen, Montreal and Beijing Ruixiang Wang, Qingping Wu and Yezheng Wu [8]
Amendments came into force on 10th August 1992, 14th have confirmed the normal working of Residential Air
June 1994, 10th November 1999 and 25th February 2002 Conditioners with the use of the mixture of
established the final expiration of HCFC’s as 2030. So R410a/MNRO as working fluid. The cooling/heating
the search continues on the possible alternatives for the Energy Efficiency Ratio of the Residential Air
refrigerants, which have thermophysical acceptance, Conditioners increased about 6% by replacing the
thermodynamically acceptable and harmless for the Polyol-Easter oil VG 32 lubricant with MNRO (mineral-
environment. Eric W. Lemmon and Richard T Jacobsen based nano-refrigeration oil).
[1] have reported that No additional parameters were Jianyong Chen and Jianlin Yu [9] have Confirmed the
required to model the ternary mixture and also slight new refrigeration cycle having the Evaporator circuit of
systematic offsets are seen in several locations for two branches to realize Lorentz cycle with the advantage
example, The R-32/125/134a system is unique from a of Temperature glide (NRC) using the binary non-
modeling standpoint since it combines the three mixture azeotropic refrigerant mixture (R32/R134a) results in 8
equations the individual equations for R-32/125 and R- to 9% COP raise and 9.5% increase in Volumetric
32/134a, and the generalized equation for R-125/134a. Refrigerating Capacity.
Ciro Aprea and Angelo Maiorino [2] have studied M.H. Kim et al [10] have predicted the mean deviation
COP improvement by Employing pressure control at gas- of the calculated condensation heat transfer coefficients
cooler outlet and quantified as 6.6–8.5% Under minimum for the binary Zeotropic mixture of R134a/R123 in the
pressure working condition at different T ambient. horizontal smooth tube was about 10.3% and he also
Michael Uhlmann and Stefan S. Bertsch [3] have suggest that the high mass flux transfer have slight effect
derived the improved control strategies for heat pumps on condensation heat transfer.
using on-off cycling as capacity control through the Mark O McLinden et al [11] suggested that
evidence of performance losses of 1 - 2% for short halocarbon refrigerants, propane, ammonia, and carbon
125
dioxide, R11, R12, R13, R22, R23, R114, R115, R125, cooling capacity relative to HCFC-22. With propane
R142b, R143a as well as mixtures of these fluids the (Care-40), energy use decreased by 5% but cooling
average absolute deviations between the calculated and capacity was 9% lower.
experimental values of thermal conductivity arranged S.Anand, S.K. Tyagi [19] have revealed the fact that
from 1.08 to 5.57% for the pure Fluids, and 2.98 to the exergy destruction is least when the system is 25%
9.40% deviations for the mixtures given below charged and also COP of the system is high when the
R125/134a, R32/propane, R32/134a, Propane/R134a, system is 50% charged due to higher refrigerating effect
R32/125, R32/125/134a. and reduced compressor work and Exergy efficiency of
Jianlin Yu, Hua Zhao and Yanzhong Li [12] have the system is highest when the system is 100% charged.
proved that an outstanding merit in decreasing the So he suggested that the system must run with the
pressure ratio of compressor as well as increasing the optimum balance between the exergy efficiency and
COP. For Novel Autocascade Refrigeration system with energy savings.
Ejector using the mixture of R134a/R23 of Quality Jianfeng Wu et al [20] achieved a minimum no-load
0.85:0.15 operated at the condenser outlet temperature of temperature of -197.70C (about 75.7 K), -1740C (about
400C, the evaporator inlet temperature of -40.30C, the 99 K) was obtained at 110 W cooling capacities with the
pressure ratio of the ejector reaches to 1.35, the pressure mixed-gases refrigeration using dual mixed-gases Joule
ratio of compressor is reduced by 25.8% and the COP is Thomson refrigeration system. They achieved the lowest
improved by 19.1% over the conventional Autocascade temperature of -1920C (about 81 K) with an effective
refrigeration cycle. preservation volume of 80 L at a relatively faster
K. Comakli et al [13] was observed that the most cooling-down rate in cryogenic chamber and found 2.5
effective parameters are found to be the condenser air hours to reach -1800C, and 5 hours to reach -1900C.
inlet temperature for COP and Exergetic efficiency for Liu Jie et al [21] suggested the start up processes in
the heat pump with the use of mixture of R404a and R22 different situations may cause some liquid superheats and
and has no Influence of R404a mixture and suggests that evaporator temperature overshoots, but they will not
the Pure R22 is the only solution for Heat pump affect much on the steady state operation of the MPCL
application. (Mechanically Pumped Two-phase Cooling Loop).
Primal Fernando et al [14] have predicted that the heat Andrey Rozhentsev and Vjacheslav Naer [22] have
transfer coefficients of Evaporator using Propane as studied the stationary modes the operating parameters of
Refrigerant was found to increase with increasing heat the system Using 3-component non-azeotropic mixtures
flux, which was accompanied by an increase in the of hydrocarbons – isobutane (CH(CH3)2CH3) / ethane
Propane mass flux and increasing evaporation (CH3CH3) / methane CH4) as a refrigerant which
temperatures as follows evaporation temperatures ranged corresponded to their design / calculated values varying
from -15 to +100C and the heat and mass fluxes ranged with the refrigerant working mixture compositions and
from 2000 to 9000 W/m-2 and 13 to 66 kg m-2s -1. ambient temperatures (that is the heat load) within the
The refrigerant flow was laminar with the liquid following ranges: discharge pressure – (12.3, ..., 13.4)
Reynolds number ranging from 171 to 877. bar; suction pressure – (0.8, ..., 1.3) bar; compressor
Ki-Jung Park and Dongsoo Jung [15] have reduced the input power – (385, ..., 435) W. The air temperature in
charge of the system up to 58% due to its low liquid the low-temperature chambers of the 1st and 2nd type for
density and found that the COP of the system using the considered modes was as low as (-80, ..., -95)0C
Mixture of R170/R290 of quality 0.06:0.94 was higher while the average temperature along the evaporator was
than that of R22 and have 16.6–28.20C lower compressor of (-85, ...,-105)0C, correspondingly.
discharge temperatures, this in turn increases the life of D.Y. Lee et al [23] have predicted the effect of the
the system. Primal Fernando et al [16] have performed a refrigerant change from R22 to R407C on the Chiller
study on traditional refrigeration system under typical performance and measured that the cooling capacity
Swedish condition and found that the charge of about decreases by 10–20% and the COP by 20–30%
200 grams is the best choice for the heat pump providing depending on the temperature condition. It is found that
a COP between 3.5 and 4 using R290 as a Refrigerant. the main reason for the decrease in the Chiller
Dongoo Jung et al [17] have Examined the performance is the decrease in the heat transfer
Performance of R290 / R600a Mixture of quality or mass coefficient of R407C compared with that of R22 based
fraction 0.6 : 0.4 in Domestic Refrigerators and on the three factors which are thermodynamic properties,
Suggested the COP increase of 2.3%. Three to four compressor efficiency, and heat transfer.
Percentage (3-4%) of Higher Energy efficiency at faster Dave Sajjan, Tord Karlsson and Lennart Vamling [24]
Cooling rate as well as shorter compressor on-time and have investigated the performance of the system of R22
Lower compressor Dome temperatures were confirmed with the retrofit of R407C. The experimental and
with this mixture compared to CFC12 – R12. theoretical investigation made confirmed the drop in
D.J. Cleland, R.W. Keedwell and S. R. Adams [18] shell-and-tube condenser performance and quantified that
have quantified the system performances and stated that the reduction in performance can be as large as 70%
the system with mixture of propane and ethane (Care-50) compared to the full condenser load at lower condenser
reduced energy use by 6–8% under similar system loads.
126
Andrey Rozhentsev [25] Investigated the Auto So this study is the stepping stone for the future in
Refrigerating Cascade System (Linde Cycle) and Cryo-technologies.
achieved -750C and the following operating conditions
working with the Zeotropic mixture of n-butane /
ethylene with the quality of 0.6:0.4 under the total mass II. Experimental Setup and Procedure
charge of 110grams between the ambient temperature of Three stage Auto Refrigerating cascade system was
(-5, ..., +43)0C and working conditions he achieved: The fabricated as per the design parameters. The detailed
air temperature in the chamber (-86, ..., -63)0C; discharge photographic view of the system is shown in Fig. 1 and
pressure (4.5, ..., 13.5) bar; suction pressure (1.3, ..., 3.5) the line diagram of the setup is shown in Fig. 2.
bar; Input power (300, ..., 560) W; discharge temperature
(45, ..., 110)0C; and the compressor dome temperature
(25, ..., 70)0C. A. Johansson and P. Lundqvist [26] have
found the charged composition and the circulated
composition as well as the leak composition differ as
well as the differed compositions will not affect the cycle
performance using the Zeotropic mixtures like 407C. He
has also suggested the predictive model to determine the
circulating composition and suggested that this will be
same for Zeotropic mixtures consisting 3 and more
components. Kai Du et al [27] have suggested the use of
Zeotropic mixture of R134a & R23 of quality 0.7:0.3 as
an alternate working fluid for Auto Cascade
Refrigerating system to obtaining High COP. He also
suggested raising the mass flex of high boiling Liquid Fig. 1. Experimental setup of Three Stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade
Refrigerant and reducing the Low boiling Liquid (3 stage ARC) System
Refrigerant without any alteration in its Discharge
condition. Yijian He and Guangming Chen [28] have
studied the properties of the system and stated that the
mixture of R23+R32+R134a/DMF as working pair of a
novel auto-cascade absorption refrigeration system has
gained better performances with a refrigerating
temperature as low as -500C. They made it clear that the
mixture of R23+R32+R134a/DMF as working pair
shows a rapider lowering rate of refrigerating
temperature than that of an auto-cascade absorption
refrigeration system using R23 + R134a/DMF as its
working pair. Giovanni Di Nicola et al [29] have
investigated the feasibility of R744 blends as an
attractive option for the low-temperature-circuit in
cascade systems operating at temperatures approaching
200 K. Fig. 2. Line Diagram of Three Stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade
P. Thangavel et al [30] have investigated the feasibility (3 stage ARC) System
of Hydrocarbon Mixtures as alternative refrigerants and
proved they are the viable solution for VCR system The compressor used in this system is Kirloskar of
without any modification in the system. S. Frikhal and 4500 BTU capacity. A four row air cooled condenser of
M.S. Abid [31] have investigated performance of 2TR capacity is used to facilitate the proper condensing
combined refrigeration cycles conventional cascade (CC) area. An oil separator was connected to separate the oil
and the integrated cascade (IC)] using finite time from the compressor discharge and the separated oil was
thermodynamic (FTT) analysis and was found that at directed to the compressor doom through the suction line
fixed condensing and evaporating temperatures and for of the compressor. The compressors oil return has been
same intermediate heat-exchanger temperature ratio, the ensured and the Filter drier is also used in the system
IC is more efficient than the CC system. The coefficient after Air cooled condenser for proper filtration and block
of performance of the IC system can be more enhanced free working of the system.
under the condition of minimum intermediate heat Since the pressure may go up to 700psig during
exchanger irreversibilities (less glide between the two operation and 450psig while system gets thermal
counter-flow intermediate heat exchanger). equilibrium with atmosphere, a thick cylinder has been
Even though the studies revealed many truth these considered for phase separation. To ensure the proper
studies does not deal with ARC and its existence with working of the three stage auto refrigerating cascade
respect to 3 component Zeotropic mixture. system an Extruded copper tube welded at top and
127
bottom by copper plate were considered for phase was insulated with PUF insulation around it. The Perfect
separator I & phase separator-II. Each separator is insulation is being ensured inside the evaporator tank.
provided with one input line, one copper line at the top of The total leak in the setup was less than 5% of the
the separator which provides the high pressure line for evaporator load.
the medium and low boiling refrigerants and the All the parameters of the system and mainly the power
separator ensures perfect separation of liquid refrigerant consumption were observed after the system has reached
through gravity separation. the study state condition. Values obtained were used for
The air cooled condenser must remove all the heat of this study and the characteristic curves were plotted and
refrigerants combined together and must condense the the performance of ARC system was studied.
high boiling refrigerant which is the largest mass fraction
of all three circulating refrigerants must cools the
Medium boiling refrigerant and then the medium boiling III. Exergy Analysis
refrigerant must cool the low boiling refrigerant to ensure Generally first and second law of thermodynamics are
that the circuit works continuously. For the realization of used to analyze the system performance. In an energy
these different requirements of each stage this three stage analysis, based on the first law of thermodynamics, all
ARC system considered the Thermostatic Expansions forms of energy are considered to be equivalent. The loss
valves with orifice sizes decreasing continuously in size of quality of energy is not taken into account. For
to accommodate the variation in cooling load. example, the change of the quality of thermal energy as it
The system is provided with the Extra volume to is transferred from a higher temperature source to a lower
accommodate the excess density gas during the thermal temperature sink, cannot be demonstrated in an energy
equilibrium of the ARC. Cascade condenser-I and analysis and also shows the energy flow to be
cascade condenser-II are used as counter flow heat continuous.
exchangers for the better and efficient heat transfer Exergy analysis and the concept of second law of
performance between the refrigerants flowing in the efficiency has invoked considerable interest in recent
circuit. Since the heat rejected by the low boiling years due to the fact that its application leads to a better
refrigerant must be equal to the heat gained by the understanding of the process of energy transfer, and
medium boiling refrigerant at Cascade condenser-II and helps to identify the thermodynamic losses clearly.
heat rejected by the mixture of medium and low boiling However, this analysis can be a complementary to the
refrigerants should be equal to heat gained by the high energy analysis but cannot replace it. Studies applying
boiling refrigerant in cascade condenser-I, these two second law analysis for refrigeration process though
cascade condensers were insulated with PUF insulation available are limited to certain refrigerants and particular
around them by a box. Flow of hot fluid inside the inner operating conditions. The importance of second law
tube ensures the heat transfer to the cold fluid flowing in analysis as compared to the conventional energy
outer tube of cascade condenser in both the cases. conservation analysis is mainly due to the effect that the
Pressure chamber is used to provide extra volume as later does not take in to account the quality of energy,
well as mixing chamber at suction side of the system and assigns high quality forms of energy to low quality
through three different Non-return valves. The system process. Moreover, it results in assigning efficiency
was equipped with two number of wattmeter to indicate values greater than unity for certain refrigeration process
the power consumption of the compressor and the heat and heat pump applications, thus departing from the
load given to the evaporator. The heat was connected efficiency concepts. Second law of thermodynamic
through On-off control. analysis takes in to account the quantity of energy
Around twelve numbers of P type RTD sensors with consumed and the quality of the energy conservation.
an accuracy of 1C & around 13 numbers of 3 wire Besides it permits to identify the losses occurring in
RTD sensors with 1C were connected at different different components of the system and thus improve
positions as stated state points of the system. Totally six thermodynamic efficiency.
number of WIKA [0-100Kg/cm2 (0-1400psi)] pressure Exergy of a system denotes the maximum amount of
gauges were used in this system for continuous work that can be obtained when the system is allowed to
monitoring of system pressure at suction and discharge come back to equilibrium with the surroundings. The
side. The readings confirm that no considerable variation state of the surrounding is called ‘dead state’. Two types
along the length of the piping. So decided to used of dead states come in to play.
individual suction pressure of each refrigerant after each The system in thermal and mechanical equilibrium
expansion, discharge pressure and Discharge side with the surroundings is said to be in “restricted dead
pressure just at the end of the high pressure line of low state”. In this state, the system is not permitted to mix or
boiling refrigerant which travels more distance from the enter in to chemical reaction with the surroundings and
compressor [just before TEV-III]. Thermo wells were set the maximum amount of work obtained is called
for mounting the temperature sensors. “thermo-mechanical availability”. The second, called as
A heater was used to provide load to the evaporator. A “absolute dead state” is achieved when the system is in
stirrer was also used to enhance the heat transfer in the thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium with the
secondary fluid in the evaporator tank. Evaporator tank surroundings.
128
Thus the concentration difference between the system I Condenser  I  m RII  RIII  h4  T0 s4  
at restricted dead state and the surroundings at absolute
dead state could be used to produce a certain quantity of  T0  (8)
 m RII  RIII  h5  T0 s5   Qcondenser  I 1  
work called “chemical availability”.  Tcondenser  I 
It is important to note that chemical availability plays
a dominant role in exergy analysis in process involving d) For Condenser-II:
mixtures of chemical substances or in chemical reactions (Cascade Condenser-II: Hot fluid flow):
(e.g. combustion) and should not be ignored. Hence, for Heat removed at condenser-I1:
vapour compression refrigeration process it is sufficient
to consider only the “thermo-mechanical equilibrium”. QCondenser  II  m RII  RIII  h6  h7  (9)
Under the assumption that the change of kinetic and
potential energy is negligible and the ambient
temperature is T0, the exergy is given by the equations: The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the
condenser-II:
  h  T0 s (1)
I Condenser  II  m RIII  h6  T0 s6   m RIII  h7  T0 s7  
   h  h0   T0  s  s0  (2)  T0  (10)
Qcondenser  II  1  
For the Three stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade  Tcondenser  II 
system the component wise the exergy balance equation
can be written as follows e) For Thermostatic Expansion Valve-I:
a) For Compressor: The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the
Compressor work: Thermostatic Expansion valve-I:
wc  m  h2  h1  (3) ITEV  I  m RI  h8  T0 s8   m RI  h9  T0 s9  (11)
where: Since the enthalpy is constant during the expansion

m  m R I  m R II  m R III process, we know that h8 = h9, the above equation can be
written as:
The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the ITEV  I  m RI T0  s9  s8  (12)
compressor:
f) For Thermostatic Expansion Valve-II:
I comp  m  h1  T0 s1   wc  m  h2  T0 s2  (4) The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the
Thermostatic Expansion valve-I:
b) For Air cooled Condenser:
Heat removed at Air Cooled condenser: ITEV  II  m RII  h11  T0 s11   m RII  h12  T0 s12  (13)
QACC  m  h2  h3  (5) Since the enthalpy is constant during the expansion

process, we know that h11 = h12, the above equation can
where: be written as:
m  mRI  mRII  mRIII
ITEV  II  m RII T0  s12  s11  (14)
The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the Air
cooled condenser: g) For Thermostatic Expansion Valve-III:
The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the
I ACC  m  h2  T0 s2   m  h3  T0 s3   Thermostatic Expansion valve-I:
 T  (6)
QACC 1  0  ITEV  III  m RIII  h7  T0 s7   m RIII  h15  T0 s15  (15)
 TACC 
Since the enthalpy is constant during the expansion
c) For Condenser-I (Cascade Condenser-I) process, we know that h7 = h15, the above equation can
(Hot fluid flow): Heat removed at condenser-1: be written as:
QCondenser  I  m RII  RIII  h4  h5  (7) ITEV  III  m RIII T0  s15  s7  (16)
The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the h) For Evaporator-III:

condenser-1: Heat addition in Evaporator-III:
129
Qevaporator  III  m RIII  h14  h15  (17) For the Three stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade
system the component wise efficiency defect (i)
The exergy loss (due to irreversibility) in the considering the ratio of exergy used in the corresponding
Evaporator – III: component (i) to the exergy required to sustain the
process (exergy through the compressor, wc):
I evaporator  III  m RIII  h15  T0 s15  
i
  i  (25)
T0 wc
Qevaporator  III    (18)
 Tevaporator  III 
 
 m RIII  h14  T0 s14  The overall performance of the 3 stage ARC System is
determined by evaluating its COP and is calculated as the
ratio between the refrigerating capacity (Qevaporator-III) and
i) For Evaporator-II (Cascade Condenser-II: Cold Fluid
the electrical power supplied to the compressor (wc):
Flow):
Heat addition in Evaporator-II:
Qevaporator  III
COP  (26)
Qevaporator  II  m RIII  h13  h12  (19) wc

Evaporator-II: IV. Results and Discussion
The values of COP, Exergy Lost, Exergic Efficiency
I evaporator  II  m RII  h12  T0 s12   and Efficiency defect readings in individual components
 T0  were calculated using the readings obtained by the
Qevaporator  II   (20) experimental setup. These Parameters were discussed in
 Tevaporator  II 
  this section for better understanding of the 3 stage ARC
m RII  h13  T0 s13  System.
Fig. 3 shows the variation of Exergic Efficiency of the
j) For Evaporator-I (Cascade Condenser-I: Cold Fluid ARC system with the variation of mass fraction of R1270
Flow): and R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270, R170 and
Heat addition in Evaporator-I: R14.
Qevaporator  I  m RI  h10  h9  (21)

Evaporator-I:
I evaporator  I  m RI  h9  T0 s9  
 T0 
Qevaporator  I   (22)
 Tevaporator  I 
 
 m RI  h10  T0 s10 
The total Exergy loss of the system is given by the

correlation:
Fig. 3. Variation of Exergic Efficiency for Different Mass Fraction of
ITotal  I comp  I ACC  I condenser  I  R1270 & R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270, R170 & R14
 I condenser  II  I condenser  III  I evaporator  I  The maximum value of Exergic efficiency from the
(23)
 I evaporator  II  I evaporator  III  ITEV  I  Fig. 3 was 66.9% which correspond to the mixture of
R1270, R170 and R14 with the mass fraction of
 ITEV  II  ITEV  III
0.265:0.18:0.555 and the lowest among the values
obtained is 55.2% which correspond to the mixture of
The exergy efficiency is given by: mass fraction of 0.325:0.18:0.495.
The gradual increase in Exergic Efficiency of the
 T0  mixture is noted with increase in quantity of R1270 and
Qevaporator  III 1 
drastically decreases after the optimum ratio along the
1  14 Tevaporator  III 
 
i   (24) course of operation. The trend of Exergy efficiency may
wc wc be noted due to the proper heat transfer between
130
refrigerants in cascade condensers and thus the increase

in refrigerating effect which intern gives the better
efficiencies and it drastically reduces due to the excess
amount of refrigerant flow with higher value of terminal
velocity which will not be able to efficiently transfer the
heat between the refrigerants in cascade condensers.
Fig. 4 shows the Variation in COP with the variation
of mass fraction of R1270 and R14 in the Zeotropic
Mixture of R1270, R170 and R14.
Fig. 5. Variation of Evaporating Temperature for Different Mass

Fraction of R1270 & R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture
of R1270, R170 & R14
Fig. 4. Variation of COP for Different Mass Fraction of R1270& R14

in the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270, R170 & R14
It is observed that the decrease in COP is due to the

increase in mass flow through the system and through the
compressor which increases the compressor work and
which in turn reduces the COP. The Fig. 4 also explains
the concept of slight increase in COP for the higher mass
ratio of R1270 and Lower mass ratio of R14 due to the
higher flow rate of high boiling refrigerant which ensures Fig. 6. Variation of Refrigerating Effect for Different Mass Fraction of
the proper cooling and effectiveness in the first stage R1270 & R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270, R170 & R14
itself which in turn adds a slight increment in
refrigerating effect and thus the COP. The maximum and The higher values of refrigerating effect is due to the
minimum value of COP observed are 0.316 for the increased mass flow of low boiling refrigerant assisting
mixture of R1270, R170 & R14 with the mass fraction of with less amount of compressor work and thus the higher
0.205:0.18:0.615 and 0.267 for the mass fraction of COP.
0.265:0.18:0.555. The higher and lower values of refrigerating effect
Even though the COP is higher in the Zeotropic achieved during the trials are 88.56 W and 66.25 W
Mixture of mass fraction 0.205:0.18:0.615, it operates which correspond to the Zeotropic mixtures of mass
with lesser Exergic efficiency, the interpretation should fractions 0.205:0.18:0.615 and 0.325:0.18:0.495.
be between the optimum values of COP, and Exergic Fig. 7 shows the variation of compressor work input
efficiency will be the solution and thus recommendations with the variation of mass fraction of R1270 and R14 in
can be made for the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270, R170 the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270, R170 and R14.
& R14 with the mass fraction of 0.265:0.18:0.555 as an The maximum and minimum values of these trials are
alternative refrigerant for Three stage Auto Refrigerating 280.42 W and 246.95 W corresponds to the mixtures of
Cascade (3 stage ARC) System which has lesser COP mass fractions 0.205:0.18:0.615 and 0.325:0.18:0.495.
and higher Exergic Efficiency. The trend of reduction of compressor work is
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the variation of Evaporating observed during the trials due to the reduced mass flow
temperature and Refrigerating effect with the variation of of low boiling high density gas which has greater
mass fraction of R1270 and R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture influence on compressor work but with better COP due
of R1270, R170 and R14. to the increased mass flow of high boiling refrigerant
Even though the higher mass flow of high boiling which can be easily compressed and thus Compressor
refrigerant enable sufficient cooling for medium and low work.
boiling refrigerant in condenser -1, the decreased mass Since the Compressor work need to be minimum at
flow rate of the low boiling refrigerant at evaporator-3 lowest evaporating temperatures, the Fig. 7 do not
with higher terminal velocity reduces the refrigerating suggest the trial 5 with mass fraction 0.325:0.18:0.495.
effect at lower evaporating temperatures.
131
little different due to the mixing of low boiling high

density and high boiling low density gases which will
increase the COP at both the cases.
The optimum of compressor work and exergy lost can
be the solution and the yields through Fig. 8 and Fig. 7 is
the Zeotropic mixture of R1270, R170 & R14 of mass
fraction 0.265:0.18:0.555 as an alternative refrigerant for
Three stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade (3 stage ARC)
System with 270.42 W compressor work input and
199.51 W Exergy lost at compressor.
Fig. 9 shows the variation of Efficiency defect in each
component of the ARC system with the variation of mass
fraction of R1270 and R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture of
R1270, R170 and R14.
Fig. 7. Variation of Compressor Work Input for Different Mass

Fraction of R1270 & R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270,
R170 & R14
So it can be interpreted that the optimum between

evaporating temperature and compressor work which
results in the recommendation of the Zeotropic mixture
of R1270, R170 & R14 of mass fraction
0.265:0.18:0.555 as an alternative refrigerant for Three
stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade (3 stage ARC) System.
Fig. 8 show the variation of Exergy lost at compressor
with the variation of mass fraction of R1270 and R14 in
the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270, R170 and R14. The
Fig. 9. Variation of Efficiency Defect in Each Component of ARC
maximum and minimum values of Exergy lost at System for Different Mass Fraction of R1270 & R14 in the Zeotropic
compressor are 199.51 W and 167.46 W corresponds to Mixture of R1270, R170 & R14
the mixture of mass fraction 0.265:0.18:0.555 having the
value of 270.42W of compressor work input and The maximum and minimum exergy defect are found
0.325:0.18:0.495 having the value of 246.95 W of at compressor (0.69, 0.73, 0.74, 0.71 and 0.68 correspond
compressor work input. to trials 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) and at Evaporator 1 (0.01, 0.02,
0.001, 0.01and 0.03 correspond to trials 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
The phenomenon of increase in Efficiency defect is
observed due to greater losses in compressor during trials
1, 2 and 3 with increased mass flow of high boiling
refrigerant which has the tendency to be easily
compressed and the excess energy available creates
excess temperature difference and thus the Exergy loss
and also the efficiency defect.
On the other hand the excess amount of work input
during the trials 4 and 5 with the mass fraction of
0.295:0.18:0.525 and 0.325:0.18:0.495 are utilized to
compress the low boiling high density gases which make
sure less amount of temperature raise during operation
and thus the lesser exergy losses compared to the trials of
1, 2 and 3 in each and every component. Since the results
Fig. 8. Variation of Exergy Lost in Compressor for Different Mass of the Fig. 9 follows the same phenomenon of ordinary
Fraction of R1270 & R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture Vapour Compression Refrigerating (VCR) system with
of R1270, R170 & R14
the exergy losses and efficiency defect, the three stage (3
stage ARC) Auto Refrigerating Cascade system is
It is evident that whenever the temperature difference
efficient in dealing with the low temperature at the range
between the two state points is high, the exergy lost
of 183K (-900C).
(Change in entropy is also high which intern the exergy
The interpretations can reveal the concept of area of
or less availability) is also high.
improvement or concentration should be on the
Even though High compressor work leads to lesser
compressor in the aspect of exergy loss and performance
COP and low compressor work to higher COP through
improvement of any Auto Refrigerating Cascade (ARC)
the linear variation of exergy loss, this system performs
System.
132
Fig. 10 shows the variation of Exergy destroyed in  In general the Zeotropic Mixture of R1270/R170/R14
each component of the ARC system with the variation of with the mass fraction of 0.265:0.18:0.555 having
mass fraction of R1270 and R14 in the Zeotropic Mixture COP of 0.267 & 66.9% of Exergic Efficiency is
of R1270, R170 and R14. The maximum and minimum performing well in the Three Stage ARC System.
exergy destructed are found at compressor (193.91, Thus it can be concluded that the Zeotropic mixture of
199.48, 199.51, 180.16 and 167.46 correspond to trials 1, R1270/R170/R14 with the mass fraction
2, 3, 4 and 5) and at Evaporator 2 (2.45, 0.86, 4.76, 1.01 0.265:0.18:0.555 as an alternative refrigerant for Three
and 7.34 correspond to trials 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade (3 stage ARC) System
Since the same phenomenon of exergy destroyed as with slight modification of the system.
per the Fig. 10 can be utilized to calculate the efficiency
defect of each and every component of the ARC system
represented by Fig. 9, the interpretations holds good for References
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Refrigerating Cascade (3 stage ARC) System. Mixtures of R-32, R-125, R-134a, R-143a, and R-152a, Journal
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[2] Ciro Aprea, Angelo Maiorino, Heat rejection pressure
optimization for a carbon dioxide split system: An experimental
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[3] Michael Uhlmann, Stefan S. Bertsch, Theoretical and
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[4] J.H. Lee, S.W. Bae, K.H. Bang, M.H. Kim, Experimental and
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[5] Zanjun Gao, Yingjie Xu, Peng Li, Xiaolong Cui, Xiaohong Han,
Qin Wang, Guangming Chen, Solubility of refrigerant
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range from 283.15 K to 363.15 K, International Journal of
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was conducted on the setup operating between the [8] Ruixiang Wang, Qingping Wu, Yezheng Wu, Use of nano
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(-900C) and 301K (300C) or over the temperature range residential air conditioner employing hydro-fluorocarbons
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[9] Jianyong Chen, Jianlin Yu, Performance of a New Refrigeration
 The Zeotropic Mixture of R1270/R170/R14 with the cycle using Refrigerant Mixture R32/R134a for residential air-
mass fraction of 0.265:0.18:0.555 having COP of conditioner Applications, Energy and Buildings, Vol.40, pp.
0.267 & 66.9% of Exergic Efficiency was 2022-2027, 2008.
recommended as an alternative refrigerant for Three [10] D.X. Jin, J.T. Kwon, M.H. Kim, Prediction of in-tube
condensation heat transfer characteristics of Binary Refrigerant
stage Auto Refrigerating Cascade System working at Mixtures, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol.26, pp. 593-
the temperature range of 183K (-900C). 600, 2003.
 The overall Efficiency defect is found to be at the [11] Mark O McLinden, Sanford A. Klein, Richard A. Perkins, An
range of 60’s and 70’s for the mixture of extended corresponding states model for the thermal conductivity
of Refrigerants and refrigerants mixtures, International Journal of
R1270/R170/R14 with the mass fraction of Refrigeration, Vol. 23, pp. 43 – 63, 2000.
0.265:0.18:0.555. [12] Jianlin Yu, Hua Zhao, Yanzhong Li, Application of an Ejector in
 The highest Efficiency defect was found to be at Autocascade Refrigeration Cycle for the Performance
compressor and thus area of improvement lies in Improvement, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 31, pp.
279-286, 2008.
Compressor. Following is the order of components [13] K. Comakli, F. Simsek, O. Comakli, B. Sahin, Determination of
which has larger Efficiency defect. They are optimum working conditions R22 and R404A refrigerant
Compressor TEV’s and Condensers. mixtures in heat-pumps using Taguchi method, Applied Energy,
 The highest Exergic Efficiency was found to be Vol. 86, pp. 2451-2458, 2009.
[14] Primal Fernando, Bjorn Palm, Tim Ameel, Per Lundqvist, Eric
66.9% for the Zeotropic mixture of R1270/R170/R14 Granryd, A Mini channel Aluminium tube heat Exchanger PART
with the mass fraction of 0.265:0.18:0.555 operating - I Evaporator Performance with Propane, International Journal
at the temperature range of 183K (-900C). of Refrigeration, Vol. 31, pp. 681 – 695, 2008.
[15] Ki-Jung Park, Dongsoo Jung, Performance of heat pumps charged
with R170/R290 mixture, Applied Energy, Vol. 86, pp. 2598-
133
2603, 2009. Authors’ information

[16] Primal Fernando, Bjorn Palm, Per Lundqvist, Eric Granryd,
Propane heat Pump with low Refrigerant charge: Design and M. Sivakumar was born at Coimbatore, India
Laboratory tests, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 27, and received his Bachelor’s degree in
pp. 761-773, 2004. Mechanical Engineering from Bharathiyar
[17] Dongsoo Jung , Chong-Bo Kim, Kilhong Song, Byoungjin Park, University, India in the year of 1999. He
Testing of Propane/Isobutane Mixture in Domestic Refrigerators, received his Master’s degree in Production
International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol.23, pp. 517-527, Engineering from Bharathiyar University, India
2000. in the year of 2003. He has completed ten years
[18] D.J. Cleland, R.W. Keedwell, S.R. Adams, Use of hydrocarbons of teaching experience. Currently, he is working
as drop-in Replacements for HCFC-22 in on-farm Milk Cooling as an Assistant Professor in Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Equipment, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 32, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India. He
pp.1403-1411, 2009. has published 7 papers in International Conferences and 11 papers in
[19] S. Wongwiscs, T. Songnetichaovalit, N. Lokathada, P. National Conferences. His areas of interest are Alternate refrigerants,
Kritsadathikarn, M. Suchatawat and W. Pirompak, A Comparison Cascade refrigeration, Energy conservation in thermal equipments,
of the flow characteristics of Refrigerants Flowing through Renewable energy sources and an Active Environmentalist. He is a
Adiabatic Capillary Tubes, International Comm. Heat Mass Life member in Institution of Engineers (India) – Mechanics and
Transfer, Vol. 27, pp. 611-621, 2000. Machines and also the life member of Nilgiri Wildlife &
[20] Jianfeng Wu, Quiwei Cheng, Zhaohu Sun, Jiayong Liu, Qinguo Environmental Association.
Hu, Maoqiong Gong, Development of a -1860C cryogenic
preservation chamber based on a dual mixed-gases Joule Dr. P. Somasundaram was born at Erode, India
Thomson refrigeration cycle, Applied Thermal Engineering, and received his Bachelor’s degree in
Vol. 36, pp. 188-192, 2012. Mechanical Engineering from Madurai
[21] Liu Jie, Pei Nian-qiang, Guo Kai-hua, He Zhen-hui, Li Ting- Kamarajar University, India in the year 1995.
xuen, Gu Jian-ming, Experimental investigation on start up of a He received his Master’s degree in Refrigeration
novel two-phase cooling loop, Experimental Thermal and Fluid and Air-conditioning from Bharathiyar
Science, Vol. 32, pp. 939-946, 2008. University, India in the year 1999. He received
[22] Andrey Rozhentsev, Vjacheslav Naer, Investigation of the his Doctorate degree in Mechanical Engineering
Starting modes of the low-temperature Refrigerating Machines from Anna University, India in the year 2005. He has completed fifteen
working on the Mixtures of Refrigerants, International Journal of years of teaching experience. Currently, he is working as a Professor
Refrigeration, Vol. 32, pp. 901-910, 2009. and Head in Department of Mechanical Engineering, Erode Builders
[23] D.-Y. Lee, Y. Ahn, Y. Kim, Y. Kim, Y.-S. Chang, L. Nam, Educational Trust’s Group of Institutions, Tiruchengode, India. He has
Experimental Investigation on the drop-in performance of R407C published three papers in International Journal, two papers in National
as a substitute for R22 in a screw Chiller with shell-and-tube heat Journal, 8 papers in International Conferences and 10 papers in
exchangers, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 25, pp. National Conferences. His areas of interest are Solar Energy, Cascade
575-585, 2002. refrigeration and Alternate Refrigerants. Dr.P.Somasundaram is a Life
[24] Dave Sajjan, Tord Karlsson, Lennart Vamling, Reasons for drop Member in Indian Society for Technical Education – MISTE, Member
in shell - and - tube Condenser Performance when Replacing R22 in National Institution for quality and Reliability – NIQR, Member in
with Zeotropic Mixtures. Part 1: Analysis of Experimental Institution of Engineers (India) – MIE.
Findings, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 27, pp.
552-560, 2004. P. Thangavel was born at Erode, India and
[25] Andrey Rozhentsev, Refrigerating machine operating received his Bachelor’s degree in Mechanical
characteristics under various mixed refrigerant mass charges, Engineering from Bharathiyar University, India
International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 31, pp. 1145-1155, in the year of 1999. He received his Master’s
2008. degree in Energy Engineering from NIT, Trichy,
[26] A. Johansson, P. Lundqvist, A method to Estimate the Circulated India in the year of 2002. He has completed ten
Composition in Refrigeration and Heat Pump systems using years of teaching experience. Currently, he is
Zeotropic Refrigerant Mixtures, International Journal of working as an Assistant Professor in Department
Refrigeration, Vol. 24, pp. 798 – 808, 2001. of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Erode, India.
[27] Kai Du, Shaoquian Zhang, Weirong Xu, Xiaofeng Niu, A Study He has published 4 papers in International Conferences and 7 papers in
on the Cycle Characteristics of an Auto-Cascade Refrigeration National Conferences. His areas of interest are Alternate refrigerants,
System, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Vol. 33, pp. Refrigeration, Energy conservation in thermal equipments, and
240-245, 2009. Renewable energy sources. He is a Life member in Indian Society for
[28] Yijian He, Guangming Chen, Experimental study on an Technical Education (ISTE).
Absorption Refrigeration system at low Temperatures,
International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Vol. 46, pp. 294-299,
2007.
[29] Giovanni Di Nicola, Giuliano Giuliani, Fabio Polonara, Roman
Stryjek, Blends of carbon dioxide and HFCs as working fluids for
the low-temperature circuit in cascade refrigerating systems,
International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 28, pp. 130-140,
2005.
[30] Thangavel, P., Somasundaram, P., Navaneethakrishnan, P.,
Simulation analysis on thermo physical properties of hydrocarbon
refrigerants in vapour compression refrigeration system, (2013)
pp. 646-651.
[31] S. Frikha, M. S. Abid, Performance Analysis of Irreversible
Combined Refrigeration Cycles Based on Finite Time
Thermodynamic Theory, (2008) International Review of
134
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Comparison of Different Multi-Strand Tundishes
Anupam Dewan, Siddharth Gupta
Abstract – A computational study was carried out to optimize the positions of outlet strands and
to compare the operating parameters of two-strand, four-strand and six-strand tundishes. This
involved adoption of an Euler-Lagrangian approach to track spherical particles in a steady, three-
dimensional flow field obtained by the numerical solutions of Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
and energy equations. The standard k-ε model and random walk model were used for modeling the
turbulence in flow field and paths of inclusions, respectively. For comparison of different
tundishes, two methodologies were adopted, first with equal mass flow rate of liquid steel at the
inlet gate for all the tundishes considered (i.e., same capacity) and the second with equal mass
flow rate of liquid steel leaving through each outlet strand for all the tundishes. It was found that
for different tundishes with the same capacity, a change in the number of outlet strands does not
have any significant effect on the operating parameters of the tundishes. For the tundishes with the
same flow rate at each strand, the removal efficiency of two strand tundish was found to be more
compared to that of four-strand and six-strand tundishes. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize
Keywords: CFD, Euler-Lagrangian Method, Particle Tracking, Multi-Strand Tundish,

Turbulence
Nomenclature A large number of studies have been reported in the

literature dealing with the physical and mathematical
ui Velocity modeling of fluid flow conditions together with the
T Temperature inclusion motion behavior inside a tundish for different
µ Coefficient of viscosity tundish geometries and flow conditions.
k Turbulent kinetic energy Mikki and Thomas [1] simulated the inclusion
є Rate of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy removal in a single-strand tundish with flow modifiers
Prt Turbulent Prandtl number using three models, viz., inclusion removal model,
Cp Specific heat lumped inclusion removal model and inclusion diffusion
 Either k or є model. They found that the effect of thermal buoyancy
 Kinematic viscosity cannot be ignored in calculating the removal of inclusion
particles and that random motion of cluster promotes
Suffix inclusion separation. Zhang et al. [2] studied three-
i, j, k Three cartesian coordinates dimensional fluid flow in a single-strand tundish using
p Particle three models, viz., floatation to the free surface, collision
t Turbulent and coalescence of inclusion, and adhesion to the lining
of solid surface. With the help of water models they
concluded that collision of inclusion and adhesion to
I. Introduction lining are also the major source of inclusion removal and
With the continuous increase in the demand of high employing flow modifiers favors the inclusion removal.
quality steel, removal of non-metallic inclusions from the Morales et al. [3] used water modeling and
liquid steel, before casting, has become an important mathematical simulation techniques to study the effect of
operation in a continuous casting process. turbulence inhibitors in a multi-strand bloom caster
Tundish is the final unit in a continuous casting tundish and concluded that turbulence inhibitors together
process. with a pair of dams provide better performance as
It is used to maintain a constant head of liquid steel compared to complex furniture employed in a tundish.
over mould so that the liquid steel enters the mould Jha and Dash [4] performed numerical simulations with
without any splashing and it also allows ladle exchange different models of turbulence and compared these with
without having any interruption in the casting process. experimental results to conclude that the standard k-ε
Tundish is also used to remove non-metallic model predicts flow properties closest as compared to
inclusions which are a major source of poor quality of that by other turbulence models. Therefore, in the present
steel. study the standard k-ε model is used.
135
Kim [5] constructed a full scale model of a delta shape strand asymmetric tundish using the Lagrangian particle
four-strand tundish and observed that about 99% of tracking approach and concluded that inclusions of
inclusions above 150 µm size were separated using the higher diameter float easily to the top surface as
flow modifiers. Rogler [6] developed a physical compared to lower diameter inclusions. Merder et al.
modeling technique to simulate inclusion removal with [18] investigated the flow inside a six-strand tundish with
the help of gas bubbling and concluded that for achieving and without dam. They obtained residence time curves to
maximum separation efficiency, the diameter of bubbles verify whether tundish condition is suitable for the non-
should be less than 1.0 mm. Tripathi and Ajmani [7] metallic inclusion removal or not.
modeled a curved shaped six-strand tundish and using Meijie et al. [19] used mathematical modeling and
RTD (residence time distribution) plots they confirmed experiments to study the effect of gas blowing on the
that a curve shaped tundish provides better flow removal of small size inclusions. They concluded that
characteristics as compared to that by a delta shaped with the help of proper blowing conditions, average
tundish. Lei and He [8] developed a three-dimensional inclusion concentration (< 20 µm) decreases by more
mathematical model to predict the dynamic growth of than 24%. Ding et al. [20] used RTD curves and water
alumina inclusions in a continuous caster. They found model experiments to optimize a single-strand tundish.
that large inclusions have good chance to trap other They concluded that with an optimized tundish
inclusions. inclusion area ratio in casting slabs reduced by 32% as
Zhang [9] used the k-ε model of turbulence together compared to that in the original tundish. Shinde et al.
with both the stochastic and non-stochastic models to [21] performed mathematical modeling in a single-strand
simulate fluid flow in a single-strand tundish. He tundish to obtain mixing capacity of the tundish and
concluded that the non-stochastic model is not accurate concluded that the minimum residence time of the
for predicting the inclusion motion and concluded that tundish decreases with an increase in the tundish bath
analyzing the residence time of the particle in molten height. Gupta and Dewan [22] used Euler-Lagrangian
steel is not so meaningful for studying the behavior of approach to optimize a six-strand tundish. They
inclusions inside the tundish. Hyrb et al. [10] compared considered the effect of flow modifiers, velocity of liquid
Eulerian and Lagrangian methods to predict particle steel at inlet gate, properties of inclusions on the
transport in a turbulent flow. They concluded that performance of a six-strand tundish.
Lagrangian formulation provides better insight of particle Most studies reported in the literature deal with
dynamics provided numbers of particle track were large enhancing the performance of a single type of multi-
enough. Therefore, in the present study stochastic model strand tundish by various methods. The present study
(random walk model) is employed to predict the deals with an optimization of the positions of outlet
inclusion motion inside a tundish and 520 numbers of strands for two-strand and four-strand tundishes and
inclusions were used to quantify the fate of inclusions. comparison of two-strand, four-strand and six-strand
Gang et al. [11] showed with their RTD curves, tundishes.
inclusion separation, and streamline experiment, that the For the optimization and comparison the following
tundish having weirs and turbulence inhibitor produces a parameters were chosen: (a) maximum overall inclusion
large effect on the flow field and the inclusion separation. removal efficiency, (b) outlet strand temperature, (c)
Hou et al. [12] developed a swirling flow tundish (SFT) minimum temperature loss inside the tundish, (d)
and concluded that SFT has higher capability of minimum deviation in the percentage of inclusion
inclusion removal of smaller size as compared to that of a removal and (e) temperature of steel compared between
tundish equipped with turbulence inhibitors. Yang et al. different outlet strands. The inclusion trajectories and
[13] used water models, mathematical modeling and velocity fields inside the tundish depend upon inner
industrial trials to design and optimize a two-strand geometry of the tundish and therefore all the multi-strand
tundish. tundishes considered in the present study had the same
Zhang et al. [14] studied the removal efficiency of shape and dimensions. For optimization and comparison,
inclusion in a tundish by using gas bubbles. Their result two methodologies have been adopted in the present
showed that by bubbling the removal efficiency for large study: (a) mass flow rate through the inlet gate was kept
particle does not change much but it has a strong impact same for all type of multi-strand tundishes considered,
on smaller particles. Seshadri et al. [15] built a 1:3 scale i.e., all the tundish had the same capacity and (b) mass
physical model of tundish to investigate the effect of gas flow rate from each outlet strand was kept constant for all
flow and curtain position inside a tundish. They types of multi-strand tundishes considered.
concluded that bubbling increases the removal efficiency Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has emerged an
of the tundish and position of gas curtain has a large effective and economical tool for the design of steel
impact on the removal efficiency of the tundish. Singh et tundishes and CFD was used in the present study.
al. [16] designed an optimal set of furniture inside a In the present study a steady, 3-D flow field is
single-strand tundish using RTD curves and concluded generated inside all the multi-strand tundishes considered
that non-isothermal model is important to develop correct using the standard k-ε model of turbulence.
flow field inside a tundish. Raghavendra et al. [17] The flow field thus generated was then used to predict
investigated the behavior of inclusions inside a four- the motion of non-metallic inclusions inside the tundish
136
in a Lagrangian frame of reference using the random

walk model. Commercial software FLUENT 6.3.26 was
used for performing the simulations.
The effect of outlet strand positions on the operating
parameters of the tundish were studied in detail and a
comparison was performed between tundishes with their
best optimized outlet strand position.
The geometry of all multi-strand tundishes and
methodologies adopted for the optimization and
comparison are described in Section II.
The governing equations, turbulence model and Fig. 2. Positions of outlet strands for all types
of multi-strand tundishes considered
boundary conditions are presented in Section III. Code
validation and computed results are presented in Section Fig. 3 describes the procedure followed in the present
IV followed by conclusions. study to optimize the outlet strand positions and for a
comparison of different multi-strand tundishes. Since
II. Physical Description of the Problem operating parameters depend upon the inner dimensions
and shape of a tundish, basic tundish dimensions and
The geometry of all the multi-strand tundishes shape were chosen from that of a six-strand tundish [18]-
considered in the present study was the same as that used [22]. The six-strand tundish was changed to two-strand
by Merder et al. [18] and Gupta and Dewan [22], which and four-strand tundishes by removing four and two
is a six-strand trough-type tundish designed for casting outlet strands, respectively.
ingot. This tundish was converted to two-strand and four- The positions of different strands in a particular
strand tundishes by closing four and two outlets, tundish were first optimized and subsequently different
respectively. optimized multi-strand tundishes were compared
Fig. 1 shows only half of the tundish due to its according to the above-mentioned two criteria.
symmetrical dimensions across the transverse plane Thus operating parameters were calculated and
passing through the inlet gate of the tundish. The depth analyzed for three different strands positions for two-
of the tundish (steel bath height) H = 740 mm and other strand and four-strand tundishes shown in Fig. 3. For the
constructional parameters were: L1 = 2785 mm, L2 = six-strand tundish only one case was considered as its all
2700 mm, L4 = 500 mm, L5 = L6 = 1000 mm, W1 = 1040 outlet strands were in the operating conditions.
mm, W2 = 850 mm, W3 = 640 mm, W4 = 450 mm [18] - For comparison of different tundishes two
[22]. Plane A in Fig. 1 refers to a vertical plane passing methodologies were adopted: (a) same mass flow rate of
through all the outlet strands of a tundish. The inlet and liquid steel at the inlet gate for all the tundishes
outlet diameters of the gate were taken as 66 mm and 14 considered and (b) same mass flow rate of liquid steel
mm, respectively [18]- [22]. coming out of each strand for all the considered multi-
Figs. 1 and 2 show the positions of outlet strands and strand tundishes. For example, if the total mass flow rate
their locations with respect to the inlet gate, respectively. of a six-strand tundish is 12 units then the mass coming
The outlet strand farthest from the inlet gate is termed as out from each outlet strand is 2 units. For case (a) the
the F.O. (far outlet) and similar terminology was chosen mass flow rate at inlet gate for all the multi-strand
for the other two outlet strands, i.e., M.O. (middle outlet) tundishes were taken as 12 units. For case (b) the mass
and N.O. (near outlet). flow rate at inlet gate for four-strand tundish was taken as
8 units and for two-strand it was taken as 4 units so that
the mass flow rate through each outlet strand of all the
tundishes remains as 2 units.
The reason for choosing two different methodologies
was because for the same mass flow rate at the inlet the
outlet mass flow rate of liquid steel is quite high for two-
strand tundish and four-strand tundish as compared to
that of a six-strand tundish. A large flow rate at the outlet
would cause a change in the dimensions or transient
parameters for all the process or units after the tundish.
For example, the length of the strand will increase as
sufficient time is required for the liquid steel to cool and
solidify which is dependent on the mass flow rate of
liquid steel at the outlet strand gate.
The same mass flow rate at each outlet strand causes a
decrease in the mass flow rate of liquid steel at the inlet
for two-strand and four-strand tundishes as compared to
Fig. 1. Geometry of the multi-strand tundish that in a six-strand tundish.
137
Fig. 3. Methodology adopted to compare and optimize different multi-strand tundishes
This would cause change in dimensions or transient where:

parameters for all the processes or units before the C p t
tundish. keff  k0 
Prt
The dimensions of all the tundishes were taken to be
the same and thus the flow rate of liquid steel was
maintained by controlling velocities of liquid steel at the An accurate representation of fluid turbulence is a
inlet gate and outlet strand gates. The values of the challenging task in the simulation of the flow in a steel
properties of liquid steel used were [18]-[22]: specific tundish. We have used the standard k-ε model [23], a two
density = 7010 kg/m3, specific heat = 821 J/kg K, equation turbulence model. In the k-ε model, two
thermal conductivity = 30.5 W/m K and viscosity = transport equations, one for the turbulent kinetic energy
0.007 kg/m s. (k) and other for its dissipation rate (ε) are used to
calculate the eddy viscosity. It is a widely used
turbulence model for industrial applications.
III. Mathematical Formulation Turbulent kinetic energy:
III.1. Governing Equations
k
Ui j  Dk  P   (4)
For mathematical modeling the following equations x j
were used [23], [24]:
Continuity equation:
Rate of dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy:
ui
0 (1)   2
xi Uj  D  C1 P  C2 (5)
x j k k
Momentum equation:
Concentration (species) conservation equation:
 P    ui u j 
 ui u j     eff       gi (2)     c 
xi xi xi   x j xi   c c    c ui c    c Deff  0 (6)
  t xi xi  xi 
where: The Reynolds stress is given by:

2
k
eff  0  t  0   C 2  U U j 
 ui u j  k ij   t  i  
3  x j xi 
 
Energy equation:
where:
  T k2
xi
  ui h   
xi
 
keff
xi
(3)  t  0.09 , eff   t  

138
      Here, ui denotes the mean fluid phase velocity (liquid

D     t   steel) and ui’ the fluctuating velocity component which
x j    x j 
   was calculated under the assumption that it obeys a
Gaussian probability distribution and is given by:
U i
P  ui u j
x j u    u 2 (11)
p 2 where ζ denotes a normally distributed random number

E  h 
 2 and the remainder on the right hand side of Eq. (11) was
calculated by using the turbulent kinetic energy of each
The values of the constants used in the k-ε model are point of the flow and was given by:
C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, σk = 1.0, σє = 1.3 and Cμ = 0.09
[23], [24]. 2k
u 2  v 2  w2  (12)
The mentioned Eqs. (1) to (5) were solved 3
numerically using the finite volume method to obtain an
Eulerian flow field. The boundary conditions described To measure the inclusion removal of the tundish, 520
in Section III.2 were applied to obtain the flow field. inclusions with diameter 40 µm and density 5000 kg/m3
This flow field was then used for tracking the motions were introduced uniformly through the inlet gate of all
of spherical inclusions in a Lagrangian frame of the considered multi-strand tundishes and their fates
reference. The governing equation for tracking the were recorded. The inclusion removal efficiency is
inclusions was obtained by balancing the forces acting defined as the percentage of number of inclusions which
on inclusions and by assuming one-way coupling do not escape out through the outlet strands from the
between particles and the flow field [25] (volume of the tundish and is given by:
liquid steel was very large as compared to the total
volume of inclusions and therefore forces acting on Nin  Nout
= (13)
liquid steel by the motion of inclusions were assumed to Nin
be negligible):
where Nin and Nout denote the number of inclusions found
du p 
gx  p   F at the inlet gate and outlet strand gate of the tundish,
dt

 FD u  u p   p
x (7)
respectively. Similar methodology was adopted to
calculate the inclusion removal efficiency of each outlet
where, Fx denotes the additional acceleration (force/unit and the overall inclusion removal efficiency of the
particle mass) term and FD (u – up) denotes the drag tundish.
force per unit particle mass:
III.2. Assumptions and Boundary Conditions
18 CD Re
FD  (8) The three-dimensional flow was assumed to be steady
 p d p 2 24 and incompressible. Any entrainment of gases was
neglected. A tundish was assumed to be perfectly flat.
Here u denotes the liquid steel velocity, µ the Inclusions were assumed to be spherical with diameter
molecular viscosity of the steel, ρ the steel density and 40 µm and density 5000 kg/m3. In the present study
up, ρp, dp the inclusion velocity, density and diameter, micro inclusions were considered and the value of the
respectively. Re denotes the relative Reynolds number, inclusion density taken was 5000 kg/m3 based on the
which is defined as: observations of Mikki and Thomas [1]. All exogenous
inclusions and inclusions from other source, such as
d p up  u loose dirt, broken ceramic linings or brickwork were
Re  (9) ignored. A grid independence study was carried out
 using three grid sizes, i.e., 150000, 270000 and 350000
nodal elements. The average difference between
To model the dispersion of the inclusions in the liquid predicted values of inclusion removal between 150000
steel flow field the stochastic tracking model (random and 270000 elements was 5% and that between 270000
walk model) was employed. and 350000 elements was 2%.
The random walk model includes the effect of Therefore in the present study, the domain of the
turbulence to predict the motion of individual particles tundish was divided in 270000 cells with finer zones at
by integrating the trajectory equation using the the inlet gate and outlet strands.
instantaneous velocity flow field ui: For computing the velocity and thermal fields,
boundary conditions used in the present study were same
ui  ui  u' i (10) as those reported by Merder et al. [18].
139
The velocity at the inlet gate was taken as 0.9 m/s

with the turbulence intensity of 5%. The wall functions
were employed to obtain the values of k and ε, wall shear
stress, and all the velocity components parallel to the
boundary at the first computational grid point adjacent to
the wall. The top surface of the liquid steel was assumed
to be free with the zero shear stress. The outflow
boundary condition was assumed for all the outlet
strands. For the thermal conditions, the temperature of
the liquid steel at the inlet was taken as 1850 K [18]-
[22]. All the heat losses by radiation and convection
were converted in the form of heat flux. The heat loss
from the top of the tundish was taken as 15000 W/m2 and
from other tundish walls it was taken as 2600 W/m2 [18]-
[22]. For the calculations of inclusions, those touching
the side and bottom walls were assumed to be reflected
whereas those touching the top surface were assumed to
be trapped [1]. The SIMPLE algorithm was used for the
Fig. 4. A comparison of the present mixing time characteristics for the
pressure-velocity coupling and QUICK scheme was used Far outlet (a), middle outlet (b) and near outlet (c) with those reported
for the discretization of momentum, energy, turbulent by Merder et al. [18]
kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation rate equations.
IV. Results and Validation

IV.1. Validation
Before assessing the performance of different multi-
strand tundishes, a validation study was carried out
against the computational results reported by Merder et
al. [18]. By casting two different grades of steel in a
single sequence, they generated mixing time
characteristics curves for all the outlet strands in a six-
strand trough-type tundish.
The mixing time characteristics were formed by
performing calculations for transient conditions.
Firstly steel was cast for certain time interval and then
suddenly the whole steel was replaced by a tracer Fig. 5. A comparison of the present inclusion removal
(having same properties as that of steel) whose mass with results reported by Mikki and Thomas [1]
weighted average was plotted against the flow time. Fig.
4 shows a comparison of the present mixing time IV.3. For Same Mass Flow Rate at Inlet Gate
characteristics with those reported by Merder et al. [18]
and it can be seen that a good agreement is obtained Tables I and II show the inclusion removal
between the two. Further, a validation study on the efficiencies, outlet strand temperatures and average
inclusion removal was carried out against the results outlet strand velocities of liquid steel for all multi-strand
reported by Mikki and Thomas [1] for a single-strand tundishes with the same mass flow rate of liquid steel at
tundish. They used the standard k-ε model of turbulence the inlet gate (case a). The present results of inclusion
together with the random walk model to predict the removal efficiencies are found to be consistent with
behavior of inclusions inside a single-strand tundish. those reported computationally by Raghavendra et al.
A good agreement between the present predictions of [17] for a four-strand tundish using the standard k-ε
inclusion separation and those reported by Mikki and model. The individual efficiency of each outlet in Tables
Thomas [1] can be observed in Fig. 5. I to II shows the percentage of inclusions which do not
pass through the outlet gate strand and the overall
efficiency shows the total percentage of inclusions which
IV.2. Optimization of Multi-Strand Tundishes do not pass through all the outlet gates. For four-strand
A good tundish is the one in which the percentage of and six-strand tundishes, the overall removal efficiency
inclusion removal from each strand is approximately differs from the removal efficiency of each outlet gate
equal, has a minimum temperature loss between the inlet strand. It can be seen that for the two-strand tundish F.O.
gate and the outlet strand and has minimum difference in provides the maximum removal efficiency as compared
the outlet strand temperatures. to that for other outlets in the two-strand tundishes
(Table I). Thus it can be concluded that with an increase
140
in the distance between the inlet gate and outlet strand IV.3.1. For Same Mass Flow Rate at Outlet Strand
gate, the inclusion removal efficiency of the tundish Gate (Different Capacities)
increases. Moreover, for all the three cases for the two-
Tables III and IV show the inclusion removal
strand tundish, the outlet strand temperature and
efficiencies, outlet strand temperatures and inlet gate
averaged velocity at the outlet are found to be 1844 K
velocities of the liquid steel for all considered multi-
and 10.41 m/s, respectively (Table II). Thus, F.O. strand
strand tundishes with the same mass flow rate of liquid
position provides the best casting conditions for a two-
steel through each of their outlet strands (case b).
strand tundish as compared to other two positions of the
The mass flow rate at the outlet strand gate of the six-
outlet strand. For the four-strand tundish, with the
strand tundish was chosen as the reference flow rate for
change in the outlet positions of the tundish the overall
calculating the mass flow rate at the inlet of different
inclusion removal efficiency of the tundish is not
multi-strand tundishes.
significantly affected (Table I). Further, it can be
observed that there is no difference between the outlet
strand temperature of F.O and M.O (Table II). Therefore,
F.O. and M.O. positions for four-strand tundish produce
good casting conditions as compared to those by other
two outlet positions. An increase in the removal
efficiency with an increase in the distance between the
inlet and outlet gates can be understood by plotting the
velocity profiles on a plane passing through the outlet Fig. 6. Velocity vectors drawn on plane A for two-strand tundish
strand of a tundish. Figs. 6 and 7 show the velocity having outlet at F.O.
vectors of liquid steel on a plane passing through the
outlet strand (plane A) of two-strand tundish with the
strand positions at F.O. and N.O.
By using the F.O. as the outlet strand position, a
circulation region is produced far away from the outlet
strand and thus it does not enhance the percentage of
inclusions passing through the outlet strand gate (Fig. 6).
We observe from Fig. 7 that by using N.O. for the
outlet strand position, a circulation region is produced
near to outlet strand of the tundish. In this circulation Fig. 7. Velocity vectors drawn on plane A for two-strand tundish
region more number of inclusions get trapped and finally having outlet at N.O.
come out from the outlet strand. This reduces the
The principle of conservation of mass was employed
inclusion removal efficiency of the tundish.
to calculate the mass flow rate of liquid steel at the inlet
TABLE I
which was then converted in terms of velocity.
EFFECT OF OUTLET STRAND POSITION ON THE INCLUSION REMOVAL It can be seen from Tables III-IV that multi-strand
EFFICIENCY OF TUNDISH FOR THE SAME MASS FLOW AT THE INLET tundishes having different mass flow rate at the inlet gate
Tundish
Outlet
F.O. η M.O. η N.O. η Overall η also follow the same pattern of inclusion removal
Positions efficiency as that of the tundishes with the same mass
Two-Strand F.O 81.59 % … … 81.59 %
M.O … 79.42 % … 79.42 %
flow rate at the inlet (Tables I-II). Thus we can conclude
N.O … … 74.59 % 74.59 % that optimum positions of the outlets are independent of
Four-Strand F.O & M.O 88.13 % 89.57 % … 77.71 % the velocity of the liquid steel at the inlet gate. However,
M.O & N.O … 91.05 % 87.28 % 78.34 % by this methodology the inclusion removal efficiency of
F.O & N.O 90.28 % … 87.94 % 78.17 %
Six-Strand F.O, M.O & 94.38 % 94.02 % 91.83 % 80.23 %
two-strand tundish is found to be more than that of the
N.O four-strand and six-strand tundishes.
TABLE II
EFFECT OF OUTLET STRAND POSITION ON THE LIQUID STEEL TEMPERATURE OF TUNDISH
FOR THE SAME FLOW RATE OF LIQUID STEEL AT THE INLET
Maximum difference Averaged outlet-strand
Tundish Outlet Positions F.O. (K) M.O. (K) N.O. (K)
from inlet velocity (m/s)
Two-Strand F.O. 1844 … … 6 10.41
M.O. … 1844 … 6
N.O. … … 1844 6
Four-Strand F.O. & M.O. 1844 1844 … 6 5.21
M.O. & N.O. … 1843 1845 7
F.O. & N.O. 1843 … 1845 7
Six-Strand F.O. M.O. & N.O. 1844 1844 1846 6 3.4
141
TABLE III
EFFECT OF OUTLET STRAND POSITION ON THE INCLUSION REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF THE TUNDISH
FOR THE SAME MASS FLOW AT OUTLET STRAND
Tundish Outlet Positions F.O. η M.O. η N.O. η Overall η
Two-Strand F.O 85.50 % … … 85.50 %
M.O … 85.42 % … 85.42 %
N.O … … 76.65 % 76.65 %
Four-Strand F.O & M.O 91.30 % 90.48 % … 81.78 %
M.O & N.O … 92.01 % 87.09 % 79.11 %
F.O & N.O 91.21 % … 87.65 % 78.86 %
Six-Strand F.O, M.O & N.O 94.38 % 94.02 % 91.83 % 80.23 %
TABLE IV
EFFECT OF OUTLET STRAND POSITION ON THE LIQUID STEEL TEMPERATURE OF THE TUNDISH FOR THE SAME FLOW RATE
OF LIQUID STEEL AT THE OUTLET
Velocity at
Tundish Outlet Positions F.O. (K) M.O. (K) N.O. (K) Maximum difference from inlet
inlet (m/s)
Two-Strand 0.305 F.O 1833 … … 17
M.O … 1833 … 17
N.O … … 1833 17
Four-Strand 0.612 F.O & M.O 1841 1841 … 9
M.O & N.O … 1840 1843 10
F.O & N.O 1840 … 1843 10
Six-Strand 0.9 F.O, M.O & N.O 1844 1844 1846 6
The temperature drop inside the tundish was efficiency, outlet strand temperatures, minimum band
maximum in the two-strand tundish and minimum in the width of inclusion removal, and temperature of each
six-strand tundish (Table IV). strand, we can conclude that for the same capacity
An increase in the removal efficiency of the tundish tundishes, a change in the number of outlet strands does
with a decrease in the inlet flow velocity can be not have any significant effect on the operating
understood with the help of governing Eq. (7) for the parameters of the tundish provided an optimum position
behaviour of inclusions. With a decrease in the inlet flow of the outlet strand is used. For tundishes having the
velocity the influence of the drag force on particle forces same mass flow rate at each outlet strands (different
decreases. capacity) two-strand tundish is found to be somewhat
The direction of drag forces are along the direction of superior in the removal of non-metallic inclusions but
flow and direction of density difference term is always temperature loss in two-strand tundish is quite high as
towards the top wall. Thus, with a decrease in magnitude compared to that in a six-strand tundish.
of drag force the effect of gravitational force increases
thus resulting in an increase in the removal efficiency of
the tundish.
An increase in the loss of temperature inside the
tundish can be understood by comparing the mixing time
curve or the step type residence time curve for both two-
strand tundishes (Fig. 8) with the same mass flow rate at
the inlet (case a) and the same mass flow rate at each
outlet strand (case b).
Fig. 8 shows that the residence time of liquid steel
inside a tundish for the case (b) is more than three times
greater than that of the tundish for case (a) Thus the time
spent by liquid steel inside tundish for different
capacities (case b) is large which results in a large
temperature loss inside the tundish.
Moreover, as the time spent by the liquid steel inside Fig. 8. Comparison of mixing time characteristics for optimized two-
the tundish increases, time available for inclusions to strand F.O. tundish with same capacity (case a) and different capacity
(case b)
travel towards top wall increases due to which more
number of inclusions get trapped on the top wall and this
increases the inclusion removal efficiency of the tundish. V. Conclusion
An Euler-Lagrangian mathematical modeling was
IV.4. Comparison of Multi-Strand Tundishes used to find optimum positions of outlets and to compare
with Two Adopted Methodologies different multi-strand tundishes.
By comparing the above mentioned multi-strand This was done on the basis of the maximum overall
tundishes against the maximum overall inclusion inclusion removal efficiency, outlet strand temperature,
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based on the assumption that the tundish is working on [18] T. Merder, J. Jowsa, A. Boguslawski, The Analysis of the
continuous operation due to which fluid (molten steel) conditions of steel flow in the tundish performed by a numerical
methods, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials, Vol. 50, n. 4, pp.
profile is steady moreover, adhesion of small inclusions 933 – 953, 2005.
to the wall, inclusion breakage and coalescence were not [19] Z. Meijie, G. Huazhi, H. Ao, Z. Hongxi and D. Chengji,
taken into account and these effects can cause a reduction Numerical simulation and industrial practice of inclusion removal
of the inclusion separation efficiency by approximately from molten steel by gas bottom blowing in continuous casting
tundish, J. Min. Metall. Sect. B-Metall. B, Vol. 47, n. 2, pp.137-
10% from those obtained in real situations. 147, 2011.
[20] N. Ding, Y.P. Bao, Q.S. Sun, and L.F. Wang, Optimization of
flow control devices in a single-strand slab continuous casting
References tundish, International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and
Materials, Vol. 18, n. 3, pp. 292 – 296, 2011.
[1] Y. Miki, B.G. Thomas, Modeling of inclusion removal in a [21] S. Shinde, P. Jha, A. Mujumdar, M. Horio, Fluid flow
tundish, Metall. Mater. Trans. B, Vol. 30, pp. 639 – 654, 1999. characteristics and rtd analysis of a single strand tundish, Fifth
[2] L. Zhang, S. Taniguchi, and K. Cai, Fluid flow and inclusion International Conference on CFD in the Process Industries,
removal in continuous casting tundish, Metall. Mater. Trans. B, CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia, (2006).
Vol. 31, pp. 253 – 266, 2000. [22] S. Gupta and A. Dewan, Performance optimization of a six-strand
[3] R.D. Morales, J. de J. Barreto, S. LO´ Pez-Ramirez, J. Palafox- tundish, World Journal of Mechanics, Vol. 3, n. 3, pp. 184 – 193,
Ramos, and D. Zacharias, Melt flow control in a multistrand 2013.
tundish using a turbulence inhibitors, Metall. Mater. Trans. B, [23] A. Dewan, Tackling Turbulent Flows in Engineering, Springer,
Vol. 31, pp. 1505 – 1515, 2000. 2011.
[4] P. K. Jha, S. K. Dash, Effect of outlet positions and various [24] Dewan, A., Gupt, D.P., Sanghi, S., Enhancement of heat transfer
turbulence models on mixing in a single and multi strand tundish, through jet impingement by using detached ribs, (2013)
International Journal of Numerical Methods for Heat & Fluid International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (2),
Flow, Vol. 12, n. 5, pp. 560 – 584, 2002. pp. 308-317.
[5] H. Kim, Modelling of Transport Phenomena in a delta-shaped, [25] Fluent User Guide, Fluent Inc., Lebanon, 2006.
Four-Strand Tundish [Dissertation], McGill University, Montreal, [26] Jawad, L.H., Abdullah, S., Zulkifli, R., Mahmood, W.M.F.W.,
Canada, 2003. Prediction of centrifugal compressor performance by using
[6] J.P. Rogler, Modeling of inclusion removal in a tundish by gas adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), (2012)
bubbling [Dissertation], Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, International Review on Modelling and Simulations (IREMOS), 5
Canada, 2004. (4), pp. 1580-1587.
[7] A. Tripathi and S.K. Ajmani, Numerical investigation of fluid
flow phenomenon in a curve shaped tundish of billet caster, ISIJ
Int., Vol. 45, n. 11, pp. 1616 – 1625, 2005.
143
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi, New Delhi – 110016, India.
Anupam Dewan is a Professor, Department of

Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi. He obtained his Bachelor’s
degree in Mechanical Engineering from
Kurukshetra University, India and Master’s and
Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Indian
Institute of Science Bangalore. He was earlier a
DAAD Visiting Scientist (for three months) and
Guest Professor (for three months) at Institute for Hydromechanics,
University of Karlsruhe, Germany and Alexander von Humboldt
Research Fellow at Institute of Fluid Mechanics, University of
Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany for fourteen months. His areas of
specialization include computational fluid dynamics and heat transfer;
mathematical modelling of engineering turbulent flows; turbulent
convective heat transfer and heat transfer enhancement. Prof. Anupam
Dewan has co-authored eighty five refereed journal and conference
publications, which include three review articles in international
journals. He has authored a book in 2011 “Tackling Turbulent Flows in
Engineering” published by Springer.
Siddharth Gupta obtained his Master’s in

Engineering Mechanics from Department of
Applied Mechanics, IIT Delhi. His M.Tech.
project was entitled “CFD Modeling of Steel
Flow inside a Tundish”. He obtained his
Bachelor of Engineering degree in Mechanical
Engineering from Bhilai Institute of technology,
Chhattisgarh, India.
144
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Automation of Aluminum Alloy Welding
P. Kah
Abstract – Aluminum and its alloys, due to the characteristic features of aluminum like low
density, good strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, and high thermal and electrical
conductivities, are being used in a wide number of industrial applications, and the welding
processes for aluminum are being automated for high-scale manufacturing. However there are
some difficulties associated with the welding of aluminum for different welding processes. This
work aims to describe and compare various methods for the automated fusion welding processes
of aluminum alloys. It is almost exclusively made by reviewing several research articles and
literature and discusses about the fusion welding process for aluminum alloys, its benefits,
drawbacks, and usual applications. The most usual defects generated by these processes are also
the target of this analysis. Two comparison tables are also presented and commented on, one
comparing the features of each type of welding process and the other on comparing quantitative
parameters, like the welding speed and weld type, as well as the quality of the weld, from various
real world applications. It was found that the automated welding of aluminum is a well-
established subject and that solutions for most industrial automated aluminum welding needs can
be further explored. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Aluminum, Automation, Sensor, Hybrid Laser Arc Welding
I. Introduction Automatic aluminum welding can be achieved by

using different processes like tungsten inert gas (TIG)
Aluminum alloys are characterized by their high welding, metal inert gas (MIG) welding, and other
resistance to corrosion, high thermal and electrical common welding technologies. Welding processes
conductivities, good strength, ductility, and low density. moving at a high speed with a too short dwell time (less
These features ensure their high suitability for a than 0.3 s), which varies with the intensity of the heat
variety of industrial applications especially in the sectors source, must be automated and cannot be controlled
like aerospace and automobile where the strength-to- manually as shown in Fig. 1.
weight ratio plays a critical role for weight reduction and
fuel economy.
Welding is used to join aluminum alloys in a wide
number of industries but several welding problems incur
when joining aluminum alloy sections that have to
possess high mechanical properties. These are due to the
chemical and structural composition of the precipitation
hardened alloys which can cause a considerable drop in
the mechanical properties in the welding zone and also
have the possibility of hot cracking in high-strength
aluminum alloys with a high content of alloying
elements.
Of particular note is its affinity for oxygen: aluminum
typically has a surface layer of aluminum oxide that
restricts the flow of molten metal in the weld pool during
welding and leads to the formation of very poor welds
containing oxide inclusions.
Another difficulty is that aluminum absorbs a high
quantity of hydrogen in the molten state generating
hydrogen porosities when the weld pool solidifies [1],
[2].
Automated welding is widely considered by industries
as a tool to enhance productivity, weld quality, and in Fig. 1. Maximum weld travel velocity, heat source spot size, and
some cases lower the manufacturing costs. interaction time with respect to the intensity of the heat source [3]
145
P. Kah
The welding processes with a heat source more welding [4].

intense than in arc welding (i.e. electron beam, laser
beam welding etc.) have shorter dwell times and are
automated [3]. The ability of a robot controller to ramp II.2. MIG
up and down currents and voltages plays a critical role in Being a continuously fed wire process, MIG welding
welding aluminum. In conjunction with robotic is easily mechanized [4]. When welding aluminum,
manipulators controlling welding torches, there might be special control is needed, normally adapting the welding
a need for real time sensing technology of the weld pool parameters for the welding steps: striking an arc, weld
and seam to intelligently adapt the welding parameters formation, arc end, and burn back. Starting the arc can be
and torch position for an automated welding system. the most difficult step in aluminum MIG welding [11].
The automated welding systems referred to in this Typical MIG automatized welding cells use a DC
work are composed of the welding torch, a power source, pulsed power source. However, AC pulsed MIG welding
and a robotic manipulator or other type of positioning is suitable for thin aluminum sections because of its high
system for the torch. The torch may also have vision melting coefficient, reduced heat input, less penetration
sensing hardware for parameters and position control [12], and reduced average temperature of molten droplets
attached to it. This paper conducts a comparison of the transferred [13], which makes it useful to weld thin
productivity and quality of these automated processes, aluminum alloy sheets, for example, in the
making use of several sources and examples. manufacturing of car bodies [14]. Pfeifer and Rykala [8]
suggested that for welding of thin-walled (0.5 to 2mm)
aluminum components, a low-energy welding process
II. Automated Technologies for Welding (ColdArc, CMT, and STT) with a consumable electrode
of Al-Alloys in inert gas shield gives the best result characterized by
II.1. TIG high aesthetics, as well as very good mechanical and
plastic properties. Good applications for AC pulsed MIG
Automation of TIG welding for aluminum alloys is include those that are prone to problems like a lack of
mostly used with alternate current (AC-TIG) because of fusion, warpage, burn-through, spatter, a lack of puddle
the lack of oxide layer removal with DC electrode control, and poor bead appearance [15]. However, there
negative (DCEN) [4]. Compared to the conventional might be a problem with shallow penetration in AC
continuous current, pulsed current is beneficial in TIG pulsed MIG welding at high speeds. DC pulsed MIG arc
welding [5]. The TIG process parameters such as pulse welding is frequently used in joining aluminum alloys
current, secondary current, pulse frequency, pulse duty and has higher productivity compared to TIG and greater
cycle and % of He in Ar plays a vital role in predicting convenience in use than laser welding. However, DC
weld geometry [6]. The automation in TIG is achieved pulsed MIG can bring problems such as burn-through,
by adapting manual techniques integrating a the formation of holes in the bead, and low gap
conventional robotic manipulator. Most welding robots tolerances when used to weld thin aluminum at high
are “teach and playback” robots, which commonly need welding speeds (higher than 2 m/min) [14].
sensing technology and control to surpass mismatch in Automated MIG welding is more flexible than TIG
welding variables, like errors of pre-machining, fitting of welding and is able to weld more complex weld shapes.
the work piece, and in-process thermal distortions [7]. Sensor technology may also be needed to provide
Power sources with control capabilities for pre-flow, correction for component tolerances and fit-up variation,
post-flow, and high-frequency arc starting are normally ensuring that the weld path is optimized for every
used. The benefits of aluminum TIG welding are the high individual work [15]. The automation of MIG results in
weld quality, aesthetic appearance, and the possibility to higher welding speeds and currents which means less
weld in all positions. The downsides are the difficulty to heat input, narrower heat affected zones (HAZ), less
use for small material thicknesses of below 2 mm [8], distortion, deeper penetration, less need for large welding
slow speed, low deposition rate, and the need for highly preparations with fewer weld passes, and reduced
skilled operators. TIG is normally suitable for porosity apart from those listed in later Table I [4].
applications in which weld integrity and aesthetics are The drawbacks of automating the MIG welding of
more important than speed. Some typical aluminum TIG aluminum are the need for more accurate and consistent
welding applications are piping systems, chemical and weld preparations, more planning for realizing the full
pressure vessels, gas bottles, thin sheet metal work, and benefit, and the need for capital expenditure to purchase
work requiring intricate torch manipulation [9]. manipulators and handling equipment [4].
The benefits of automation in TIG welding are its
repeatability, precise heat control, the exactness of
penetration to meet the challenging quality standards, II.3. Tandem MIG
and reduced operator costs and training time [10]. Tandem MIG welding is an automated process
The drawbacks of TIG mechanization are the need to developed to achieve high welding speed at which
provide the welding fixture with more accurate and conventional MIG welding leads to a poorer joint quality
consistent weld preparations than required in manual and weld pool turbulence due to increased current.
146
P. Kah
This dual wire process uses two electrodes insulated This process is especially advantageous in the welding
from each other which allows each one to have different of miniature components such as needles, wires, light
electrical potentials. The lead arc contributes to the bulb filaments, thermocouples, probes, and some surgical
formation of the fusion shape and control of penetration. instruments where the TIG arc start would damage the
The slave arc controls bead appearance and helps to part [20]. The tensile strength of welds by PAW is lower
stabilize the weld pool formed by the lead heat input than those made by MIG or TIG. Therefore, PAW can be
[17]. This process is commonly used with DC pulse used for the welds that do not require high strength, but
control, having the phases of the master and slave pulse high aesthetics is the basic requirement [8]. PAW has a
waveforms 180° shifted [17]. The maximum output of number of advantages compared with conventional TIG
the process is realized if accurate sensing of the weld mainly because of the cylindrical and constricted plasma
joint and its variables is incorporated [18]. column, which provides less sensitivity to process
The tandem MIG welding of aluminum alloys variables than with the TIG process and a stable,
increases process efficiency in terms of higher-speed controllable arc at low currents [4].
welding with increased deposition and better molten
metal availability. It exerts smaller welding thermal
effect, thus conferring advantages in terms of the II.5. Plasma- MIG Welding
suppression of welding defects and improvement of the A combination of PAW and MIG within a single torch
mechanical properties of welded joints [17]. Fig. 2 shows [25], plasma–MIG welding utilizes a MIG wire fed
a comparison between single wire and tandem wire MIG through a plasma–arc torch and provides better control of
welding with the tandem wire having double the weld the metal and heat transfer to the work piece [26]. This
speed of the single wire MIG weld. process allows a higher combined welding current to be
used than for the MIG wire alone with a high current
density and a higher deposition rate than MIG can
II.4. Plasma Arc Welding
achieve [4]. It also brings less welding spatter and fumes,
Similar to TIG welding, plasma arc welding (PAW) is as well as low porosity with clean and good weld bead
suited for automation [19] to weld aluminum in a appearance [27], [31]. Plasma–MIG is generally used in
variable polarity mode, using the DCEN period to deeply automated applications [4]. This process was suitable and
penetrate the work piece and a DCEP period to remove successfully applied in welding aluminum, such as tank
the oxide film. Variable polarity PAW consists of three trailers and tubes to flanges [28]–[30]. Fig. 3(a) shows a
segments: the start-up segment, in which the keyhole is schematic diagram of the plasma–MIG weld system and
generated, the main body segment during which the Fig. 3(b) shows a general layout of the robotic plasma–
keyhole is maintained dynamically, and the terminal MIG weld system.
segment, during which the keyhole collapses and the
crater is filled.
Very often, it is difficult to get a smooth transition II.6. Laser Welding
from the start-up segment to the main body segment, and Aluminum is one of the most difficult materials to
the weld easily fails as the keyhole weld pool is not melt with laser [33] due to the poor coupling (absorption
properly generated [23]. Precise control of the current of the beam energy by the metal being welded), high
and plasma gas flow rate is needed to maintain arc thermal conductivity, high reflectivity, and low boiling
stability [21], [22], keyhole and penetration stability [23], point [4]. As the wavelength of the laser increases, the
and a difficult to achieve smooth transition from the coupling becomes poorer [34]. It was reported that a
start-up segment to the main body segment [24]. Nd:YAG (solid state laser) with a characteristic
PAW has the advantages of higher control and wavelength of 1.06 µm provides better coupling with
accuracy, as well as being able to weld at lower current aluminum than a CO2 laser with a characteristic
levels than other arc welding processes. wavelength of 10.6 µm [35].
Fig. 2. Comparison of single wire and tandem wire MIG welding of an aluminum fuel tank [18]
147
P. Kah
Figs. 3. (a). Schematic diagram of plasma-MIG weld system [31], [32], (b) General layout of a robotic plasma-MIG welds system [31]
Porosity, the loss of alloying elements, and One of the main problems found with aluminum laser
solidification cracking (in the case of heat treatable welding, i.e. porosity formation, was found to be reduced
aluminum alloys) are the most common problems in laser–MIG welding and influenced by the MIG
encountered in the laser welding of the alloys [36]. welding process current [39].
For monitoring the welding phenomenon and to Also, the problem of low gap tolerance of the laser
stabilize the automated welding process, vision beam is improved with AC pulsed MIG. Laser + AC
technology can be used, and technologies using cameras MIG has been found to be more suited to weld thin
are actively being developed to monitor and control the aluminum sheets, widely used in the automotive industry
welding process [37]. at high welding speeds, using the laser to solve the bead
The low gap tolerance of laser welding constricts its irregularity and shallow penetration problem in AC
use and makes it difficult to weld joints where zero gap is pulsed MIG welding at high speeds while maintaining
not easily maintained. good gap tolerance [14].
CO2 laser welding has low flexibility due to the use of One disadvantage of hybrid welding is the high
parabolic reflectors or transmissive systems for very number of variables, not only the welding parameters
concentrated beams with energy densities above 40 from both processes but also a number of physical
kJ/mm2 and is used for butt welds most of the times. Gas variables from the mutual position of the laser focus head
laser welding allows very high welding speeds due to and MIG welding torch. Hybrid Laser + MIG is applied
high power, thus decreasing the microstructural scale and to many application areas that need deep penetration and
alloying element loss resulting in stronger weld beads gap bridging on thick plates or heavy sections for the
[38]. In Nd:YAG, a solid state laser welding, the shipbuilding industry.
wavelength of light is ten times lower than in gas laser. It has recently been introduced in thin aluminum sheet
Therefore, solid state laser welding permits a better welding for the automotive industry, in car bodies such
coupling of the beam with the parent metal. This also as the AUDI A8 [40] and VW Phaeton [41]. Fig. 4(a)
permits the laser light to be transmitted via fiber optics, illustrates a schematic diagram of hybrid laser + MIG
rather than by the use of copper mirrors that are used to welding, and Fig. 4(b) shows the welding head for the
manipulate the light in the CO2 laser; this gives greatly laser–MIG hybrid system developed by KUKA.
improved flexibility, allowing the use of a robot [4].
II.8. Process Comparison Based on Prior Research
II.7. Hybrid Laser Arc Welding
Table I presents a comparison of aluminum fusion arc
Hybrid laser arc welding techniques are used for the welding using knowledge acquired from the review of
synergic effect achieved by coupling two technologically research referenced in this work.
different welding methods together. The objective is that
the main positive aspects of one involved technology
allow overriding the main drawbacks of the other, and II.9. Quantitative and Qualitative Comparison
vice versa. This process is commonly automated and uses in Real cases
the principles of automation in the arc welding process in Table II is a collection of data from various journal
conjunction with laser welding. articles and documentation from welding technology
MIG as the arc component in hybrid welding results in manufacturers. Its purpose is to enable the comparison of
the best productivity compared to TIG or the plasma arc performance and usability in some real cases of
process [8]. automated welding with aluminum alloys.
148
P. Kah
Figs. 4 (a) Schema of laser–MIG hybrid system [42] (b) KUKA KS Hybridtec (Laser–MI system) [43]
TABLE I
ALUMINUM WELDING PROCESSES COMPARISON
Material thickness
Gap Ease of
Process Speed welded with good Applications Comments Automation benefits
tolerance automation
quality
Piping systems, chemical Suited for applications Repeatable, precise
and pressure vessels, thin in which weld integrity heat control and
Limited to small
TIG __ + _ sheet metal work and aesthetics are exact penetration.
thicknesses
requiring intricate torch more important than Reduced operator
manipulation [9]. speed [9]. costs [10].
General construction, ship Higher productivity
building, railroad, storage and speed. More
DC Pulsed Wide range of Flexible and versatile
+ ++ ++ tanks, pressure vessels, consistent quality
MIG thicknesses technology
large diameter pipelines, and aesthetic bead
and armored vehicles [9]. shape, reduced
Thin aluminum sheets, defects, less heat
Specialized for thin
AC Pulsed Suitable for small should be very suitable input, no high-
+ ++ + aluminum sheet
MIG thicknesses for the automotive skilled welders [4].
welding
industry
Used in the
automated mode
Wide range of Same as MIG with higher Achieves higher only [44]. Reduced
Tandem MIG ++ ++ +
thicknesses productivity requirements productivity than MIG weld stations &
short payback period
[45].
Critical products, such as
Normally used for
external fuel tanks for
small thicknesses, Improved quality,
space shuttles, missile High quality and low
PAW _ can also weld thick + ++ productivity, and
shells, and nuclear currents
material in some flexibility [46].
magnetic resonance
cases
devices
Less welding spatter, Generally used in
Plasma/ Wide range of Tank trailers and tubes to
+ ++ ++ low porosity, clean, automated
MIG thicknesses flanges
and good weld bead applications [4].
Wide range of
thicknesses, suitable Automotive and Low flexibility, high
CO2 Laser ++++ __ +++
for the thickest aerospace industries power
materials
Wide range of Automotive and
Nd:YAG Laser + + + __ +++ Good flexibility
thicknesses aerospace industries
Application areas that
Used in the
need deep penetration and High number of
automated mode
gap bridging on thick parameters, high
Hybrid Laser- Wide range of only.
++ + + plates for the heavy and welding speed with
MIG thicknesses
shipbuilding industry, thin good quality to join
aluminum sheets for the thin aluminum alloys
automotive industry
Wide range of
Suited for high speed
Hybrid Laser- thicknesses, suitable
++ + + Thin aluminum sheets welding of thin
(DC)MIG for thin aluminum
aluminium sheets
sheets
++++: Excellent, +++: Very good, ++: Good, +: Ok, - : Difficult, - - : More difficult
149
P. Kah
TABLE II
REAL CASE PARAMETERS OF PROCESSES FOR AUTOMATED WELDING OF ALUMINUM
Wire
Process Material Speed Quality Energy Ref.
feed
AC-TIG (60Hz 6 mm thick LD10 Al 2.67 mm/s 20.10 High (Highest quality Current: 255[A] [7]
square-wave) Alloy curved plate with a mm/s according to standard
Y-groove of 80 QJ2698-95)
MIG (argon as shield 12mm thick Al butt weld 8 mm/s - - Current: ~400 [A] [4]
gas) Voltage: ~26.5 [V]
MIG (argon as shield 3 mm thick flat bars – JIS 25 mm/s - Full penetration [Good Current: 220[A] Voltage: [17]
gas) A6N01S-T5 weld] 21[V]
Tandem MIG 3 mm thick flat bars – JIS 50 mm/s - Full penetration [Good Master: 230[A] 21[V] [17]
A6N01S-T5 weld] Slave: 210[A] 21[V]
Tandem MIG 2 mm aluminum ~ 50 mm/s - Typical values for - [18]
Shouldered overlap joint aluminum welding
Tandem MIG 3 mm aluminum overlap ~ 35 mm/s - Typical values for - [18]
joint aluminum welding
PAW (Variable 6 mm thick 2024 Al 1.38 mm/s - High Current: 145[A] [24]
polarity) Alloy Bead-on-plate
Plasma-MIG 10 mm thick 5A06 Al- 6.67 mm/s 168,33 High (Optimum Plasma Current: 95- [27]
Alloy V-groove mm/s parameters for less 140[A] MIG voltage:
porosity) 28.5[V]
Plasma-MIG 10 mm thick 5A06 Al- 10 mm/s 168,33 High Plasma Current: 95- [27]
Alloy V-groove mm/s 140[A] MIG voltage:
28.5[V]
Laser CO2 2 mm thick 5083 Al Alloy 100 mm/s - Optimum welding 5kW [38]
(autogeneous) butt-weld speeds for acceptable
welds
Laser CO2 with filler 2 mm thick 5083 Al Alloy 58.33 mm/s 33.33 Optimum welding 5kW [38]
wire butt-weld mm/s speeds for acceptable
welds (better mechanical
properties than without
filler wire)
Laser Nd:YAG 2 mm thick 5083 Al Alloy 41.67 mm/s - Optimum welding 2kW [38]
(autogeneous) butt-weld speeds for acceptable
welds
Laser Nd:YAG 2 mm thick 5083 Al Alloy 183.33 mm/s - Optimum welding 5kW (experimental [38]
(autogeneous) butt-weld speeds for acceptable process)
welds
Hybrid Laser-MIG 5 mm thick AA5083 Al 50 mm/s - C (Intermediate) Laser power: 4[kW] [47]
(Nd:YAG Laser) Alloy butt-weld (0.6 mm EN ISO 13919-2 MIG voltage: 25.4[V]
with filler wire gap) MIG current: 218[A]
Laser-TIG double- 4 mm thick 5A06 bead- 16.67 mm/s - 91% Tensile Strength Laser power: 3[kW] [48]
side welding on-top 58% Elongation
(LTDSW) (CO2 (of base metal)
Laser)
V. Conclusion TIG, and AC pulsed MIG is preferred to DC pulsed MIG

in welding thin aluminum sections due to reduced heat
With the help of all the work referenced in this work it input and minimum weld defects. Automated MIG
was possible to verify the viability of automated welding is widely used because of its higher productivity
aluminum welding for a large number of industrial compared to manual MIG welding, high flexibility, and
applications. Automation can be adopted for different good gap tolerance.
welding processes, like TIG and MIG, whereas high- Tandem MIG welding which is always used in the
speed welding processes with dwell times shorter than automated mode can be used for the same applications as
0.3 seconds and high intensity heat source must always normal MIG, being able to achieve welding speeds
be automated. that are two times the ones achieved by normal MIG
TIG is suited for small thickness applications in which aluminum welding.
weld integrity and aesthetics are very important rather Plasma arc welding has the advantages of an advanced
than speed. Its automation normally needs good sensing level of control and accuracy. It is suited for automated
technology, and it will not increase productivity but aluminum welds in the variable polarity mode and able to
rather it requires skilled welders. It brings consistent weld at lower current levels than other arc welding
quality and is able to do work requiring intricate torch processes. It is used for welding critical aluminum
manipulations. Automated TIG reduces operator costs, products and requires a precise control of the process
training time, and produces repeatable, precise heat parameters to maintain process stability.
control and exact penetration to meet the challenging Plasma–MIG welding is generally used in automated
quality standards. applications. It allows better control over metal and heat
MIG welding brings more productivity compared to transfer and has a higher deposition rate, lower porosity
150
P. Kah
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26-31, 2009.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lappeenranta University of
Technology LUT, PL20, Lappeenranta 53851, Finland.
Dr. Paul Kah obtained a professional Master’s

degree certificate, DIPET II from ENSET at the
University of Douala, Cameroon in 2001 and
graduated from Lappeenranta University of
Technology, Finland with a MSc (Tech) in
2007. He completed his doctoral studies at
Lappeenranta University of Technology in 2011.
Dr Kah is currently working as a senior
researcher, whilst also carrying out other duties in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, LUT, Finland. His main research areas are
advanced welding processes and welding of metals and automation of
aluminum welding. He has published more than 20 refereed papers in
various journals and presented many papers at international
conferences. Dr Kah is an expert in the International Institute of
Welding (IIW) Commission V, IX, and XII.
E-mail: paul.kah@lut.fi
152
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Modified Grey Fuzzy Logic Controller for Vehicle Suspension System
K. Rajeswari1, S. Lavanya2, P. Lakshmi3
Abstract – This paper presents a Modified Grey Fuzzy Logic controller for enhancing the ride
comfort and road holding ability of Vehicle Suspension System (VSS) simultaneously. Grey
Prediction algorithm is used to pre-compensate the error. The prediction error in Grey Model
(GM) is minimized by changing the initial condition and optimizing the weight factor in the data
matrix of grey prediction algorithm. The aim of this paper is to design two Traditional Fuzzy
Logic Controllers (TFLC), one for minimizing the sprung mass displacement error and the other
for tyre deflection error. TFLC uses the grey model to design Grey Fuzzy Logic Controller based
VSS. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is used to optimize the weighting factor of grey model.
The proposed controller is simulated for a Quarter Car model of VSS. Simulation results show that
the proposed controller enhances both ride comfort and road holding ability simultaneously.
Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Grey Prediction Algorithm, Particle Swarm Optimization, Quarter Car Model, Ride
Comfort, Road Holding Ability
Nomenclature ability, safety and ride comfort of passengers. The

dynamics of a moving vehicle is considered in two
Ks Spring Constant perspectives; one is ride comfort and the other is road
Bs Damper Coefficient handling ability. Ride comfort is related to the vibrations
Ms Sprung Mass sensed by the vehicle subjected to road disturbances such
Mu Unsprung Mass as bumps and rough terrains. Road handling is the degree
Kt Tyre Coefficietnt to which a vehicle maintains contact with the road
Zs Sprung Mass Displacement surface in various types of directional changes and speed.
Zu Unsprung Mass Displacement Conventional passive suspension system consists of
Zr Road Disturbance static springs and dampers [1]-[23].
FA Actuator Force (N) Active suspension system uses separate actuators
α Weight factor which exert an independent force on the system to
vik+1 Velocity of Particle i at (k+1)st instant improve the ride characteristics [1].
vik Velocity of Particle i at kth instant Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) is a promising approach
xik+1 Psoition of Particle i at (k+1)st instant and it proves to be superior control strategy even in the
xik Position of Particle i at kth instant presence of model uncertainties and disturbances. FLC
w Inertia factor [2], Self-Organizing Fuzzy Logic Controller (SOFLC)
c1 Coefficient of Self-Recognition [3], Adaptive Fuzzy controller based on traffic condition
component [4], Adaptive Fuzzy-PID controllers [5] are some of the
c2 Coefficient of Social component FLCs developed for Vehicle Suspension System (VSS).
rand1 & rand2 Random numbers between 0 and 1 Observer based Preview control [6], Single input rule
F Fitness Function modules fuzzy reasoning and disturbance observer [7]
J RMS value of prediction error are Look-Ahead control strategies employed for VSS.
GE, GV, GU Scaling factors of FLC Grey Prediction Fuzzy control strategy has been
GEt, GVt, GUt Scaling factors of FLCt developed for Magnetic Rheological (MR) damper based
semi-active suspension system [8]. The prediction error
in Grey Model (GM) is minimized by varying the weight
I. Introduction
factor of data matrix. Optimization of weight factor by
Suspension system has been widely applied to trial and error method [9], research of residual error in
vehicles and is an active area of research. The growing grey model using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
competition in automobile sectors has forced the [10] and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) [11], a new
industries to enhance the luxury especially the ride kind of optimization of grey Model [12] and a PSO based
comfort of vehicles. Suspension system plays a crucial Grey forecast model [13] are some of the work done to
role in handling the vehicle performance, road holding reduce the prediction error in Grey model.
153
K. Rajeswari, S. Lavanya, P. Lakshmi
Literature survey states that FLC is a widely used

control strategy. Fuzzy control provides a formal
methodology for representing, manipulating and
implementing human’s heuristic knowledge, about how
to control a system. Grey Fuzzy Logic controller (GFLC)
is based on predictive control strategy, where information
about the future output of the system is assumed to be
available. Moreover Grey Prediction is an effective
algorithm in predicting the future output as it requires
only four set of data to predict the future output. It is also
understood from the literatures that there is trade off
between ride comfort and road handling. Adaptive robust
gain scheduling of VSS for improved ride comfort and
road handling has been studied for semi active
suspension system [14]. Hence it is proposed to develop
a controller that will take care of both ride comfort and
road handling. In this paper two FLCs are designed based
on Grey prediction algorithm to enhance the ride comfort
and road holding ability simultaneously for a quarter car
model of VSS. The prediction error of grey model is Fig. 1. Two DOF Quarter Car Model
minimized by optimal choice of weight factor using PSO.
Organization of the paper is as follows. In section II the
dynamics of the Quarter Car model of VSS is expounded. III. Traditional Fuzzy Logic Controller
Traditional FLC based VSS design is detailed in
FLC resembles human decision making with an ability
section III. Modified GFLC based VSS is proposed in
to generate, precise solutions from precise or
section IV. Simulation Results are presented and
approximate information. It fills an essential gap in
discussed in section V. The final section concludes the
engineering design methods left vacant by mathematical
paper.
approaches and purely logic-based approaches in system
design.
II. Quarter Car Model Error and rate of change of error in ‘sprung mass
displacement’ is considered as input variables to the
A two Degree of Freedom (DOF), Quarter Car model Traditional Fuzzy Logic Controller (TFLC). The control
of VSS, is shown in Fig. 1. Quarter car model is taken up output of TFLC is the actuator force. Universe of
for this study because it is simple but provides accurate discourse for the input and output variables are found by
information about essential parameters of VSS viz. subjecting passive suspension to several different input
sprung mass displacement, sprung mass acceleration, conditions and determining the maximum and minimum
suspension deflection and tyre deflection [15]. values of error and rate of change of error.
The model consists of ‘sprung mass Ms’ which The membership function chosen for this work is
represents the weight of the car body. The ‘unsprung triangular and trapezoidal membership function.
mass Mu’ denotes the equivalent mass due to axle and The normalized domain [-1, 1] is classified into seven
tyre. The spring and shock absorber of the suspension fuzzy sets namely, Negative Big (NB), Negative Medium
system, that supports the car body is represented as Ks (NM), Negative Small (NS), Zero (ZO), Positive Small
and Bs respectively. F represents the actuator force. The (PS), Positive Medium (PM), and Positive Big (PB). The
tyre has been replaced by its equivalent stiffness Kt but membership functions of input and output variables are
tyre damping is neglected. The variables Zs, Zu and Zt are shown in Fig. 2. Fuzzy rule base is a symbolic
represent the vertical displacement from static representation of human knowledge in controlling the
equilibrium of sprung mass, unsprung mass and the road process.
respectively. It is assumed that, the suspension spring The rule base is in the form of linguistic variables
stiffness and tyre stiffness are linear in their operating using fuzzy conditional statements.
range and the tyre does not leave the ground.
The equation of motion describing the quarter car
model of VSS shown in Fig. 1 is written as:
1
Zs    Bs  Z s  Zu   K s  Z s  Z u   F 
M s

(1)
1  Bs  Z s  Zu   K s  Z s  Z u   
Zu   
M u   Kt  Zu  Zt   F 
 Fig. 2. Membership function of inputs- Error, Rate of Change
of Error and Output Actuator Force
154
There are two parts in a fuzzy rule they are: dy  

1
 y    k  1  y    k   y    k  1
1 1 0
‘antecedent part’ and ‘consequent part’. For example, “IF (4)
error is Negative Medium and rate of change of error is dt
Positive Small, THEN the actuator force is Negative
Small. The second term of the first-order grey model can be
The rule table for the TFLC based VSS is shown in considered to represent the average of y(1)(k+1) + y(1)(k).
Table I. Mamdani inference system is used for Substituting (4) and replacing the second term by the
determining the appropriate control signal. Bisector average value, the first-order ODE given by (3) can be
method is used to defuzzify the inferred output. rewritten as:
TABLE I  1 1 
y   k  1  c   y    k  1  y   k     u  k  1 (5)
0 1
RULE TABLE FOR FLC BASED VSS
 2 
Rate of change of error
Error
NB NM NS ZO PS PM PB
NB NB NB NB NM NS NS ZO The matrix-form corresponding to (5) can be
NM NB NB NM NM NS ZO PS
NS NM NM NS NS ZO PS PM described as:
ZO NM NM NS ZO PS PM PM
PS NM NS ZO PS PM PM PB YN    B (6)
PM NS ZO PS PM PM PM PB
PB ZO PS PM PM PM PB PB
where:
IV. Proposed Controller YN   y   1

0
y    2  ... y    N  
0 0
(7)
 
IV.1. GM (1,1) Model
Grey prediction is used to study uncertainty in the
system [16]. The general form of a grey model is  
   y 1  0   y 1 1
 1

 
GM (n, h), where 'n' represents the order of the ordinary
differential equation of the grey model and 'h' represents
1

   y 1  y  2 

1
 1

the input to the Grey model. Prediction time increases B . . (8)
exponentially with increasing equation order n and h.  . .
Moreover, using large n, h values do not guarantee  
accuracy. GM (1, 1) model is widely employed in various  . .
 
grey systems for prediction application. Accumulated
Generating Operation (AGO) and Inverse Accumulated 
1

   y  N  1  y 1  N 

 1

Generating Operation (IAGO) are the two basic tools
used in grey modelling. If {y(0)(k)}, y(0)(k) ≥ 0, k=1, The term α is the weight [17]. In traditional GM(1,1)
2,…,N is a time sequence data, then AGO is: model the value of α in B matrix or data matrix is chosen
as 0.5 [16] and:
 0 u u
ŷ    k  1   y   1    eck 
1
(2)
 c  c c 
 
u 
The data sequence y(1)(k) is an accumulation of past
and present output information. To derive an approximate Least-Square technique is employed to determine the
growing curve for y(1)(k), four or five sets of data are optimal average solution of the parameters c and u. By
required to extract the grey model tendency. Least-Square estimation technique [15], the predicted
{y(0)(k)} is not always a positive sequence and so value of parameter vector is given as:
exponential or linear mapping should be employed to
change its behaviour for obtaining one.
c  1
The first-order Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE)
is used to describe the grey GM (1, 1) model and is given u 

ˆ     BT  B  BT YNT (9)
as [16]:
The next step output for the accumulated data is the
ˆy 0  k  1  ˆy1  k  1  ˆy 1  k  (3) solution of first order ODE represented in (3), is given by
[15]:
where y(1) is the accumulated data computed from (2), c  0 u u
ŷ   k  1   y  1    eck 
1
(10)
is the developing coefficient and u is the control input. If  c  c
the sampling interval is one unit, then the differential of
the generating sequence y(1) can be described as discrete where ( + 1) is the predicted value. The prediction
time sequence: output at the (k+1)th step can be estimated using IAGO:
155
ˆy 0  k  1  ˆy1  k  1  ˆy 1  k  (11) Dr. Ebenhart and Dr. Kennedy recognized the
suitability of this technique for optimization [18].
Particle swarm optimization is a robust stochastic
IV.2. Grey Fuzzy Logic Controller population based optimization technique. PSO algorithm
is becoming popular because it involves fewer
The block diagram of GFLC based VSS is shown in parameters to adjust and the ease in implementation. PSO
Fig. 3. The performance of TFLC is improved by finds its application in tuning Proportional-Integral-
combining grey prediction algorithm with TFLC. Based Derivative (PID) controllers, functional optimization,
on the past and present sprung mass displacement values training of artificial neural networks and FLC systems.
(five sets of data), GM (1, 1) model predicts the future A number of particles, which constitute a swarm, are
value of sprung mass displacement, i.e. y(k+1). initialized in an N-dimensional search space. The
The future error and rate of change of error is particles move in the search space looking for the
calculated from the predicted value and given as the optimal solution. The position of a particle and the
input to the TFLC. The membership functions and rule velocity with which the particle moves is determined by
table of GFLC are similar to that of TFLC discussed in its own flying experience and the flying experience of the
section 2. other particles.
Each particle keeps track of the best solution that is
achieved by the particle so far and is known as local best
position. The best solution achieved by the group is
known as global best position. The local best position
and the global best position adjust the velocity such that
the swarm moves towards the optimal solution.
Each particle tries to move towards the optimal
solution using the current velocity and the distance
between the local best position and the global best
position. The new velocity and new position of the
particle can be calculated using [19]:
Fig. 3. Structure of Grey Fuzzy Logic Controller based VSS
vik 1  w  vik  c1  rand1   pbesti  xi  

IV.3. Need for Optimization of Grey Model
 c2  rand 2   gbest  xi  (13)
The GM(1,1) model uses the least-square estimation
technique to predict the future output value, given by (9). xik 1  xik 1  vik 1
The least-square estimation method requires a large
amount of data in order to estimate the parameters. where w is the inertia weight parameter, c1 is called as the
In GM(1,1) model the predicted values c and u coefficient of the self recognition component, c2 is called
depends on the data matrix B given by (8). as the coefficient of the social component, rand1 and
Hence the prediction error is greatly influenced by the rand2 are random numbers between 0 and 1, vik and xik are
value of weight factor in the data matrix. The prediction the velocity and position of the particle in kth iteration,
error can be minimized by [12], [13]: vik+1and xik+1 are the velocity and position of the particle
1. Modifying the sampling interval; in (k+1)th iteration.
2. Changing the initial condition; The flow chart of PSO operation is shown in Fig. 4.
3. Optimizing the value of . The flowchart of PSO algorithm is shown in Fig. 4.
The initial value y(1)(0) is replaced by accumulated Generating initial populations is the first step of PSO.
value y(1)(N) and (10) is rewritten as: The population is composed of the particles that are
real codes. The corresponding evaluation of a population
 1 u  c k  n u is the “fitness function”.
ŷ   k  1   y    n     e   
1
(12) The fitness function is given by:
 c c
1000
The weight factor is optimized using Particle Swarm F (14)
1 J
Optimization (PSO). Root Mean Square (RMS) value of
the prediction error is taken as the performance index. where J is the RMS value of the prediction error.
After the fitness function has been calculated, the
IV.4. Particle Swarm Optimization fitness value and the number of the iterations determine
the stopping condition.
Craig Reynolds inspired by the social behaviour of The pbest of each particle and gbest of population (the
birds, derived a formula for representation of the flocking best movement of all particles) are calculated. Updating
behaviour of the birds. This was later used in computer the velocity, position, gbest and pbest of particles give a
simulations of virtual birds, known as Boids. new best position.
156
IV.5 Enhancement of Road Holding Ability

IV.5.
The tyre deflection always affects the road holding of
the vehicle, especi
especially
ally when the tyre is rotating.
The GFLC strategy only treats next position output
error of the sprung mass displacement and the rate of
change of the sprung mass displacement and the rate of
change of error.
Fig. 5. Structure of Modified Grey Fuzzy Logic Controller based VSS
TABLE II
RULE TABLE FOR FLC BASED VSS
ERROR
RATE OF CHANGE
NB NM NS ZO PS PM PB
OF ERROR
NB PB PB PB PM PS PS ZO
NM PB PB PM PM PS ZO NS
NS PM PM PS PS ZO NS NM
ZO PM PM PS ZO NS NM NM
PS PM PS ZO NS NM NM NB
PM PS ZO NS NM NM NM NB
PB ZO NS NM NM NM NB NB
V. Simulation Results
The parameters of the quarter car model ttaken aken from
[15] are listed below.
Sprung mass (M ( S) 300 kg
Unsprung mass (M (Mu) 59 kg
Damper coefficient ((Bs) 1,000 Ns/m
Suspension stiffness (K( s) 16,812 N/m
Tyre stiffness (K
( t) 190,000 N/m
Fig. 4. Flowchart of PSO algorithm The mathematical model of the quarter car defined
by (1) with the parameters listed is simulated using
This cannot effectively overcome the dynamic effect MATLAB--SIMULINK.
MATLAB SIMULINK. Dual Bump road profile is
of the tyre deflection in the suspension system. The utilized for this simulation. Mathematical representation
dynamic effect causes a bouncing phenomenon in tyre of du
dual
al bump input, shown in FigFig. 66,, with amplitude of
that not only decreases road
road-holding
holding of the vehicle but 10 cm and 5 cm is given by:
also increases the acceleration of the vehi
vehicle
cle body [20].
Therefore ride comfort as well as road
road--holding
holding ability  1  cos  8 t   if 1.0  t  1.25
of the vehicle is affected. Hence two FLCs (FLC1 and 
FLC2) are designed to improve both road road--holding
holding ability  2 and 3.0  t  3.25

and the ride comfort of the vehicle simultaneously. This Zr t    (15)
Modified FLC strategy
strategy involving two GFLCs is known  0 Otherwise

as Modified GFLC.
Fig. 5 shows the block diagram of proposed control
Simulations are conducted for open loop passive
passive,,
strategy using two GFLCs known as Modified Grey
TFLC, GFLC, Modified FLC and Modified GFLC based
Fuzzy Logic control (Modified GFLC) strategy. The
VSS.
GM(1,1)p model is used to predict the future sprung mass
displacement value where as GM(1,1)t is used for
predicting future tyre deflection value. Optimal value of V.1.
V.1. Predicted Output
is used for Grey Prediction.
The prediction error of GM(1,1) model is minimized
The membership function is similar to the one shown
by changing the initial condition and optimizing the
in Fig. 2. Rule table for FLC
FLC--22 is shown in Table II. The
value of weight factor used in the computation of data
design of FLC is similar to the one discussed in section
matrix.
II.
157
Fig. 6. Road Profile-Dual Bump Input

Fig. 9. Grey predicted sprung mass displacement
The parameters of PSO used for optimization of α are
given in Table III. The convergence plots are shown in
Figs. 7 and 8. The predicted output for sprung mass
displacement and tyre deflection is shown in Figs. 9 and
10.
V.2. Suspension Parameters for Modified GFLC

Figs. 11-14 show the suspension parameters for open
loop passive, TFLC, GFLC, Modified FLC
(enhancement of ride comfort and road holding ability)
and Modified GFLC. Fig. 11 illustrates that the sprung
Fig. 10. Grey predicted tyre deflection
mass displacement of Modified GFLC better when
compared to passive and other control strategies. It is
reduced to the order of 1.6 cm for 10 cm bump.
TABLE III
PSO PARAMETERS FOR OPTIMIZATION OF
PSO PARAMETER VALUE
Number of Swarms 50
Bird Step 100
w 0.9
c1, c2 2
Fig. 11. Sprung mass displacement
Fig. 7. Convergence plot - GM (1, 1) model
Fig. 12. Sprung mass acceleration
Fig. 12 shows the sprung mass acceleration of VSS for

dual bump input. Though the figure does not clearly
illustrate the enhancement of ride comfort by Modified
GFLC, the result of sprung mass acceleration is analyzed
with the help of RMS value. In Fig. 13 the suspension
deflection of VSS for dual bump input is depicted.
The suspension deflection does not exceed the static
limits ±0.1meters but the RMS value is reduced in other
Fig. 8. Convergence plot - GMt (1,1) model
control strategies when compared to passive.
158
V.3. RMS Values of Suspension Parameters

The RMS values of Sprung Mass Displacement,
Sprung Mass Acceleration, Suspension Deflection and
Tyre Deflection are presented in Table IV for both
normal and perturbed conditions. The Modified GFLC
reduces the sprung mass displacement of VSS from
0.01888 meters to 0.002563 meters and sprung mass
acceleration from 1.318m2/s to 0.6781m2/s. Also the tyre
deflection is reduced to 0.002533. Sprung mass
acceleration is reduced by 49% when compared to
passive and the tyre deflection is reduced by 12% when
compared to GFLC based VSS which gives maximum
Fig. 13. Suspension deflection tyre deflection. Under perturbed conditions also
Modified GFLC fares better than the rest of the
controllers. Hence Modified GFLC offers better ride
comfort and road holding ability when compared to
passive and other control strategies.
V.4. Power Spectral Density

Power Spectral Density (PSD) is one of the statistical
parameter used to describe random signals. The PSD
describes the power per unit frequency. Hence the PSD
plot shows the distribution of the signal over a range of
frequencies.
Mathematical description of PSD for a signal X(t) is
Fig. 14. Tyre deflection given as:

The tyre deflection of VSS for dual bump input is  j 2 f 
presented in Fig. 14. SX  f    RX  t   e d (16)

The tyre deflection of TFLC and GFLC is increased
when compared to passive system where as the tyre
where SX(f) is the PSD of the signal X(t), RX(t) is the auto
deflection of Modified FLC and Modified GFLC is
correlation function of X(t). Thus PSD is the Fourier
decreased when compared to FLC and other control
transform of the autocorrelation of signal considered.
strategies. In order to investigate the robustness of the
The instantaneous power (the mean or expected value
proposed controller, the perturbations of the system
of which is the average power) is then given by:
parameters have been included.
Under the perturbed conditions, the sprung mass is
( )= ( ) (17)
assumed to be increased by 30% from the nominal value,
while both damping coefficient and spring rate are for a signal s(t). In the evaluation of vehicle ride quality,
considered to be decreased by 30% from their nominal the PSD of the sprung mass acceleration as a function of
values. frequency is of prime interest and is shown in Fig. 15.
TABLE IV
RMS VALUES OF SUSPENSION PARAMETERS
Input Controller Sprung Mass Sprung mass Suspension Tyre deflection
Displacement Acceleration deflection 10-4(m)
10-3(m) (m/s2) 10-3(m)
Dual Bump Passive 18.88 1.318 17.59 25.88
(nominal conditions) TFLC 5.276 0.8516 11.57 27.2
GFLC 3.376 0.686 12.47 28.8
Modified 3.19 0.7207 12.36 25.73
FLC
Modified 2.563 0.6781 12.92 25.33
GFLC
Dual Bump Passive 18.06 0.7673 19.90 23.78
(perturbed conditions) TFLC 4.172 0.5191 12.47 26.51
GFLC 2.579 0.4133 13.09 27.85
Modified 2.898 0.4642 12.86 25.44
FLC
Modified 1.987 0.4347 13.33 23.35
GFLC
159
September 2004.
[8] Shao-BoLu, Yi-Nong-Li, Ling Zheng, Seung-Bok Choi, Study of
Grey Predictive-Fuzzy control for MR Semi-Active Suspension
system, International Conference on Mechanic Automation and
Control, pp 26-28, June 2010.
[9] Kun-Li Wen and Ting-Cheng Chang, The Research and
Development of Completed GM(1,1) Model Toolbox Using
Matlab , International Journal of Computational Cognition, Vol.
03 (Issue 03): 42-48,2005.
[10] Niu Dong-xiao, Li Yan-chang, Zhang Qing, Research of
Residual Error –Particle Swarm Optimization Gray Model Based
on Markov in Load Forecasting, IEEE International Conference
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[11] Niu Dong-xiao, Li Yan-chang, Zhang Qing, Research of Residual
Error –Ant Colony Optimization Gray Model Based on Markov in
Both GFLC and Modified GFLC have significantly Load Forecasting, IEEE International Conference on Grey
suppressed the acceleration of sprung mass effectively in Systems and Intelligent Services, pp. 436-441,2008.
the low frequency band. It can be observed from the PSD [12] Cai-yun GAO, Ning GAO, A New Kind of Optimized Method of
plot that the sprung mass acceleration has been brought Grey Prediction Model and its Applications in Deformation, IEEE
International Conference on Information Engineering and
down within the frequency range of 0.4 Hz to 8 Hz for Computer Science, pp. 1-4, 2009.
dual bump input. Both GFLC and Modified GFLC [13] Dan Ma, Qiang Zhang, Yan Peng, Shaojie Liu, A Particle Swarm
perform much better than passive and TFLC. Modified Optimization Based Grey Forecast Model of Underground
GFLC exhibits superior performance especially in the Pressure for Working Surface, Electronic Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 16 (Bund. H): 811-830, 2011.
human sensitive frequency range of 4 Hz to 8 Hz. [14] Ahmed, M and Svaricek, F., Adaptive robust gain scheduled
control of vehicle semi-active suspension for improved ride
comfort and road handling, IEEE International Conference on
VI. Conclusion Mechatronics, pp.376-381, Feb. 27 2013-March 1 2013
[15] Rajeswari.K and Lakshmi.P, Simulation of Suspension system
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that Modified GFLC performs better than its Proceeding., IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks,
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1998. the College of Engineering Guindy, Anna
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160
Instrumentation, Velammal Engineering College, Chennai. Her areas of

interest are intelligent controllers, and mechatronics. She is a life
member of ISTE.
S. Lavanya is a PG student pursuing Masters in

Control and Instrumentation.
P Lakshmi received her BE degree from

Government college of Technology,
Coimbatore. Masters and Ph D from college of
engineering, Guindy. Anna University, Chennai.
Presently she is working as an Associate
Professor in Electrical Engineering, College of
Engineering, Guindy, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Published papers in many national and
international conferences and national and international journals. Her
areas of interest are intelligent controllers, mechatronics and power
system stability.
161
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Impact of the Cut Form on the Drying Behavior

without Pretreatment of Carrots in a Convective Dryer
M. Lahbari1, H. Benmoussa2
Abstract – During this work, drying tests of carrot discs arranged in a thin layer on a fixed bed
were carried out on a hot air dryer. This study was limited to the influence of the air temperature
for the dehydration of these washers without any pretreatment. The experiments were performed
for two temperatures: 50 and 70 ° C at an air speed of 1m/s while performing other experiments
for air speeds and different forms of cutting in order to compare the results. It turned out that the
drying air temperature controls most of the drying process of this food. Copyright © 2014 Praise
Keywords: Carrot Washers, Cut Form, Convective Dryer, Water Content, Kinetic Drying
Nomenclature carrots, because of its high nutritional value (J.J Kelly,

1987; Hasan Togrul, 2006) [2], [3] and its availability on
T Temperature markets during all the year.
TAi Air temperature at position i Many studies were done to process carrot by air
H0 Initial Humidity drying (Mulet, Berna, & Rosello, 1989) [4], sun drying
X0 Initial water content of carrot (Mulet, Berna, Rosello, & Canellas, 1993) [5],
Xt Water content of carrot at time t convection microwave drying (Prabhanjan, Ramaswamy,
Yi Water content of air at position i & Raghavan, 1995; Sanga, Mujumdar, & Raghavan,
M Mass of carrot 2002) [6], [7], and combination of freeze drying,
M0 Initial carrot mass microwave heating and air or vacuum drying (Lin,
Mt Mass of carrot at time t Durance, & Scaman, 1998; Litvin, Mannheim, & Miltz,
t Time 1998) [8], [9] and solar drying (Ratti & Mujumdar, 1997)
t0 Initial time [10] but, they are few who have treated the case of
Va Air velocity carrots in several forms in the same study with the
Hri Air relative moisture at position i exception of the cubic and cylinder forms.
Et Product total water mass The aim of the current study is to confirm the effect of
S Dried matter mass different forms of carrot cut on the behavior of hot air
DM Dried matter drying and only for this drying method which was done
m Air Air flow with no specific pretreatment of this elementary matter.
m Evaporated Water Evaporated water flow The experiments are done for typical temperatures: 50
 Specific gravity and 70°C, and after detailed study, the results are
d Duct diameter compared to others in order to see the effects of the air
∆t Time step velocity changes and the product shape (sliced carrots or
U Unit grated) in addition to the influence of the air drying
temperatures.
I. Introduction
II. Material
Hot air drying operation is important step in food
processing industry but it does not respond to the II.1. Operating
theoretical laws (J.J Bimbenet, A. Duquenoy, G.
Air is drawn by centrifugal fan (2) and heated by a
Trystram, 2007) [1], reason for which, it is necessary to
system of battery resistance (3) (operation of all or
perform tests to establish good industrial design of an
nothing), then it goes back to the cyclone (6) (Fig. 1). In
installation that produces such a process. The equipment
parallel, there may be a supply of steam (softened water)
used here provides information on the drying parameters
from the boiler (4). The cyclone will allow to separate
of different products, but it is not a "pilot" material
water droplets to prevent system damage (corrosion of
because the quantities of dried products are too low
the material).
compared to the installation cost (€ 200,000). In this
work, the choice of material to be dried was done of
162
M. Lahbari, H. Benmoussa
distribute energy on the resistances in order to heat air,

and on the regulator to refine disturbances functions.
Regulation of air velocity: The PITOT tube (9)
informs about the air flow and consequently the air speed
Vair and control is done by a variable speed drive at the
fan (2).
The relative air humidity regulation Hr: Water vapor
inlet is governed by a solenoid valve (5) situated at the
outlet of the boiler.
III. Experiments and Mathematical

Formulation
The first experiment is to follow the drying kinetics of
carrot slices (in washers). This measurement is
performed on a fixed bed with thin layer of carrot
washers and with the use of several slices to get a mean
measure. We weigh an initial mass of 137.2 g, with air
1-Motor, 2 - Fan, 3 - Battery strength; 4 - Boiler, 5 - Solenoid, 6 - Cyclone, speed of 1m/s and a temperature of 70°C during one hour
7 - Thermostat, 8 - Thermocouple TA1; 9 - PITOT Tube, 10 - Thermocouple,
11 - Pt100, 12 - HrA1, 13 - By-pass, 14 - Grid, 15 - Honeycomb, 16 - Thermocouple, of time. After drying, carrots have the appearance of dry
17 - Drying rack, 18 - Thermocouple TA1, 19 - HrA1; 20- Air Output, 21 – Balance
and brittle chips.
Fig. 1. Drying Bench Scheme The second experiment was conducted in the same
manner except that we take a mass equal to 92.8 g at a
Then the air reaches the level of the bypass (13) and hot air temperature of 50 °C. Here, carrots are less dry
can go to either in or outside the dryer. It is directed than the previous, they are softer after drying.
outward when the weighings are carried out. The rest of Meanwhile, through the use of infrared rays power
time, it is sent on a sieve (14) in order to promote a patch desiccator, it has been calculated the initial moisture of
then on a honeycomb (15) that will propel the air along a the product (AOAC 1990), by inserting a sample of
vertical axis. These two systems will cause artificial about 3 g of finely chopped carrots. After 100 minutes, it
loading loss and homogeneous plug flow for performing was obtained H0=89.64% of water for the total mass of
identical drying, in height and diameter. In a period of this considered sample of carrots. The initial water
time which is fixed, weighings are performed: the content on a dry basis is given by equation:
support of carrots (drying rack) (17) will descend and
rest on a system (tripod) connected to the balance (21) H0
then it goes back. The sensors are positioned at different X0  (1)
100  H 0
locations ((7)-(12), (16), (18) and (19)) on the system and
connected to a computer that will provide instructions
which leads to:
and collect data and the system can be operated
automatically or manually. The electrical signals are so
high (several Amperes), and are attenuated by static X 0  8.65 kgH 2 O/kgDM (2)
relays, so that the computer collects without being
damaged. Safety systems are present: the thermostat (7) (DM: Dry Matter)
will cut operating if the temperature in the pipe is too We now want to express the water content in Xt
high, and regulators in boxes to minimize the strong [kgH2O/kg DM] at time t as a function of X0, M0 (initial
electrical signals and adjust temperature to desired product mass) and Mt (product mass at time t).
values. The principle of a thermocouple ((8), (10), (16) We have:
and (18)) consists of the measurement of the E M S
Xt  t  t (3)
electromotive force (in micro volts) between two S S
different materials wires, this measure is proportional to
the temperature and the length of wires, hence the need
with: Et is the total water mass of the product, and S the
for calibration. In food processing, we advocate more the
use of PT100 sensor (11), where its principle is M0  S
dry mass. Eq. (3) gives X 0  at t = t0, therefore:
measurement of resistance that changes with S
temperature.
M0
S (4)
II.2. Regulation X0 1
Temperature control: The computer calculates the heat This is replaced in the same Eq. (3) to get:
flux [kW] necessary to achieve the set point and
163
M t  X 0  1 1- Variation of water content Xt versus time t.

Xt  1 (5) 2- Drying rate dXt/dt, function of t.
M0
3- Drying kinetic changes dXt/dt as a function of Xt.
The other curves are established in order to see the
To determine the carrots evaporated water flow, Eq. performance of the drying apparatus.
(5) can be written as:
Xt 1 IV.2. Curves Interpretation

Mt  M0 (6)
X0 1 From Fig. 2, it is clear that the product mass loss is
very important and faster for carrots.
By differentiating with respect to time, it becomes:
dM t M 0 dX t
  (7)
dt X 0  1 dt
With respect to the water that air gains, the amount of

evaporated water is:
m Evaporated Water  m Air Y2  Y1  (8)
where: Y1 and Y2 are the water content of the air before it

reaches the product and after and m  Air is the air flow
through the conduit leading to the drying chamber at
1m/s velocity, which is equal to:
d2
m Air  V (9) Fig. 2. Mass variation with time
4
Comparing changes in water content over time Xt for
Then, from the last equation, we get the value of temperature drying of 70°C and 50°C, Figure 3(a) shows
4.524×10-4 kg/s by taking respectively the following a decrease in water content over time and when the
values: drying is done for 50°C, it is slower than 70°C.
V=1m/s, m  =1kg/m3 (for temperatures close to those that After 30 minutes of drying, for example, X =2 [kg
are taken in this work) and for a blow pipe air diameter d water/ kg DM] at 50°c and X =1 [kg water/ kg DM] at
equal to 0.75m. 70°c.
During the experiment, the product mass in the drying
chamber is recorded simultaneous with air temperatures
TA1, TA2 and the wet bulb temperature TAh.
Air relative moistures are also identified (Hr1 and
Hr2) on time. Using the measured masses of the product
we can calculate water contents on a dry basis by Eqs. (3)
or (5). Thus it is possible to determine the instantaneous
rate drying at any time t, defined by the following
formula:
dX t X  t  t   X  t 
 (10)
dt t
where:
dXt/dt is the drying rate [kg water/kg DM/s].
Xt is the carrots water content on a dry basis [kg water/kg
DM].
∆t= ti+1-ti is the time step in seconds.
Fig. 3(a). Evolution of water content with time
IV. Curves and Results Discussion The water here is not very related and is easily
removed from the product, this is why the curve of the
IV.1. Drying Curves
carrots water content decreases rapidly comparing to that
To follow the drying kinetics, three different curves of potatoes.
are drawn: Fig. 3(b) shows a slower kinetics of drying [1].
164
Fig. 5. Evolution of the drying rate as a function of the water content

Fig. 3(b). Comparative water content variations of carrots
and potatoes over time
This difference results in the bonds formed with water

in the product and its availability [11].
Here potatoes retain more water than carrots, so it is
more difficult to remove water the bonds and vice versa,
it will be easier to rehydrate. Curves for the drying rate as
a function of time t: the curves of Fig. 4 are similar for
the two temperatures, the drying rate decreases with time.
Indeed, initially the product contains a lot of water so the
speed is high.
Fig. 6. Evolution of the air temperatures with time
Comparison of relative moistures Hr1 and Hr2 (Fig. 7)

between A1 and A2:
Hr1 is stable over time in both cases.
Hr2 exceeds Hr1 initially and decreases to move
towards Hr1.
Fig. 4. Evolution of the drying rate as a function of time
For the drying speed function of Xt: we should read

the graph (Fig. 5) from right to left (Xt decreases), the
drying rate decreases, and this is the same conclusion as
before. Comparing the temperature of the air before (A1)
with that after passage (A2) in the carrots washers (Fig.
6) shows that TA1 is stable in both cases (50 and70°c)
and temperature after passing TA2 is lower and the
temperature tends to pass to TA1.
The initial difference between TA1 and TA2 at 70 ° C
is greater than 50 ° C but decreases faster. Fig. 7. Evolution of relative humidity of the air over time
165
The gap decreases more rapidly for the higher transfer). Drying is favored by high air temperature and
temperature (70°C) because drying is faster. the importance surface of heat exchange. Finally, it was
At the same time, there will be less water to remove confirmed that the air velocity does not affect the quality
from carrots. By using other data with sliced carrots at of drying and installation works very well because of the
T=60°C but at speed air of 1.5 and 2.5m/s, similar good calibration and maintenance of its various
kinetics were obtained: the air velocity has no significant components.
influence on the washers drying (Fig. 8).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by GIA Laboratory ENSIA
Paris France and Laboratoire d’Etudes des Systèmes
Energéiques Industriels of Mechanical Department in
Hadj Lakhdar University Batna Algeria.
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[13] S. Prakash, S.K. Jha and N. Data, Performance evaluation of
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(2004) 305–313.
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carrot using a two-stage microwave process, Journal of Food
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[15] E. Kavak Akpinar, A. Midilli, Y. Bicer. Energy and exergy of
potato drying process via cyclone type, Energy Conversion and
Management 46 (2005) 2530–2552
[16] Lahsasni, S., Kouhila, M., Mahrouz, M., Jaouhari, J.T. (2004).
Drying kinetics of prickly pear fruit (Opuntia ficus indica),
Journal of Food Engineering, 61(2), pp. 173-179.
[17] J. Cherife, Fundamentals of the drying mechanism during air
dehydration of foods. In: A.S. Mujumdar, Editor, Advances in
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drying Vol. 1, Hemisphere, Washington (1983), pp. 73–102.
of carrots over time
[18] Ahmet Kaya, Orhan Aydın and Cevdet Demirtaş Experimental
and theoretical analysis of drying carrots, Desalination 237 (2009)
285–295.
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During drying, there is heat transfer from the hot air to LWT, 38 (2005) 549–553.
the moisturized product. This transfer induces [20] Diamante, L. M. (1994). Drying characteristics of sweet potato
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preservation and security (pp. 187–199).
166
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carrots, Journal of Food Engineering 61 (2004), pp. 359–364.
[22] M.S. Hatamipour and D. Mowla, Experimental and theoretical
investigation of drying of carrots in a fluidized bed with energy
carrier, Drying Technol., 21(1) (2003) 83–101.
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1,2
Faculty of Technology Hadj Lakhdar Batna University Rue Chahid
Mohamed El Hadi Boukhlouf; Algeria.
M. Lahbari Département de mécanique

Université Hadj Lakhdar Batna Algérie.
Miloud Lahbari is born 10 august 1966. He
obtained his degree of Magister in 1998 from
Batna University. He is currently a lecturer at
the Mechanical department of Hadj Lakhdar
University Batna. He carries out search in fluid
mechanics engineering, heat and mass transfer
applications, food drying technology. Fields of interest: Fluid
mechanics, solar energy, food preservation, statistical analysis and
mathematical modeling.
E-mail: mlahbari@gmail.com
H. Benmoussa Département de mécanique

Université Hadj Lakhdar Batna Algérie. Hocine
Benmoussa obtained his Doctorate degree from
Poitiers University, France in 1989. He is
currently a professor at the University Hadj
Lakhdar Batna. He carries out research in
mechanical energetic and has many publications
in this specialty.Fields of interest: Fuel cells,
Fluid mechanics, heat and mass transfer, drying, solar energy,
renewable energy and numerical simulation.
E-mail: hocine_b@hotmail.com
167
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Developing Empirical Relationships to Predict MRR

and Overcut of ECM of EN38 Steel
A. Kumaravelu1, C. Jegadheesan2, C. Senthilkumar3
Abstract – Electrochemical machining (ECM) has been increasingly recognized for the potential
of machining, while the precision of the machined profile is a concern of its application. This
paper describes the development of a second order, non-linear mathematical model for
establishing the relationship among machining parameters such as applied voltage, electrolyte
flow rate and tool feed rate with the dominant machining process criteria, namely material
removal rate (MRR) and overcut (O.C). The model is developed based on response surface
methodology (RSM) using the relevant experimental data, which are obtained during an ECM
operation. The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicate that the proposed mathematical
model obtained can adequately describe the performance within the limits of the factors being
studied. The contour plots are generated to study the effect of process parameters as well as their
interactions. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Electro Chemical Machining (ECM), Response Surface Methodology (RSM), Metal
Removal Rate (MRR), Overcut (O.C)
Nomenclature The workpiece is eroded in accordance with Faraday’s

law of electrolysis. Since the introduction of ECM in
ECM Electrochemical machining 1929 by Gusseff, its industrial applications have been
MRR Metal removal rate extended to electrochemical drilling, electrochemical
OC Over cut deburring, electrochemical grinding and electrochemical
RSM Response surface methodology polishing [3]. ECM was found particularly advantageous
ANOVA Analysis of variance for high-strength alloys.
DOE Design of experiments It has been applied in diverse industries such as
CCD Central composite second order rotatable aerospace, automotive and electronics, to manufacture
design airfoils and turbine blades, die and mold, artillery
projectiles, and surgical implants and prostheses [4].
Munda et al., 2006 [5] have investigated the
I. Introduction
electrochemical micromachining through response
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a non-traditional surface methodology approach. They have taken MRR
process of removing metal for mass production by an and radial over cut as objective measures and developed
electro chemical processand has the potential of mathematics models. Both objectives were dealt
generating desired crack -free and stress -free surfaces of separately and analyzed with reference to machining
micro components [1]. It is used mainly to cut hard or parameters. Bhattacharyya et al., 1999 [6] have
difficult to cut metals, where the application of a more investigated the influence of various predominant process
traditional process is not convenient. Those difficult to parameters such as electrolyte flow rate, concentration,
cut metals demand high energy to form chips, which can the gap thickness and the applied voltage on the
result in thermal effects due to the high temperatures machining characteristics metal removal rate and over-
inherent to the process in the chip–tool interface. cut in electrochemical micro-machining of EN-38 steel.
In traditional processes, the heat generated during the Though a good number of researches on machining of
cut is dissipated to the tool, chip, workpiece and steels have been made, no literature reveals the
environment, affecting the surface integrity of the machining of EN38 using electro chemical machining.
workpiece, mainly for those hard materials. Different The purpose of the present study, therefore, is to
from the other machining processes, in ECM there is no machining EN38 steel using electrochemical machining
contact between tool and workpiece. Electrochemical based on RSM, and developing a mathematical model.
(electrolyses) reactions are responsible for the chip The investigation into the influence of ECM process
removal mechanism [2]. In ECM an electrical current parameters on machining performance criteria has been
passes through an electrolyte solution between a cathode carried out through the development of mathematical
tool and an anode workpiece. models based on response surface methodology (RSM),
168
A. Kumaravelu, C. Jegadheesan, C. Senthilkumar
utilizing the relevant experimental data as obtained The values of n indicate the number of machining
through experimentation. Response surface methodology parameters. The terms bi, bii and bij are the second order
(RSM) is also used in the present research work for regression co-efficient.
correlating the various machining parameters, such as The second term under the summation sign of this
electrolyte flow rate, applied voltage and tool feed rate polynomial equation attributes to linear effects, whereas
on the predominant electrochemical machining criteria the third term of the above equation corresponds to the
metal removal rate and overcut. The adequacy of the higher order effects and lastly the forth term of the
developed mathematical models has also been tested by equation includes the interactive effects of the
the analysis of variance test. parameters.
Using this quadratic model of y in this study is not
only to investigate over the entire factor space, but also
II. Experimental Work to locate region of desired target where the response
The material used for the present investigation is approaches its optimum or near optimal value. The
EN38 steel. The experiments were planned using RSM necessary data for building the response models are
for the design of experiments (DOE), which helps reduce generally collected by the design of experiments. In this
the number of experiments. study, the collection of experimental data adopts the
Three cutting parameters were selected: (1) applied central composite design (CCD) in order to fit the
voltage, (2) electrolyte flow rate, and (3) tool feed rate. quadratic model of y.
Since the considered factors are multi-level variables The pertinent process parameters selected for the
whose outcome effects are not linearly related, it was present investigation such as electrolyte flow rate (A),
decided to use five level tests for each factor. The applied voltage (B), tool feed rate (C) were considered as
machining parameters used and their levels are presented controlling variables. Their effects on material removal
in Table I. The experiments were conducted according to rate (MRR) and surface roughness (S.R) are tested
a standard RSM design called central composite second through a set of planned experiments based on central
order rotatable design (CCD) as depicted in Table II. The composite second order rotatable design. The levels of
machining tests were performed on Metatech ECM each factor were chosen as -1.682, -1, 0, 1, and 1.682 in
equipment. closed form to have a rotatable design. For the three
The tool was made up of copper tube with 6 mm variables, the design required 20 experiments with the 8
diameter. The electrolyte used for experimentation was factorial points, 6 axial points to form a central
fresh aqueous solution of sodium chloride (NaCl at composite design with α=1.682, 6 centre points. The
concentration 100 gm/lit) because of its high design was generated and analyzed using MINITAB 14.0
conductivity and non-passive characteristic. statistical package. Table I shows the factors and their
levels in coded and actual values. The experiment has
been carried out according to the designed experimental
III. Response Surface Methodology based on CCD as depicted in Table II.
The RSM is an empirical modeling approach for TABLE I
determining the relationship between various process PROCESS PARAMETERS AND THEIR LEVELS
parameters and responses with the various desired LEVELS
criteria and searching the significance of these process PARAMETERS
-1.682 -1 0 1 1.682
parameters on the coupled responses [7]. It is a sequential
Applied voltage A, (Volts) 14 15 16 17 18
experimentation strategy for building and optimizing the Electrolyte flow rate B (lit/min) 6 7 8 9 10
empirical model. Tool feed rate C, (mm/min) 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Therefore, RSM is a collection of mathematical and
statistical procedures that are useful for the modeling and
analysis of problems in which response of demand is IV. Mathematical Model
affected by several variables and the objective is to
optimize this response [8]. The general second order Based on Eq. (1), the effects of the above-mentioned
polynomial response surface mathematical model, which process variables on the magnitudes of the MRR have
analyses the parametric influences on the various been evaluated by computing the values of various
response criteria, can be described as follows: constants using MINITAB and the relevant experimental
data from Table III. The mathematical relationship for
k k k correlating the material removal rate and the considered
Yu  bo   bi xi   bii x 2i   bij xi x j (1) machining process parameters can be expressed as
i 1 i 1 j 1 follows:
where Yu represents the corresponding response, e.g. Yu (MRR) = 0.421602+0.026652A+

MRR and Ra of the ECM process in the present research. -0.242349B+0.610761C-0.001223 A2+ 0.004240B2
(2)
The code values of ith machining parameters for uth +0.071477 C2 + 0.009400A×B-0.058500 A×C +
experiment are represented by xiu. + 0.030000 B×C
169
TABLE II The associated P-value for the model is lower than

EXPERIMENTAL DATA
0.05(i.e., p= 0.05,or 95% confidence) which indicates
MRR O.C that the model is considered to be statistically significant.
Ex.no A B C
(g/min) (mm) The ANOVA table for the quadratic model for MRR
is shown in Table III. Fig. 1 displays the normal
1 15 7 0.7 0.0452 0.630
2 17 7 0.7 0.0654 0.920 probability plot of the residuals for MRR. Notice that the
3 15 9 0.7 0.0172 1.771 residuals are falling on a straight line, which means that
4 17 9 0.7 0.0776 1.530 the errors are normally distributed. Similarly the value of
5 15 7 0.9 0.0499 1.792 R2 for overcut is 90.11%,which means that the regression
6 17 7 0.9 0.0493 1.641
7 15 9 0.9 0.0365 1.250 model provides an excellent explanation of the
8 17 9 0.9 0.0709 0.714 relationship between the independent variables (factors)
9 14 8 0.8 0.0089 1.656 and the response (Ra). The associated P-value for the
10 18 8 0.8 0.0791 1.738 model is lower than 0.05 (i.e., p= 0.05, or 95%
11 16 6 0.8 0.0644 0.212
12 16 10 0.8 0.0673 1.103 confidence), which indicates that the model is considered
13 16 8 0.6 0.0404 1.812 statistically significant. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
14 16 8 1.0 0.0631 2.123 is used to derive the parameter which significantly affects
15 16 8 0.8 0.0459 1.500 the performances [9].
16 16 8 0.8 0.0498 1.525
17 16 8 0.8 0.0493 1.238 The ANOVA table for the quadratic model for overcut
18 16 8 0.8 0.0581 1.554 is shown in Table IV. Fig. 2 displays the normal
19 16 8 0.8 0.0414 1.556 probability plot of the residuals for Ra. Notice that the
20 16 8 0.8 0.0466 1.619 residuals are falling on a straight line, which means that
the errors are normally distributed.
TABLE III
The standard percentage point of F distribution for
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MRR
95% confidence limit is 5.05. As shown in Table III and
Degree Mean IV, the F- values (1.18 and 1.08) for lack of fit are
Source of Sum of F- p-
of sum of
variation
freedom
squares
squares
value value smaller than the standard value. Thus both the models are
adequate.
Linear 3 0.00419 0.00053 15.7 0.00
Square 3 0.00057 0.00019 5.63 0.01
Interaction 3 0.00105 0.00035 10.3 0.00
Lack of fit 5 0.00018 0.00003 1.18 0.42 VI. Results and Discussion
Error 5 0.00015 0.00003
Total 19 0.00615 VI.1. Metal Removal Rate (MRR)
Fig. 3 shows the variation of the MRR with respect to
Similarly, the mathematical relationship between the electrolyte flow rate and applied voltage. The figure
overcut and the considered machining process parameters indicates that an increase in the electrolyte flow rate and
in the ECM process can be expressed as follows: applied voltage increase MRR. The increase in applied
voltage causes a greater machining current to be
Yu(O.C)=-51.211+0.5424A+8.799B+31.43C+ available in the machining gap, thereby causing the
+0.0338 A2-0.2261 B2 + 10.1375 C2-0.1145 A×B+ (3) enhancement of the MRR.
-0.92 A×C – 4.025 B×C Moreover, increase in electrolyte flow rates lead to
faster removal of the reaction products from the
machining gap and the offset of the possibility of passive
V. Analysis of the Developed layers on the surface of the workpiece, resulting in
Statistical Models overall increase in the MRR.
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the F-ratio The influences of the applied voltage and tool feed
test have been performed to justify the goodness of fit of rate on MRR are shown in Fig. 4. MRR increases with an
the statistical models. The calculated values of F- ratio increase in the tool feed rate. It is because of the increase
for lack of fit have been compared to standard values of in the tool feed rate, inter-electrode gap becomes smaller.
F-ratio corresponding to their degrees of freedom to find This, in turn, causes a reduction of the electric
the adequacy of the different developed statistical resistance of the electrolyte and increase in the current
models. density and then MRR. Applied voltage in the low range
The F-ratio has been calculated as a ratio of Mean sum yields low MRR, where as high MRR results when the
of square of source to mean sum of experimental error. applied voltage is high. The reasons for the substantial
The fit summary recommended that the quadratic model increase in MRR can be attributed to the increase in
is statistically significant for analysis of MRR. The value current density in the gap as the higher machining
of R2 is over 94.50 %, which means that the regression current.
model provides an excellent explanation of the Influence of electrolyte flow rate and applied voltage
relationship between the independent variables (factors) on O.C is shown in Fig. 5. O.C increases with increase in
and the response (MRR). applied voltage because of the fact that at high voltage a
large number of gas bubbles are generated at the tool
170
sidewall. This may increase the possibility of stray

sparking and thus cause more O.C, which is depicted
through SEM micrograph in Fig. 6.
O.C increases non-linearly with increase in the
electrolyte flow rate, but after reaching a maximum, it
has a tendency to fall. Increase in electrolyte flow rate
initially causes an increment in OC values because of the
greater volume of electrolytic ions available in the
machining zone.
This simultaneously causes a greater stray current
effect at the side wall due to the formation of stray
current flux at the machining zone periphery. With
increase in electrolyte flow rate the effects of stray
current flow weaken gradually because of the squeezing
of the gas bubble diameters and the quicker removal of Fig. 2. Normal probability plot residuals for O.C.
reaction products and gas bubbles from the machining
zone. Hence lower O.C has been obtained.
Response surface plot of O.C with respect to applied
voltage and tool feed rate is shown through Fig. 7. With
the increase in applied voltage the O.C increases. It is
owing to greater electrolysing current to be available in
the machining gap and it causes a greater stray current
intensity which leads to weaken the stray current effect at
the boundaries of the flow path.
O.C increases with the increase in tool feed rate and it
is due to improper flushing of machined product from the
machining zone and so the chance of generation of
microsparks increases, which results in larger O.C.
At lower tool feed rate, inter-electrode gap is more Fig. 3. Influence of applied voltage and flow rate on MRR
and proper flushing of machined product from the
machining zone results in decrease in O.C. The quality of
the machined hole is better than the previous one, which
is shown in SEM micrograph (Fig. 8).
TABLE IV
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR O.C
Degree Mean
Source of Sum of F- p-
of sum of
variation squares value value
freedom squares
Linear 3 1.8606 0.6202 15.2 0.00
Square 3 1.9618 0.6539 16.12 0.00
Interaction 3 1.4686 0.4895 12.0 0.00
Lack of fit 5 0.2387 0.0477 1.08 0.46
Error 5 0.0894 0.0178
Total 19 4.2017
Fig. 4. Influence of applied voltage and tool feed rate on MRR
Fig. 1. Normal probability plot residuals for MRR Fig. 5. Influence of applied voltage and flow rate on O.C
171
surface plot of MRR that the MRR increases with an

increase in any of the machining parameters.
Increase in applied voltage and tool feed rate causes
high current density in the IEG and flow rates cause
faster removal of the reaction products which leads to
higher MRR. Higher
Higher level of machining parameters gives
higher O.C as shown on the O.C response surface plots.
Increase in applied voltage and tool feed rate causes
high current density in the IEG and flow rates causes
improper removal of the reaction products leading to
higher O.C.
higher
Therefore, it is evident that the various quantitative
modelings, based on response surface m methodology,
ethodology,
experimental analysis
analysis and the test results as obtained
Fig
ig. 6. SEM Micrograph of machined hole at 18 volts
through the present research will be quite useful for
analyzing the influence of the various process parameters
for achieving suitable control over the electrochemical
machining performance criteria.
The present experimental findings will be useful for
both the design and manufacturing engineers to assess
the necessary information about in influence
fluence of
predominant machining parameters on electrochemical
machining performance.
Reference
References
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rmal profile of
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ig. 7.. Influence of applied voltage and tool feed rate on O.C 1075.
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Fig.. 8.
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[8]
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electrochemical machining criteria like MRR, O.C in [9] Dhanabalan, S., Sivakumar, K., Narayanan, C.S., Optimization of
machining parameters in EDM of Inconel 718 for form tolerance
ECM are the parameters considered in the present study. using grey relational analysis, (2012) International Review of
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1453-1459.
1459.
research work has proved its adequacy to be an effective
tool for
for analysis of the ECM process.
Mathematical models for correlating MRR and O.C Authors’ information
with predominant process parame ters have been obtained
parameters 1
Research Scholar, Anna University
University.
separately. Head of the Department,
The influence of different process parameters on C.S.I Polytechnic college,
machining performance criteria are exhibited though Salem – 636 007
Tamil Nadu, INDIA.
response surface plots. It is clear from the resp
response
onse
172
2
Principal,
Chettinad college of engineering and technology,
Karur, Tamilnadu,
INDIA
3
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar.
Assistant Professor,
Annamalai University,
Annamalai nagar, Tamilnadu,
INDIA. Mobile No. : +91 98948 56176
A. Kumaravelu, (Corresponding Author)

Head,Mechanical Engineering Department,
C.S.IPolytechnic college,Yercaud road,Salem-
636007, Tamilnadu INDIA.29TH April1963, B.E
(MechanicalEngineering), Government college
of Engineering, Salem, Tamilnadu,INDIA,1985.
M.E.,(Manufacturing Engineering), Vinayaga
University, Salem, Tamilnadu, INDIA, 2006.
Developing empirical relationships to predict MRR and overcut of
ECM of EN38 Steel. Mr. A.Kumaravelu, Indian society of technical
education.
E-mail: akumaravelu@yahoo.com
Dr. C. Jegadheesan, is a postgraduate in

Engineering design and doctorate in Mechanical
Engineering. He has a vast experience of 24
years in engineering education. He was
Professor and Head of the Mechanical
Engineerig Department of Kongu Engineering
College , Perundurai. Currently, He leads the
team of faculty members with great vigor and
enthusiasm to achieve the goals of the chettinad College of
Engineering and technology, karur.
E-mail: cjprod87@yahoo.com
C. Senthilkumar is working as an Assistant Professor in the

Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar, India. He received his BE in Mechanical and
Production Engineering from Annamalai University and ME in
Production Engineeringfrom Annamalai University. He received his
PhD from Annamalai University.He has contributed about 15 research
papers in journals, conferences at national and international level. His
areas of interest are composites, non-traditional machining apart from
statistical modeling and optimization.
E-mail: csmfg_au@yahoo.com
173
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Experimental Investigation of Surface Roughness and Tool Life

in Hard Turning of AISI M2 Steel Using CBN Insert
P. Jaganathan, Sivasubramanian, V. Krishnaraj
Abstract – This research work is focused on hard turning of AISI M2Steel using Cubic Boron
Nitrate (CBN) cutting inserts. The experiments were planned using Response surface method
(RSM) called Central Composite Design (CCD) procedure. The experiments were performed on a
KIROLOSKAR model centre lathe using three input cutting parameters ,cutting speed, feed and
depth of cut at lower levels(-1) and higher levels(+1). The output responses measured were
surface roughness (Ra) and tool life (TL) .Mathematical model for these responses were developed
using response surface methodology (RSM). An optimal process condition was identified such that
to attain a good quality of hard turned surface. Models were developed using two methodologies,
ie. response surface methodology (RSM) and fuzzy Logic (FL). In RSM, regression equations are
obtained, which relates the hard turning parameters with each response. The adequacy of the
model was checked using R-squared values. The response values predicted by developed model
were compared against the experimental values and found that they are in good agreement with
each other. In fuzzy logic, with the range of input machining parameters and if then rules, output
response parameters are obtained and verified against the experimental values and found that
they are also in good agreement with the each other. Triangular type membership functions of
fuzzy logic were used in this study. Then both the methodologies were compared with the
experimental values and best method was identified for modeling to achieve a better result. Then
the interaction effects of various hard turning parameters on each response were also studied
using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and interaction plots. Genetic algorithm(GA) was used to
identify the optimal hard turning parameters in such a way to produce a good quality machined
surface in hard turning AISI M2Steel using CBN(non coated) cutting tools. Copyright © 2014
Keywords: AISI M2 Steel, CCD, Fuzzy Logic, Genetic Algorithm, Hard Turning, RSM
Nomenclature Ra Surface roughness of the turned

surface ()
Adeq. Precision Adequate precision R2 Coefficient of determination
Adj.R2 Adjusted R2 S.D Square root of the residual mean
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute square
Cor. total Totals of all information corrected TL Tool Life
for the mean V Cutting speed (m/min)
Cop Contribution of percentage α Clearance angle, degree
CV Coefficient of variation γ Rake angle, degree.
CBN Cubic Boron Nitrate λ Inclination angle, degree.
CCD Central Composite Design χ Major cutting edge angle, degree
Csd Cutting speed
d.f. Degrees of freedom
doc Depth of cut (mm) I. Introduction
f Feed (mm/rev)
In today’s environment, it is crucial to produce high
M.s Mean square
quality products with low cost. To provide cost
Pred.R2 PredictedR2Prob.>Proportion of time
(or ) Probability you would expect to effectiveness in manufacturing and especially machining
operations, there is a continuous need to reduce operating
get the stated
costs. The most well-known methods used to reduce
F Value
PRESS P residual error sum of squares costs are various applications of more resistant tool
materials, heat treatments, cutting fluids, speed, feed
RSM Response surface methodology
rates, depth of cut and the development of coated cutting
174
tool . One of these methods is the application of hard as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut on AISI M2
turning used in recent years. Nowadays, hard turning hardened steel. The difficult to cut materials were turned
technology has been widely used in various industrial with a number of various materials to achieve good
areas, such as cutting tool , roller bearings, automotive surface roughness, dimensional control and reduced tool
and hydraulic parts. Hard turning stands for substitution wear and increased tool life. Conversely, only the utility
for the grinding process and enables the avoidance of of cubic boron nitride (CBN) cutting tools made possible
coolant. Turning hardened steel without the use of the manufacturing technique to be more flexible and also
cutting fluid is considered as significance importance. cost effective. Machining tests were performed under dry
The elimination of grinding will be of help to environment conditions with CBN cutting tool. The
environment. It is shown that it is feasible to use hard model predicting equations for surface roughness and
turning under selected conditions to super finish surfaces, tool life were developed. To calculate constants and
hardened to 60HRC by induction hardening process, to a coefficients of these models, the Design Expert V 8.0.7
surface finish of 0.02 to 8 μm. Still, in the area of software characterized by analysis of variance
precision hard turning, due to demands of geometric (ANOVA), Response surface methodology (RSM) and
accuracy of a few micrometers, its application is limited fuzzy logic have been exploited. Furthermore, optimal
by uncertainties with respect to part quality and process amount of factors are obtained in this study and the
reliability. Hard turning has been an effective method in quadratic model of RSM associated with the sequential
optimization of minimizes the surface roughness and tool approximation optimization used for optimizing surface
wear and maximizes material removal rate and tool life. roughness and tool life. Finally, confirmation tests are
There are many studies, which have proven significant conducted to verify the optimization process.
increases in surface finish, tool life, material removal rate
and tool wear after hard turning in varies steel. Hard
turning not only improves performance response, but II. Literature Survey
also provides significant benefits for machining Noordin, M.Y. V.C Venkatesh et. al [1] investigated
conditions. the performance of a multilayer tungsten carbide tool
The surface quality is an important parameter to using Response surface methodology (RSM) when
evaluate the productivity of machine tools as well as turning AISI 1045 steel. The experimental plan was
machined components. That's why achieving the desired based on the face centered, Central composite design
surface quality is of great importance for the functional (CCD). Cutting speed (m/min) 240-375and feed
behavior of the mechanical parts. A reasonably good (mm/rev) 0.18- 0.28. The feed is the most significant
surface finish is desired for improving the tribological factor that influences the surface roughness.
properties, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and SahinYusufetal. [2] proposed a surface roughness model
aesthetic appeal of the product. Excessively better in the hard turning of AISI 1040 carbon steel was
surface finish may involve more cost of manufacturing. developed in terms of cutting speed, feed rate and depth
The surface roughness and tool life factors were depends of cut using response surface methodology (RSM).
upon cutting tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, and Machining tests were carried out using PVD-coated
depth of cut, the microstructure of the work piece and the ceramic tools under different cutting conditions. The
rigidity of the machine tool. These parameters affecting established equation showed that the feed rate was found
the surface roughness and tool life can be optimized in to be main influencing factor on the surface roughness.
various ways such as response surface methodology Saparudin et al. [3] focused on the analysis of optimum
(RSM) with CCD method and Fuzzy logic models. cutting conditions to get lowest surface roughness in hard
Therefore, a number of researchers have been focused on turning SCM 440 alloy steel by taguchi method. The
an appropriate prediction of surface roughness and tool results were analyzed using analysis of variance
life. The RSM method has been widely used in (ANOVA) method. Taguchi method had shown that the
engineering analysis and is a powerful tool to design a depth of cut has significant role to play in producing
high quality system. Also, the RSM method employs a lower surface roughness followed by feed. The cutting
CCD design to investigate the effects of the entire speed has lesser role on surface roughness from the tests.
machining parameters through the small number of Lima et al. [4] investigated the machinability of
experiments. In recent times, the RSM with CCD method hardened steels at different levels of hardness and using
has been extensively used in several industrial fields, and range of cuttingtoolmaterials. More specifically, the
research works . By applying the RSM technique, the machinability of hardened AISI 4340 high strength low
time required for experimental investigations can be alloy steel and AISI D2 cold work tool steel. The results
significantly reduced, as it is effective in the indicated that when turning AISI 4340 steel the surface
investigation of the effects of multiple factors on roughness of the machined parts was improved as cutting
performance as well as to study the influence of speed was elevated and deteriorated with feed rate.
individual factors to determine which factor has more Doniavi et al. [5] attempted to develop an imperial model
influence, which one less. with the use of response surface methodology(RSM), a
The main scope of the present study is, thus to develop widely adopted tool for the quality engineering field. The
a statistical model for using the cutting parameters such model showed that the feed rate was found to be main
175
influencing factor .The results for analysis of variance bearing steel, hardened at 64 HRC. It was concluded that
(ANOVA) showed that the first order term of depth of the surface roughness was highly influenced by the
cut was not significant. But the first order term of cutting cutting speed and depth of cut. B. Fnides et al. [15]
speed and feed rate were significant. Horng et al. [6] conducted this experimental investigation to determine
developed a model for the prediction of surface statistical models of cutting forces and surface roughness
roughness followed by an optimization model for the in hard turning of AISI H11 hot work tool steel (50
determination of optimal cutting conditions in machining HRC). It was observed that surface roughness is very
austenitic Hadfield steel. The quadratic model of RSM sensitive to the variation of the feed rate. H. K. Dave, L.
associated with the sequential approximation S. Patel, H. K. Raval et al. [16] have been investigation
optimization (SAO). Gusri et al. [7] applied Taguchi of the machining characteristics of different grades of EN
optimization methodology to optimize cutting parameters materials in hard turning process using Tin coated cutting
in turning Ti-6Al-4V ELI with coated and uncoated tools. In this research paper focused on the analysis of
cemented carbide tools. The turning parameters optimum cutting conditions to get the lowest surface
evaluated was cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut and roughness in turning of different grades of EN materials
type of cutting tool, each at three levels. The results of by Taguchi method. It have been found that ANOVA
analysis showed that the cutting speed and type of tool shown that the depth of cut has significant role to play
had a very significant effect on the tool life, and the feed for producing lower surface roughness. Thus, it is
rate and type of tool had also a very significant effect on possible to increase machine utilization and decrease
the surface roughness. Aggarwal et. al [8] investigated production cost in an automated manufacturing
the effects of cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, nose environment. R.A. Mahdavinejad et al. (2011) [17]
radius, and cutting environment in CNC turning of AISI investigate paper the optimize turning parameters of AISI
P-20 tool steel with TiN coated tungsten carbide inserts. 304 stainless steel. Turning tests have been performed in
The optimum surface roughness and tool wear obtained three different feed rates, cutting speeds without cutting
when setting the high cutting speed and low feed rate , fluid. A design of experiments (DOE) and an analysis of
for that reason time and cost saving are significant variance (ANOVA) have been made to determine the
especially is actual industry application. effects of each parameter on the tool life and the surface
Lin [9] studied the surface roughness variation in high roughness. The feed rate has the most important
speed fine turning of SUS 303, SUS 303 Cu and SUS influence on the surface roughness and as it decreases,
304 austenitic steel with disposable cermets turning tool the surface roughness also decreases. Duong Xuan et al.
having fixed nose radius of 0.8 mm. It was found that, [18] investigate the machinability of harden Inconel 718
the smaller the feed rate, the smaller the surface material. RSM has been led to establish a new
roughness value. Thamizhmanii et al. [10] analyzed the mathematical model for a better explanation of surface
surface roughness produced by turning process on hard roughness through the transformation of natural
martens tic stainless steel by Cubic Boron Nitride(CBN) logarithm.The obtained experimental results as well as
cutting tool. The work piece material was hard AISI the mathematical model strongly suggest that feed rate is
440C martensitic stainless steel. The experiments were the most important factor to the surface roughness .
designed using various operating parameters like cutting When machining at higher cutting speed, around 50-
speed, feed rate and depth of cut. It was found that low 75m/min, the surface roughness is significantly improved
surface roughness was produced at cutting speed of 225 due to the disappearance of built-up-edge. However, due
m/min with feed rate of 0.125 mm/rev and 0.50 mm to the hard particles of the Inconel 718 material against
depth of cut (doc). However, moderate cutting speed of the cutting tool, the abrasive wear increases rapidly at
175 m/min under above. Jenn-Tsong Horng et al. [11] high cutting speed, more than 90m/min. As evidenced
conducted a series of tests in order to investigate the from this paper, in order to achieve a high surface quality
machinability evaluation of Hot field steel in the hard with low cutting tool wear, a cutting speed in the range of
turning. The study reveals that surface roughness is 50-70 m/min is highly recommended for the hardened
directly influenced by cutting speed parameters. Though Inconel 718 using PVD coated cutting tool. Abburi and
the effect of cutting speed is more as compared to feed Dixit [19] used fuzzy logic to develop a knowledge based
and depth of cut. system for prediction of surface roughness in hard
Yallese et al. (2009) [12] found that a cutting speed turning process. The knowledge based system consists of
of120 m/min is an optimal value for machining 100Cr6 a neural network module which generates data set to
(60 HRC) using CBN7020. In addition, the feed rate form if-then rules of the fuzzy model. Chandrasekaran et
effect on roughness is satisfactorily predicted by a power al. [20] have reviewed research work spanning over two
model deduced from experimental data. Gopalswamy et decades on the application of soft computing techniques
al. [13] used Taguchi method in determining the optimal in modeling and optimization of various machining
process parameters in hard machining of hardened steel. processes. In the area of machining, fuzzy logic modeling
They observed that the cutting speed was the most technique has been widely used for the prediction of
influencing parameter on tool life and surface roughness. surface roughness, cutting forces, tool wear, tool life and
Khaider Bouacha et al. [14] conducted an experimental dimensional deviation. Rajasekaran et al. [21] have
study on hard turning with CBN tool of AISI 52100 modeled surface roughness prediction using fuzzy logic
176
in turning of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) III.2. Selection of Work Piece Material
composites using cubic boron nitride (CBN) cutting tool.
Heat treated hardnable AISI M2 steel was selected as
The average percentage error is reported as 6.62% with a
work material for this study. The work piece was
maximum and minimum percentage error as 18.30%
hardened to 60 HRC. Its hardness was measured by a
and0.32% respectively. Harun Akkus et al. [22]
digital durometerDM2D. These bars of 40 mm diameter
suggested that fuzzy logic surface roughness prediction
and 350mm in length were prepared for the present
model found better than regression and neural network
investigation. Test samples were trued, centered and
model(ANN) in hard turning of AISI 4140 steel.
cleaned by removing a 1mm depth of cut (d) from the
The above literature shows that a considerable
outside surface, prior to actual machining tests. Short
quantity of effort has been performed by number of
duration tests were performed (machining length is 85
investigators for modeling, simulation and parametric
mm). Each test was realized with a new cutting edge.
optimization of surface properties of the product in hard
AISI M2 steel is mainly used in tool making industries,
turning operation using different process parameters,
such as punch, dies, taps, knives and cutters. The
different cutting tools and a different cutting condition.
chemical composition of the work material is:
However no work has been carried out on harden AISI
M2Steel with Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) tool. Hence I
Carbon(C)=0.88%,Manganese(Mn)=0.24%,Chromium
am very much more interested to work on parametric
(Cr)=4.16%,Molybdenum(Mo)=4.96%,Vanadium(V)
analysis of surface roughness (SR) and Tool life(TL) and
=1.76,Tungsten(W)=6.13%,Silicon=(Si)0.41%,
during machining on harden AISI M2Steel with Cubin
Sulphar(S)=0.01%,Phosphorous(S) 0.01,%
Boron Nitride (CBN) tool. For this investigation input
parameters are cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and
and remaining is iron(Fe).
output response are Surface roughness (SR) and Tool
life(TL).
III.3. Selection of Cutting Inserts
III. Experiment and Analysis The cutting insert used is a Cubic Boron Nitrate(CBN)
(non coated), removable type of square form with eight
III.1. Experimental Setup cutting edges and having designation SNGA 120408
Hard turning experiments were performed in T01020. Angles were -6°, -6°, 6°, 6°, 15°, 15°. Its nose
KIROLOSKAR model conventional machine. A chuck radius, rε = 0.8 mm. The insert is mounted on a
rotated in different spindle speed and a tailstock in order commercial tool holder designation PSBNR2525M12
to support the work piece was placed with the center with the geometry of the active part characterized by the
lathe. In this experiment, on the one hand mechanism following angles: χ = 75◦; α = 6◦; γ = −6◦;λ = −6◦
rotates work piece around its own axis, while the table of (SANDVIK).
the center lathe is feeding to the rotating cutting tool
linearly. The cutting tool is rotated itself axis around. The III.4. Selection of Machine Tools
cutting tool and work piece contact each other in the
tangential position. In the experimental studies, AISI M2 Type and model: KIROLOSKAR, Turnmaster
Steel having dimensions as 40 mm diameter and a length 35model
of 350 mm were used. Figure 1 shows the experimental Manufacturer: KIROLOSKAR Ltd, India
set up (Kiroloskar model machine). Total power of machine without extra equipment:
3HP/2.2 kW, DC compound motor
Spindle speed :(22.4-2000) r.p.m
Feedmotor: 1HP compound motor
Center length: 800 mm
Height center:175 mm
III.5. Measurement of Surface Roughness (Ra)

Surface roughness has the major influence on both
obtaining dimensional accuracy and quality of the
product. The surface roughness of the hard turning of
AISIM2Steel was measured using a Mahr Perthometer-
M1type of portable surface roughness tester and the
average surface roughness (Ra) values of the surface
roughness were evaluated. Three values of surface
roughness were measured for each machining condition
and the mean of three measurements was considered for
Fig. 1.Experimental setup (Kiroloskar Model Lathe)
evaluation. The direction of the surface roughness
177
measurement was perpendicular to the cutting velocity TABLE II

FACTORS AND LEVELS OF PROCESS PARAMETER
vector.
Symbol Factor Unit Range
Lower Higher
Level level
III.6. Tool Life (TL) Measurement
(-1) (+1)
The length of time that a cutting tool can function V Cut. Speed m/min 65 125
f Feed mm/rev 0.05 0.15
properly before it begins to fail. Tool life can be d Doc mm 0.15 0.45
calculated by using the following relations and listed in
the Table I.
The tool life is primarily influenced by cutting speed, III.8. Response Surface Methodology
feed and depth of cut with other factors such as tool
III.8.1. Mathematical model (RSM)
diameter, width of cut, geometry of tool and condition of
machine tool are kept constant. The hard turning of Response surface methodology (RSM) is one of the
AISIM2Steel by using Cubic Boron Nitrate (CBN) important statistical tools for calculate the performance
cutting inserts (non coated) on the tool life was characteristics of independent variables.RSM is useful
calculated by applying the Taylors tool life equation: for modeling and analysis of problems in which a
response of interest is influence by several variables and
T = k × Va × f b (1) the objective is to optimize the response. These quadratic
models work quite well over the entire factor space and
where: the regression coefficients were computed according to
T = Tool life (minutes) Least-square procedures .In order to study the effect of
V = Cutting velocity (m/min) hard turning process parameters on the surface roughness
f = Feed (mm/rev) a second order polynomial response was fitted into the
k, a, b = Constants determined by the work material, tool following equation
material, tool design, etc
TABLE I III.8.2. Development of Mathematical Expression
TAYLORS CONSTANT FOR CBN NON COATED INSERTS by Regression
Condition Level of cutting k a b
speed Mathematical expression for the hard turning of AISI
(m/min) M2steel is developed to evaluate the relationship
01-03 125 1.088 0.495 0.018 between the input parameter with the surface roughness
04-06 95 0.975 0.595 0.036
07-09 65 0.945 0.593 0.066
(Ra). The functional relationship between dependent
output parameter with the independent variables under
analysis may be postulated by equation:
III.7. Design of Experiment
Y = k × (V) × (f ) × (d ) (2)
Design of experiments chosen to determine the
relation between the factors, which affects the process
where:
and output of the process by conducting only minimum
Y is dependent output variable such as surface roughness
number of experiments. In this study Central composite
V =cutting speed (m/min)
design (CCD) was selected, which is the one of the
f =feed (mm/rev)
important class of designs used for a second order
d = depth of cut (mm)
model.CCD designs comprise a set of two level factorial
a, b, c =Constant
points, axial points and centre runs. The factorial points
To convert the above non linear equation into linear
contribute to the estimation of linear terms and two
form, a logarithmic transformation is applied into the
factors interactions. The axial points contribute to the
above equation:
estimation of the quadratic terms.
The controllable variable chosen for the
Log y = log k+ a log(V) + b log(f) + c log (d) (3)
experimentation were cutting speed (V), feed (f) and
depth of cut (d). Table II shows the controllable
Equation (2) can be written as:
parameters and their values. The CCD design consists of
20 experiments which include 8 cube points and 6 centre
Q = β0 + β1X + β2Ф + β3 Ψ + β12XФ + β13X Ψ +
points for replications. The design was generated using (4)
+ β23ФΨ + β11X2 + β22Ф2 + β33 Ψ2
Design Expert V8.0 software. The experimental design
matrix, response, experimental values are shown in Table
where, Q is the true value of dependent surface
III. Table II shows the relationship between the
roughness(Ra) on a logarithmic scale, V, f and d are
machining parameters and their corresponding selected
logarithmic transformation of the different parameters
variation levels, taking into account the entire range of
respectively; β1, β2 and β3 are the corresponding
machining parameter.
parameters to be estimated.
178
As a result of the experimental error, the true response TABLE III

DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT MATRIX AND MACHINING CHARACTERISTICS
Actual factors Response variable
Q = y-e
Cuttin Feed Depth of Surface Tool
Tes
speed ( f) cut Roughnes life(TL)
where: No
(V) mm/rev (d) mm ( Ra) minutes
y = the logarithmic transformation of the measure surface m/min um
roughness parameters 1 125 0.15 0.45 1.096 11.475
e = the experimental error. 2 95 0.15 0.3 1.1733 13.681
3 95 0.1 0.45 0.6966 13.481
For simplify the equation, it can be rewritten as: 4 125 0.05 0.15 0.798 11.253
5 95 0.1 0.3 0.9033 13.481
Y = b 0 + b1 V + b2f + b3d (5) 6 65 0.15 0.15 1.053 9.911
7 65 0.05 0.45 0.9933 9.218
8 95 0.1 0.15 0.7866 13.481
where: 9 95 0.05 0.3 1.4775 13.149
Y is the predicted surface roughness value after 10 65 0.1 0.3 0.767 9.649
logarithmic transformation. 11 125 0.15 0.15 0.7833 11.475
b0, b1, b2 and b3 are the estimates of the parameters, 12 65 0.15 0.45 0.892 9.911
13 65 0.05 0.15 1.5341 9.218
β1, β2 and β3 respectively. 14 125 0.05 0.45 0.629 11.253
The values of b0, b1, b2 and b3 are found out by linear 15 125 0.1 0.3 0.6367 11.391
regression analysis, (second order model) which is 16 95 0.15 0.15 0.8927 13.681
analyses with MINITAB16 statical software using the 17 95 0.15 0.45 1.1166 13.681
18 65 0.1 0.15 0.7998 9.649
experimental data. The first order model for surface 19 65 0.15 0.3 1.1836 9.911
roughness reveals lack of fitness due to high prediction 20 125 0.15 0.3 1.1663 11.475
errors for surface roughness.
Hence second order model has been developed: TABLE IV
ANOVA RESULTS FOR SURFACE ROUGHNESS (Ra)
Sour SS DF MS F P
Y = b0 + b1V1 + b2f2 + b3d3 + b12V1f2 + b13V1d3 + Contri%
(6)
+ b23f2d3+ b11V2 + b22f2 + b33d2 Mode 1.1604 9 0.12894 17.7965 < 0001
V 0.2025 1 0.20255 27.9563 0.0004 12.223
V2,f2 and d2 are highly correlated with each other f 0.0278 1 0.02782 3.84046 0.0785 1.671
d 0.0345 1 0.03459 4.77539 0.0538 2.088
variables, so V2,f2,and d2 are removed from equation Vf 0.1573 1 0.15736 21.7197 0.0009 9.496
(basic formula): Vd 0.091 1 0.09109 12.5729 0.0053 5.497
fd 0.1375 1 0.13753 18.983 0.0014 8.299
β= (XTX)-1 XT·Y (7) V2 0.0893 1 0.08939 12.3386 0.0056 5.395
2
f 0.6566 1 0.65661 90.6278 < 0. 001 39.625
d2 0.1876 1 0.18765 25.9005 0.0005 11.324
where the calculation matrix X and the variance matrix Res 0.0724 10 0.00724
(XT·X)-1. Hence the β values can be determined by using C.Tot 1.2329 19 1.59912
eqn. (7). Standard deviation=0.085119,R-Square=0.941235,Mean= 0.968935,
Based on the statistically analysis above, it can be Adjusted R-Square=0.888346, Percentage of C.V =8.784776Predicted
R-square=0.745304, PRESS=0.314017, Adequate precision=15.3659)
drawn that the relation between surface roughness and
the variables tested cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
Table IV shows the variance analysis results of the
can be modeled mathematically. The equation that depict
proposed model of surface roughness. The ANOVA table
these relation as follows:
includes Sum of Squares (SS), Degrees of Freedom (DF),
Mean Square (MS), F-value and P-value. The MS was
Surfaceroughness(Ra)=
obtained by dividing the SS of each of the sources of
=0.895643-0.1287×V-0.04711×f-
variation by the respective DF. The P-value is the
0.05319×d+0.12748×V×f+0.102656×V×d+
smallest level of significance at which the data are
+0.119178×f×d+0.14543×V2+ (8)
significant. The F-value is the ratio of MS of the model
+0.428535×f2-0.21071×d2
terms to the MS of residuals dividing the SS of each of
the sources of variation by the respective DF. The P-
R2=0.745304
value is the smallest level of significance at which the
data are significant. A statistical ANOVA was performed
Predicted output values for surface roughness are
to see those process parameters that significantly affect
calculated with the help of above equation (8). It has
the responses. The results of the ANOVA with surface
been seen that relative error of surface roughness are well
roughness Table IV. This analysis was carried out for
within limits.
significance used for identifying the factors which
Thus, it can be stated that mathematical equation build
significantly affecting the performance measures for
by using second order model can be used. Relative error
surface roughness. This analysis was carried out for
between predicted and measured observed values for
significance level of α = 0.05, i.e., for a confidence level
Surface roughness is calculated.
of 95%.
179
This analysis insignificant model terms were (V×f), cutting speed and depth of cut (V×d) and feed and
eliminated to adjust the fitted mathematical model. As depth of cut (f×d) is also not significant. Its contribution
seen from Table IV, the P-values for developed model of is 9.496%, 8.299% and 5.497 respectively. Beside the
surface roughness is less than 0.05, which indicates that statistical analysis, it is important to examine the
model is significant at 95% confidence level. It was influence of each variable to the surface roughness
noted that MS of the model (0.12894) is many times visually for getting better understanding and determine
larger than MS of the residual (0.007245), thus the its optimization.
computed F value of the model (F=0.12894/0.007245) of These can be presented in the form of surface response
17.79657 implies that the model is significant. Table IV plots and contour plot. These graphs are presented in
shows the R-square (R2) , "Adjusted R-Squared (Adj. Figs. 2 until 11.
R2)" and "Predicted R-Squared (Pred. R2)" statistics.
The R Squared is defined as the ratio of variability
explained by the model to the total variability in the
actual data and is used as a measure of the goodness of
fit. The more R2 approaches unity, the better than model
fits the experimental data. For instance, the obtained
value of 0.941235 for R2 in the case of surface roughness
(Table IV) implies that the model explains variations in
the surface roughness (Ra) to the extent of 94.1235% in
the current experiment and thus the model is adequate to
represent the process.
The "Predicted R2" of 0.745304 is in reasonable
agreement with the "Adjusted R2" of 0.888346, because
the difference between the adjusted and predicted R2 is
within 0.2 as recommended for model to be adequate.
The value of Predicted R2 of 0.745304 indicates the Fig. 2. Normal plot of Residual
prediction capability of the regression model. It means
that the model explain about 74.53% of the variability in
predicting new observations as compared to the 94.12%
of the variability in the original data explained by the
least square fit. "Adeq Precision" measures the signal to
noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 is desirable. The ratio
of 15.36595 indicates an adequate signal. Thus, the
overall prediction capability of the model based on these
criteria seems very satisfactory. An ANOVA table is
commonly used to summarize the test performed. It was
statically studied the relative effect of each cutting
parameters on the surface roughness (Ra) by using
ANOVA.
The ANOVA table for response surface quadratic
model for the surface roughness (Ra) is given in Table
IV. The value of p is less than 0.05 indicates that the Fig. 3. Predicted vs Actual
obtained model is considered to be statically significant.
Higher F value indicates that the variation of the process
parameter makes a big changes on the surface roughness
(Ra).
As seen in Table IV cutting speed (V) is the most
significant parameters. Feed (f) and depth of cut(d) is no
significant factor. All the interaction terms and among
square terms V, V×f, V×d, f×d, V2,f2, and d2 appears to be
highly significant. The last column of each ANOVA
tables indicates the percentage contribution of each
source to the total variance indicating the magnitude of
influence. It can be seen that the cutting speed is the most
influence affecting the surface roughness as main effects
.Its contribution is 12.223%.
Depth of cut and feed is not influence affecting
surface roughness. Its contribution is 2.088% and 1.67% Fig. 4. Residual Vs Predicted
respectively. The interaction cutting speed and feed
180
Fig. 9. Contour plot of Cutting speed

and Feed
Fig. 5. Residual vs Run
Fig. 6. 3D Surface plot of Cutting speed Fig. 10. Contour plot of Cutting speed
and Feed and Doc
Fig. 7. 3D Surface plot of Feed Fig. 11. Contour plot of Feed

and Depth of cut and Depth of cut
IV. Result and Discussion

IV.1. Surface Roughness (Ra)
The normal probability plot is presented in Figure 2. It
is noticeable that residuals fall on a straight line, showing
that the errors are dispersed and that the regression model
completely matches the observed values. To validate the
above surface roughness models, the predicted values
have been plotted with the experimental values for
different combination of machining parameters as shown
in Fig. 3. The straight line shows the ideal trend and dots
Fig. 8. 3DSurface plot of Cut speed represent the observed values. It has been found that the
and DOC predicted surface roughness is very close to the observed
values and hence the results obtained by the regression
181
model are very realistic. Similarly, internally studentized model for the Tool life is given in Table V. The value of
residuals obtained were plotted against run for the model p is less than 0.05 indicates that the obtained model is
of surface roughness is shown in Fig. 4. Residuals were considered to be statically significant. Higher F value
calculated as a difference between the measured and indicates that the variation of the process parameter
predicted values, whereas internally studentized residuals makes a big changes on the Tool life (TL). As seen in
are the ratio of residual to the estimated standard Table V cutting speed (V) and feed (f) is the significant
deviation of that residual. It measures the number of parameters and depth of cut (d) is no significant factor.
standard deviations separating the actual and predicted The last column of each ANOVA tables indicates the
values. It was found that internally studentized residuals percentage contribution of each source to the total
for regression model of surface roughness are between variance indicating the magnitude of influence. It can be
+1.5341 to 0.629. Since all the standardized residuals lie seen that the cutting speed is the most influence affecting
within the limits (± 2 sigma) without any outliers, further the tool life as main effects .Its contribution is 20.453%.
confirmed that the model can be used to predict response. The second factor influencing is feed. Its contribution
Effect of cutting speed (V) and feed (f) on surface is1.497%. The interaction cutting speed and feed (V×f) is
roughness is shown in 3D surface plot (Fig. 6), Effect of also significant. Its contribution is 0.275%.The
cutting speed (V) and depth of cut (d) on surface interaction (V×d) and (f×d) are not significant. Quadratic
roughness is shown in 3D surface plot (Fig. 7). Effect of model (Cut. speed 2) i e (V)2 is most significance factor
feed (f) and depth of cut (d) on surface roughness is affecting the tool life. Its contribution is 77.73%. It could
shown in 3D surface plot (Fig. 8). 3D Surface plot shows be noted that at cutting speed of 95 having 0.15 feed rate
the influence of machining parameter on the Surface and 0.15 depth of cut higher tool life value of 13.681
roughness. The contour plot of surface roughness is minutes was observed. Tool life model is given by
shown in Figs. 9, 10 and 11. Equation (8) is used to equation (10).The coefficients of correlation R2 is99.9%.
develop the contour plot. Contour surface plot (Fig. 9) The normal plot is presented in Fig. 12. It is noticeable
shows that the minimum surface roughness is about that residuals fall on a straight line, showing that the
cutting speed=125 m/min and Feed=0.10mm/rev. errors are dispersed and that the regression model
Contour plot (Fig. 10) shows that minimum surface completely matches the observed values. To validate the
roughness is at about cutting speed=125m/min and depth above Tool life models, the predicted values have been
of cut=0.15 mm. The cutting speed is the most plotted with the experimental values for different
dominating factor effect on the surface roughness, (Ra). combination of machining parameters as shown in Fig.
The surface roughness (Ra)of AISI M2Steel decreased 13. The straight line shows the ideal trend and dots
with increasing with cutting speed (v) .The effect of feed represent the observed values. It has been found that the
and depth of cut has not much influence on the surface predicted tool life is very close to the observed values
roughness. The minimum value of surface roughness is and hence the results obtained by the regression model
achieved at low feed. It can be realized that high cutting are very realistic. Similarly, internally studentized
speed and low depth of cut results in considerable residuals obtained were plotted against run for the model
reduction in surface roughness (Ra). This is accordance of Tool life is shown in Fig. 14. Residuals were
with the prediction which is showed by the p-value of calculated as a difference between the measured and
regression coefficient estimation result. This is predicted values, whereas internally studentized residuals
accordance with the prediction which is showed by the p- are the ratio of residual to the estimated standard
value of regression coefficient estimation result. deviation of that residual. It measures the number of
standard deviations separating the actual and predicted
values. It was found that internally studentized residuals
IV.2. Tool Life
for regression model of Tool life are between 9.218 to
In case of Tool life, the model F-value of 13652.56 13.683. Since all the standardized residuals lie within the
implies the model is significant. There is only a 0.01% limits without any outliers as shown in Fig. 15, further
chance that a "Model F-Value" this large could occur due confirmed that the model can be used to predict response.
to noise. Values of Prob > F" less than0.0500 indicate The tool life of Cubic boron nitrate(CBN)tool (inserts)
model terms are significant. In this case V, f, V×f, V2and increased with moderate cutting speed, whereas increase
f2 are significant model terms. R2of 99.9% which is close with increasing feed rate (f). As seen from this figure
to one and desirable, which shows that this much (16) moderately increase in cutting speed value leads to
percentage of the variability of result is explained by the an decrease in wear and tear between tool and work piece
model. The predicted R2value of 0.9995 is in reasonable and hence increases in tool life.
agreement with the adjusted R2of 0.9998. "Adeq Figs. 16, 17 and 18 show the influence of machining
Precision" measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio parameter on the tool life and the surface graph have
greater than 4 is desirable. In this case ratio of 301.2916 been plotted. From the ANOVA the cutting speed and
indicates an adequate signal. This model can be used to feed is the dominating factor on the Tool life (TL). The
navigate the design space. The value of PRESS in this is Tool life (TL) of cubic boron nitrate (CBN) inserts
0.023268which is small and desirable. increased with increasing with feed rate (f) and moderate
The ANOVA table for response surface quadratic cutting speed (V).
182
Fig. 12. Normal plot of Residual Fig. 13. Predicted vs Actual value
Fig. 14. Residual Vs Predicted Fig. 15. Residual vs Run
TABLE V and depth of cut=0.15 mm. It is clear shows maximum

ANOVA RESULTS FOR TOOL LIFE
tool life is at moderate cutting speed , high value of feed
Sour SS DF MS F P COP
Mod 53.7434 9 5.97149 13652.56 < 0.0001
and low value of depth of cut.
V 9.76814 1 9.76814 22332.79 < 0.0001 20.4 Among many combinations of process parameters, the
f 0.71497 1 0.71497 1634.638 < 0.0001 1.49 optimum combination can be selected from this contour
d 2.15E-05 1 2.15E-05 0.049133 0.8290 graph. Based on the statistically analysis above, it can be
V×f 0.13154 1 0.13154 300.739 < 0.0001 0.27
V×d 1.79E-05 1 1.79E-05 0.040823 0.8439
drawn that the relation between Tool life and the
f×d 4.07E-07 1 4.07E-07 0.000932 0.9763 variables tested cutting speed, feed and depth of cut can
V2 37.1234 1 37.1234 84874.86 < 0.0001 77.7 be modeled mathematically. The equation (10) that
2
f 0.01376 1 0.01376 31.47178 0.0002 0.02 depict these relations as follows:
d2 0.00053 1 0.00053 1.218275 0.2956 0.01
Err 0.00437 10 0.00043
Tot 53.7478 19
Toollife = 13.48077+0.893751×V+
Std Dev= 0.020914, R-Square-0.999919, Mean=11.521405, Adjusted +0.23873×f-0.00133×d-0.11655×V×f+
R-Square= 0.999845, Percentage of C.V= 0.181522, Predicted R- +0.001448×V×d+0.000207×f×d+
(10)
square- 0.999567, PRESS- 0.023268, Adeq. Precision- 301.2916 +2.9637×V×V -0.06193×f×f+0.011121×d×d
The depth of cut has not much influence on the tool R2=99.976
life. The maximum value of tool life is achieved at high
feed rate. Effect of cutting speed (V) and feed (f) on tool
life is shown in 3Dsurface plot (Fig. 16). V. Fuzzy Logic
Effect of cutting speed (V) and depth of cut(d) on tool The fuzzy logic is an effective technique for the
life is shown in 3D surface plot (Fig. 17). Effect of feed identification and control of complex non-linear systems.
(f) and depth of cut (d) on tool life is shown in 3D For prediction of output response performance fuzzy
surface plot (Fig. 18). logic is used.
The contour plot of Tool life is shown in Figures 19, The theory of fuzzy logics, initiated by Zadeh has
20 and 21. Equation (10) is used to develop the contour proved to be useful for dealing with undecided and vague
plot. Contour surface plot (Fig. 19) shows that the information. Fuzzy logic is particularly attractive due to
maximum tool life is about cutting speed=95 m/min and its ability to solve problems in the absence of accurate
Feed=0.15mm/rev and contour plot (Fig. 20) shows that mathematical models.
maximum tool life is at about cutting speed=95m/min
183
Fig. 16. 3D Surface plot Cutting speed(CSD)

vs Feed
Fig. 20. Contour plot for cutting speed vs Depth of cut
Fig. 17. 3DSurface plot for Cutting speed

vs Depth of cut
Fig. 21. Contour plot for Feed and Depth of cut(Doc)
Design of fuzzy logic system is divided into three

phases:
1. Define a fuzzy variable
2. Set of all fuzzy subsets of variables with appropriate
membership functions
3. Form fuzzy rules
Fuzzy logic which is recognizing and identifying
systems, has been developed and widely used have
Fig. 18. 3D Surface plot for Feed vs Depth of cut shown many practical applications of fuzzy logic systems
in machine monitoring and diagnostic. This approach is
more spontaneous and does not need complicated
mathematics. With this technique many fields are gaining
benefits. Fuzzy rules employ fuzzy set theory which is
used to develop fuzzy rule based model. Generally
construction of rule base is done by using two types of
fuzzy logic rules such as Mamdani type or TSK type.
Emergent competitive market trend forces the
industrial sectors to undergo importantly for process
optimization of all the processes is not free from
fretfulness, because of the much complexity involved in
many processes .The machining parameters obtained
from standard manuals or handbooks resulting from
experiments conducted under certain environmental
conditions cannot be directly used for few alloys
Fig. 19. Countour plot for Cutting speed materials. In this experiment, the selection of appropriate
vs Feed machining parameter for the minimum surface
184
roughness, and maximum tool life is done using the expressed as:
fuzzy model with three input variables, cutting speed,
feed,and depth of cut. Input variables are cutting speed, µ Do(y)= µA1 (x1)^ µB1(x2) ^µC1(x3) ^µA12(x1)
feed and depth of cut and the output variables are surface ^ µB12(x2)^ ^µC13(x3)
roughness and Tool life. The elementary stage in the
fuzzy logic is the selection of appropriate shape of the Finally, a defuzzification method is used to transform
membership function for developing the algorithm in the fuzzy output into a non-fuzzy value y Defuzzification
order to select the machining parameters. is carried out using centroid defuzzification method. It
Fuzzy expressions for input variables cutting speed, produces the centre area of the possibility distribution of
feed rate and depth of cut have been divided into three the inference output. It is also one of the more frequently
sets ranging from Low to High namely Low, Medium used defuzzification methods in calculating the centroid
and High. Fuzzy expressions for output variables surface of the area under the membership function, as given
roughness and tool life have been divided into nine sets below
ranging from Lowest to the Highest. They are the ∑y µ Do(y)
Lowest, Lower, Low, Low medium, Medium, High yo= -------------
medium, High, Higher, and the Highest. A membership ∑µ Do(y)
function in fuzzy logic is an arbitrary curve, though there
are a number of membership functions available like
triangular, trapezoidal, Gaussian, etc., In this work V.1. Fuzzy Modeling for Experiments
triangular membership was used for developing models. A fuzzy logic tool box graphical user interface
The input to an if then rules is the current value for the available in MATLAB was used for training the
input variable and the output is generally defuzzified. experimental values in the research work. The kind of
Resulting fuzzy sets are combined using aggregation the input membership function is Triangular MF form
operator from the consequent of each rule of input. as follows. In this fuzzy logic Mamdani system one
Depending on the system, it may not be necessary to member ship function is related to each rule. Fuzzy rules
evaluate every possible input combination since some in the system based on the assumption that according to
may rarely, or never, occur. By making this type of the reduction in feeding rates and depth of cuts and also
evaluation which is usually done by an experienced increasing in cutting speed, then surface finishing will be
operator, fewer rules can be evaluated, thus simplifying improved. For example, a fuzzy rule is considered as
the processing logic and perhaps even improving the follows. If (v is high)and(f is low) and(d is low) then(Ra)
fuzzy logic system performance. The concept of fuzzy is L1) . Similarly for tool life If (v is low) and (f is low)
reasoning for three-input and one output fuzzy logic unit and (ap is low) then TL is H1).
is described as follows, 20 fuzzy rules were developed.
Where ^ is the minimum operation and V is the Cutting
speed
maximum operation. Finally, a defuzzification method is
used to transform the fuzzy output into a non-fuzzy value
y0. The fuzzy rule base consists of a group of IF- THEN
Surface
statements with three inputs, x1, x2 and x3 and one output Feed Mamdani
roughness
=y:
Rule 1: if x1 is A1 and x2 is B1 then y is C1 else (11)

Depth of cut
Rule 2: if x1 is A2 and x2 is B2 then y is C2 else (12)

………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………… Fig. 22. Fuzzy logic structure
Rule n: if x1 is An and x2 is Bn then y is Cn (13)
The structure of fuzzy logic modeling with three input
Ai, Bi, and Ci are fuzzy subsets defined by the parameters and one output parameter is shown in Fig. 22.
corresponding membership functions, i.e., u Ai u Bi and Comparison of surface roughness (Ra) and Tool life(TL)
u Ci Where, A and B are linguistic values defined by for RSM and Fuzzy logic with Experimental result is
fuzzy sets on the ranges X and Y, respectively. The if shown in Tables VI and VII.
part of the rule “X is A” is called the antecedent or Tables VI and VII present the surface roughness and
premise, while the then-part of the rule “Y is B” is called tool life values obtained from experiments using CBN
the consequent or conclusion. By taking the maximum cutting tool along with the values predicted by response
and minimum compositional operation, the fuzzy surface model(RSM) and Fuzzy logic model (triangular
reasoning of these rules yield a fuzzy output. Suppose x1, membership functions).The Tables VI and VII also
x2 andx3 are the three input values namely cutting speed, provide the error on these results against experimental,
feed and depth of cut of the fuzzy logic unit, the RSM and Fuzzy logic values. The performance factors
membership function for the output variable surface are calculated with an accuracy of 10-2.Corresponding to
roughness and tool life of fuzzy reasoning can be the results found in the table the average error value of
185
surface roughness and tool life valus(-0.3362are- to return a set of optimal solution. MATLAB is a high
1.5510)and(0.5772,0.2946) respectively., In our model performance language for technical computing, which is
cutting speed play as main significant factor in this case. used to optimize the objective function of AISI M2 steel.
According to the Figures 23 and 24, the error of the
ROUGHNESS(Ra)micron
model is very low in comparison with the calculation 2
error. Fuzzy logic is the best suited model for surface 1,5
roughness and tool life in hard turning of AISIM2 Steel
SURFACE
1
using CBN cutting tool. 0,5
TABLE VI 0
COMPARISON OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS (Ra) FOR RSM AND 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
FUZZYLOGIC WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULT
Exp Surface Roughness(Ra)(um) Percentage Error NUMBER OF EXPERIMENT
.No Expt RSM Fuzzy RSM Fuzzy
1 1.096 1.0884 1.0849 0.6976 1.0164 EXPERIM SRS RSM SRS FUZZYLOGIC SRS
2 1.1733 1.2771 1.1374 -8.8441 3.0589
3 0.6966 0.6317 0.7670 9.3101 -10.1036
4 0.798 0.8287 0.7979 -3.8455 0.0154
5 0.9033 0.8956 0.8909 0.8477 1.3739 Fig. 23. Comparision between Experimental, RSM and
6 1.053 0.9588 1.0493 8.9438 0.3491 Fuzzy logic value for Surface roughness
7 0.9933 0.9963 0.9073 -0.3028 8.6624
8 0.7866 0.7381 0.8094 6.1620 -2.8930
15
TOOLLIFE(TtL) minutes
9 1.4775 1.3713 1.4158 7.1886 4.1752
10 0.767 0.8789 0.8689 -14.591 -13.2823 10
11 0.7833 0.7511 0.8568 4.1146 -9.3818
12 0.892 0.8855 0.9230 0.7305 -3.4806 5
13 1.5341 1.5464 1.5814 -0.7991 -3.0863
14 0.629 0.6893 0.5876 -9.5800 6.5819
0
15 0.6367 0.6215 0.6423 2.3853 -0.8805 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
16 0.8927 1.0004 0.9242 -12.061 -3.5332
17 1.1166 1.1323 1.2262 -1.4105 -9.8131 NUMBER OF EXPERIMENT
18 0.7998 0.8241 0.8568 -3.0327 -7.1238
19 1.1836 1.1329 1.0975 4.2871 7.2727
20 1.1663 1.1304 1.1657 3.0766 0.0522 Expterime Toolife RSM Toollife
Exp.-Experimental, Fuzzy-Fuzzy logic model,RSM- Response surface
Model Fuzzy Toollife
TABLE VII
COMPARISON OF TOOL LIFE (TL)
FOR FLM AND RSM WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULT Fig. 24. Comparision between Experimental, RSM and Fuzzy logic
Ex Tool Life(TL) minutes Percentage Error value for Tool life
No Expt RSM Fuzzy RSM Fuzzy
1 11.475 11.5006 11.272 -0.2230 1.7637 The solution of an optimization problem with genetic
2 13.682 13.6220 13.5065 0.4389 1.2831 algorithm begins with set of possible solution that is
3 13.481 13.4935 13.3468 -0.0925 0.9954 known as chromosomes. The complete set of these
4 11.253 11.2214 11.2185 0.2812 0.3065
5 13.482 13.4551 13.3603 0.1994 0.9029 chromosome comprise of populations which are
6 9.912 9.9425 9.9396 -0.3081 -0.2781 randomly selected. The chromosomes develop during
7 9.218 9.1977 9.2318 0.2205 -0.1502 several iterations and generations. New generation
8 13.483 13.4924 13.3622 -0.0700 0.8957 known as offspring is generated by utilizing the
9 13.149 13.1075 12.1426 0.3205 7.6581
10 9.649 9.6225 9.7030 0.2743 -0.5599 crossover and mutation technique. Crossover involves
11 11.475 11.5023 11.9795 -0.2383 -4.3962 the process of splitting two chromosomes and then
12 9.9108 9.9457 9.5732 -0.3520 3.4068 combining one half of each chromosome with the other
13 9.2176 9.1939 8.7070 0.2575 5.5391 pair. Mutuations involves the process of flipping a
14 11.252 11.2202 12.1838 0.2822 -8.2813
15 11.391 11.4137 11.5065 -0.1916 -1.0062 chromosome. The GA repeatedly modifies a population
16 13.681 13.6594 13.3742 0.1576 2.2425 of individual solutions. At each step the GA selects
17 13.681 13.6601 13.7947 0.1525 -0.8311 individual at random from the current populations to be
18 9.649 9.6586 9.1683 -0.0997 4.9822 parents and uses to produce the children for the next
19 9.9108 9.9063 10.7851 0.0456 -8.8212
20 11.475 11.4636 11.4474 0.0990 0.2408 generations. Over successive generations, the population
Expt.- Experimental, Fuzzy- Fuzzy logic model evolves toward an optimal solution, iterations and
RSM- Response surface model generations. The target of the optimizations process in
this study is to determine the optimal value of the process
parameters that lead to minimal value of Ra. To
V.2. Genetic Algorithm (GA) formulate the optimization problem, the regression model
Genetic algorithm in general purpose search algorithm which is proposed in is taken to be the fitness of
is suitable for optimization problems due to its functions of the optimization solutions and is expressed
processing approach and due to its structure and it is able as follows:
186
Minimize surface roughness (Ra) (V ,f, d) From Fig. 25, the set values of optimal process
parameters that lead to minimum (Ra) value are
Fitness function 120.2951 m/min for cutting speed, 0.04856 mm/rev for
=0.895643-0.1287×V-0.04711×f-0.05319×d feed 0.4423mm for depth of cut. Figure 26 shows the
(14)
+0.12748×V×f+0.102656×V×d+0.119178×f×d+ best fitness value of the GA is 0.604014 micrometer with
0.14543 V2+0.428535×f 2-0.21071×d2 the mean fitness value being 0.604014 micrometer.
Final point-Surface Roughness
Limitation of process parameter
1 2 3
120.2951 0.04856 0.4423
65<v<125 (15)
Fig. 25. Optimal solutions of GA
0.05<f<0.015 (16)
0.15<d<0.45 (17)
Maximize Tool life (TL) (V,f, d)
Fitness function
Toollife = 13.48077+0.893751×V+0.23873×f+
-0.00133×d -0.00133×d-0.11655×v×f+ (18)
+0.001448×v×d+0.000207×f×d+2.9637×V+
-0.06193×f2+0.011121×d2
Limitation of process parameter
65>V >125 (19)
0.05>f>0.15 (20)
Fig. 26. Fitness functions plot of GA for surface roughness
0.15> d>0.45 (21)
From Fig. 27, the set values of optimal process
The minimization of the fitness functions value parameters that lead to maximum tool life (TL) value are
of(14)and and maximization of the fitness functions 90.3507m/min for cutting speed 0.1406389 mm/rev for
value(18)are subjected to the boundaries of the feed 0.1248070 mm for depth of cut. Figure 28 shows the
boundaries (Limitations) of the process parameters. best fitness value of the GA is 13.2092 minutes with the
Control parameters and their level in Table II is selected mean fitness value being 13.2092 minutes.
in present the limitations of the optimization solutions
and is given as follows. Basically to obtain the optimal Final point-Tool life
solutions some criteria must be considered by genetic 1 2 3
90.3507 0.1406389 0.1248070
algorithms (GA) as listed in Table VIII. By using the
fitness functions formulated in (14) and (18), the Fig. 27. Optimal solutions of GA
limitations of process parameter formulated in (15), (16)
and (17) and (19), (20) and (21) the genetic algorithm
parameters given in Table VIII, the MATLAB
optimization tool box is next applied to find the
minimum values of (Ra) and maximum value of (TL) at
the optimal points. The results of the MATLAB
optimization tool box are given in Figures 25 and 26 for
surface roughness and Figs. 27 and 28 for Tool life.
TABLE VIII
COMBINATION OF GA PARAMETER RATES LEADING
TO THE OPTIMAL SOLUTIONS
Parameters Setting value/
I/O Function type
Population size 20
Generation 50
Time limit 200
Crossover functions 1
Crossover rate 0.8
Mutation function 0.02
Fig. 28. Fitness functions plot of GA
187
TABLE IX economically.
RESULT OF STUDY
3. The surface roughness is mainly affected by cutting
S. App Cutting speed(V),Feed(f) Surface Tool
N roach and Depth of cut(d) Rough life
speed. With the increase in cutting speed(125m/min) and
Surface Tool life (TL) decrasing feed rate(0.05mm) the surface roughness is
rough (TL) (Ra) Min decrease(0.29um). The tool life is mainly affected by
(Ra) minutes microns feedderate(0.15). With the increase in feed
micron
rate(0.15mm/rev) and moderate cutting speed(95m/min)
1 Experi 125,0.05, 95,0.15,0.15 0.629 13.628
mental 0.45 and the tool life is increases.
2. RSM 125,.0.10 95,0.15, 0.30 0.6215 13.660 4. From ANOVA analysis, parameters making
value ,0.30 significant effect on surface roughness in cutting speed is
3 GA 120.2951 90.3507, 0.60401 13.208 (12.223%)and interaction between (feed rate *feed rate)
value ,0.04856, 0.1406389
0.4423 0.1248070 (f2=39.625%)was establish to be significant to reduce the
surface roughness.
The study proposal two model are RSM and Genetic 5 From ANOVA analysis, parameters making
algorithm (GA), in order to estimate the optimal solution significant effect on tool life in cutting speed is (20.41%)
of process parameters that leads to maximum machining and interaction between (cutting speed *cutting speed)
performance. The considered machining performances (V2=77.7%) was found to be significant to tool life..
are surface roughness and tool life. Three machining 6. Fuzzy logic tool available in MATLAB software
parameter for hard turning of AISIM2 Steel that was efficiently employed for prediction of surface
considered in the study cutting speed, feed, and depth of roughness and tool life of hard turning of AISI M2Steel
cut. The results of study are summarized in the Table IX. using CBN inserts.
From Table IX it clearly shows that the study has found 7. A comparison of response surface regression model
the GA have been valuable computational come close to and fuzzy logic model is carried out and checked with the
for estimating the minimum value of surface roughness actual experimental values for deviation. It is found that
and tool life compared to RSM and GA with the deviation from actual value in fuzzy model is lesser
experimental value. Hence for the each of the process when compared with that of regression Therefore, the
parameter recommended by GA have satisfied within the fuzzy logic models are considered to be the best suitable
range of minimum value for process parameter of than the response surface methodology(RSM) model.
experimental design. 8. In hard turning of AISIM2Steel, surface roughness
and tool life are very important for economizing the
material. This study efficiently used fuzzy logic to
VI. Conclusion predict models and GA model to optimize Surface
In the present study, the models for surface roughness roughness and Tool life.
9. From GA the optimum combination of input
and tool life were developed for most significant process
parameters for minimization of surface roughness found
parameters namely cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
using response surface methodology (RSM) in hard to be cutting speed 120.2951 m/min, feed rate0.04856
mm/rev depth of cut 0.4423mm and Best fitness for
turning process of AISI M2 steel with CBN inserts.
minimization of surface roughness is 0.604014 μm.
Machining characteristics of the hard turning process are
10. From GA the optimum combination of input
primarily based on thermal conduction phenomenon,
thermo-dynamic properties and physical properties of the parameters for maximization of Tool life is found to be
cutting speed 90.3507 m/min, feed rate 0.1406389
tool and work. Hence the developed models for surface
mm/rev, depth of cut 0.1248070 mm and best fitness
roughness and tool life are only valid for AISI M2 steel.
Confirmation experiments were carried out to check the value is 13.208 minutes.
validity of the developed models. Based on the
experimental results, the following conclusions are Acknowledgements
drawn:
1. The Hard turning process has been successfully The authors thank the authorities of the Centre for
modeled in terms of surface roughness and tool life, Research in Design and Manufacturing of the Karunya
using a technique of CCD design of experiments, University,Coimbatore for facilitating this project.
combined with the technique of response surface
methodology and Fuzzy logic with GA . Thus, time and
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methodology. J. Mater. Process. Technol, Volume 208, Pages Engineering and Material Science, volume:12, Pages 189-195
532–541 [24] Fairuz, M.A., Hafiezal, M.R.M., Hussin, R., Adam, S.A., Aiman,
[7] Gusri A.I., Che Hassan C.H., Jaharah A.G., Yanuar B.1, Yasir A.F., Performance Study of WEDMed on Inconel 718 by Using
A.1, Nagi A, Application Of Taguchi method in optimizing Response Surface Methodology, (2013) International Review of
turning parameters of titanium alloy, Seminar on Engineering Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (4), pp. 716-720.
Mathematics, 2008 Engineering Mathematics Group [25] Philip Selvaraj, D., Chandramohan, P., Mohanraj, M., Rajesh,
[8] Aggarwal A., Singh H., Kumar P. & Singh M (2008), P.K., Experimental investigations on surface roughness, cutting
“Optimizing surface roughness and ,tool life, tool wear and power force and tool wear of duplex stainless steel in end milling using
consumption for CNC turned parts using response surface Taguchi method, (2013) International Review of Mechanical
methodology and Taguchi technique –A comparative analysis”, Engineering (IREME), 7 (6), pp. 1133-1141.
Journal of material processing technology, Volume :200, Pages
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[9] Lin W.S., Lee B.Y.& Wu C.L(2008), “Modeling the surface
roughness and cutting force for turning,” Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, Volume 108, Pages.286-293. P. Jaganathan is at present working as a
[10] Thamizhmanii S., Omar B. Bin, Saparudin S., Hasan Assistant Professor (SG) at RVS Faculty of
S.,Surfaceroughnessanalyseson hard martensitic stainless steel by Engineering, Coimbatore, India. He earned his
turning, Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing under graduated in Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Volume 26(2008): Pages 139-142. from Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
[11] Jenn-Tsong Horng, Nun-Ming Liu, Ko-Ta Chiang, “ Coimbatore, India and post graduated in
Investigating the mach inability evaluation of Hadfield steel in the computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) from
hard turning with Al2O3/TiC mixed ceramic tool based on the Sona college of Technology, Salem, Tamilnadu,
response surface methodology” Journal of Materials Processing India in the year 2006. His area of interest includes Automatation, and
Technology, Volume 208, Issues 1-3, 21 November 2008, Pages optimization. He is a life member of Indian Society for Technical
532-541. Education.
[12] Yallese M A, Chaoui K, Zeghib N, Boulanouar L and Rigal J F E-mail: jaganperiyasamy2009@gmail.com
2009 Hard machining of hardened bearing steel using cubic boron
nitride tool.J. Mater. Process. Technol. Volume :209, Pages Dr. R. Siva Subramanian is currently
1092–1104 working as a Professor at Coimbatore Institute
[13] Gopalsamy, Bala Murugan, Mondal Biswanath, Ghosh of Technology, Coimbatore, India. He works in
Sukarnal,Taguchi method and ANOVA: An approach for process the area of Manufacturing System
parameters optimization of hard machining while machining Engineering. He received his B.E. Degree in
hardened steel, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research Production Engineering from PSG College of
Volume:68(2009): Pages 686-695 Technology, Coimbatore (Madras University,
[14] Khaider Bouacha K, Yallese M A, Mabrouki T, Rigal J-F 2010, “ Chennai) in 1983 and M.E.Degree in Machine
Statistical analysis of surface roughness and cuttingforces using Tools from Bharathiar University, Coimbatore in 1986. He obtained
response surface methodology in hard turning of AISI 52100 his Doctoral Degree in Manufacturing System Engineering from
bearing steel with CBN tool”. Int. J. Refractory Metals and Hard CoimbatoreInstitute of Technology, Coimbatore (Bharathiar University,
Materials Volume 28: Pages 349–361. Coimbatore) in 2001. He is a life member of Indian Society for
[15] Fnides B, Yallese M A, Mabrouki T, Rigal J-F 2009 Surface Technical Education, New Delhi and National Institute for Quality and
roughness model in turning hardened hot work steel using mixed Reliability (NIQR),New Delhi.
ceramic tool.Mechanika. Kaunas: Technologija, Nr.3,volume77: E-mail: sivasubramanian@cit.edu.in
Pages 68–73
[16] H. K. Dave, L. S. Patel, H. K. Raval et al Investigation of the Dr. Vijayan Krishnaraj,ispresently working
machining characteristics of different grades of EN materials in as a Associate Professor at PSG College of
hard turning process using Tin coated cutting tools.Growing Technology, Coimbatore, India. He works in
science-Volume3 the area of composite Materials. He received
[17] R.AMahdavinejadandS.Saeedy2011; -“Investigation of the his B.E.degree in Mechanical Engineering from
influential parameters of machining of AISI 304 stainless steel” Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Indian Academy of Science Volume: 36, Part 6, Pages 963–970. Coimbatore in 1994 and M.E degree in
[18] DuongXuan-TruongandTranMinh-Duc1 “Investigate the surface production from PSG College of technology,
roughness of harden Inconel 718 material using PVD coated Coimbatore in 1999. He obtained his Doctoral
cutting tool in hard turning process through RSS models” Degree in Drilling of composites from Anna University, Chennai in
International Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology July- 2007. He also received Post Doctoral degree in Drilling of aerospace
Sep,2013, Pages 108-112 structures from, UPS, Toulouse, France in 2008-2009. He is a life
[19] N. R. Abburi and U. S. Dixit, “A knowledge based system for the member of Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi and
prediction of surface roughness in turning process”, Robotics and Institution of Engineers-IE-India.
Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Volume; 22, 2006, Pages E-mail: vkr@mec.psgtech.ac.in
363-372
189
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Wear and Friction Behaviour of 7075Al-25 SiC Particle Composites

Sliding Against Automobile Friction Material
L. Jayakumar1, K. Balamurugan2, C. Ezilarasan3
Abstract – The wear and friction behaviour of 7075 Al-25(wt %) SiC particle composite were
investigated at a speed range of 3 to 9 m/s and load range of 30 to 110 N using pin-on-disc wear
testing machine. In this work, the automobile friction material was used as pin and the composite
as counter face and the results were compared with the commercially used cast iron brake disc.
The results show that the wear rate of the Al MMC disc was less than that of the conventional cast
iron disc. The coefficient of friction decreases with increase of applied load for both cast iron and
Al MMC materials. However, the friction coefficient of Al MMC is higher than that of the cast
iron. In all tests it is observed that the wear rate of friction material was more when sliding
against MMC disc because of the abrasive action of fractured and pulled out SiC particles. The
wear grooves formed on the cast iron disc, MMC disc and friction material have been analysed
using optical micrographs and X- ray diffraction (XRD) technique. Copyright © 2014 Praise
Keywords: Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs), Wear, Optical Microscopy, Stir Casting
I. Introduction R.N.Rao et al [3] have investigated the results of dry

sliding wear tests of aluminium alloy (Al-Zn-Mg) and
Aluminum matrix composites reinforced with hard aluminium (Al-Zn-Mg) SiC composite under varying
ceramic Particles exhibit better frictional and wear applied pressure at a fixed sliding speed .They have
behavior, higher specific heat capacity and thermal reported that the wear rate of the alloy was higher than
conductivity, and especially light weight in comparison that of the composite and is suppressed further due to
to conventional cast iron [1], [2]. addition of SiC particles. Also they found that the
Thus MMCs have emerged as a potential material for temperature rise in the contacting surfaces for an alloy is
wear resistant and weight critical applications such as higher than that of the composite and they observed that
brake drums, cylinder liners, pistons, cylinder blocks, the coefficient of friction for composite is higher than
connecting rods etc [3]. Natarajan et al [1] have that of the matrix alloy.
compared the wear behavior of A356-25 vol% SiC Adel Mahamood Hassan and Abdalla Alrashdan [4]
composites sliding against automobile friction material have studied the effect of load and sliding distance on pin
with that of the conventional grey cast iron. on disc machine of Al-Mg-Cu alloy containing 5 and 10
They have reported that the A356-25 vol% SiC vol% SiC particles dry sliding against medium carbon
composite has higher wear resistance than conventional steel. They have found that the wear properties of the
grey cast iron sliding against friction material under Al-Mg-Cu alloys were considerably improved by the
identical condition. In addition, the authors have addition of SiC particles, also they found that the wear
observed that a gradual reduction in the friction resistance of the Al-Mg-Cu-SiC composite was much
coefficient with increase in the applied load for both cast higher than that of the unreinforced aluminimum alloys.
iron and composite. Adem Onat [5] has investigated that dry sliding wear
A Daoud et al [2] have studied the effect of load range characteristic of Al-4.5Cu-3Mg/15 vol % SiC matrix
of 30-100N and speed range of 3-12m/s on the wear and composites against AISI D2 steel disc by wear test using
friction behavior of sand cast brake rotor made of A359- pin-on-disc apparatus and found that the amount of wear
20 vol% SiC particle composites sliding against increases with increasing sliding speed and the extent of
automobile friction material. They have reported that the wear greater with an increase in applied load and he also
wear rate of the composite disc decreased with increase reported that the friction coefficient decreased with
in the applied load from 30-50N and increased with increasing applied load and velocity.
increase in the load from 50-100N. Also they have Q.D Qin et al [6] have studied the dry sliding wear
observed that, for all sliding speeds, the friction behavior of Al-SiC composites against automobile
coefficient of the composite disc decreased with applied friction material. The wear tests were carried out using
load. pin-on-disc testing machine.
190
L. Jayakumar, K. Balamurugan, C. Ezilarasan
They reported that the wear rate increases with molten alloy, the alloy was simultaneously stirred and
increasing of load and sliding velocity. In addition they heated for some time for uniform mixing. Finally, the
have observed that, with increase of sliding velocity, the temperature of the slurry was sufficiently raised above
surface temperature of materials increases. the melting range of the matrix alloy before pouring the
R.N.Rao and S.Das [7] have investigated that, the composite melt into preheated mould.
influence of SiC particle on the sliding wear
characteristics of high strength aluminium alloys
AA7010, AA7009 and AA2024 composites under II.2. Preparation of the Discs
varying applied pressure and a fixed sliding speed of In this investigation, the wear and friction behavior of
3.35m/s. They reported that, the wear resistance of the commercially used Cast iron and the MMC disc and their
composite was higher than that of the alloy. Also they counter face commercial automobile friction material
have observed that AA7010 alloy shows maximum wear were studied and compared. The inner diameter, outer
resistance that of the other. diameter and the thickness of the discs were 155 mm,
T Gomez et al [8] investigated that the addition of low 230 mm and 7 mm respectively. The surfaces of the discs
volume fraction of SiC particle (up to 15%) to Al-Li were machined to an average roughness value of 1.5µm
alloys significantly reduced the wear rate and the which is same as the roughness value of the sliding
reinforcing particles benefit the wear behavior delaying surface of the actual commercial brake rotor. The
the transition to higher normal loads, and sliding composition of the C.I material is shown in Table I. The
velocities. Rupa Dasgupta [9] has studied the sliding composition of the aluminium alloy is shown in Table II.
wear resistance of 2014 and 7075 aluminium alloy and Photograph of the 7075Al-25 wt% SiC disc and C.I
its composites with different size, quantity and disc used for the wear test are shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2
distribution of SiC particulates. It is observed that among respectively.
the two aluminium alloys, the 7075 aluminium MMC
exhibit higher improvement in wear resistance. Senthil TABLE I
Kumar and Manisekar [10] investigated that the wear COMPOSITION OF GREY CAST IRON
behavior of MoS2 added copper-tin alloy based on the Composition Fe C Mn P S Si
% age 93 3.2-3.2-5 0.6-0.9 0.12 0.15 2.2
design of experiment and they observed that the
percentages of reinforcement, load, sliding distance, and TABLE II
sliding speed were all influenced on the friction COMPOSITION THE 7075 ALUMINIUM ALLOY
coefficient and specific wear rate. S.No Composition %age
Most of the tests stated above have been conducted by 1 Fe 0.158
2 Cu 1.33
having MMC specimen as pin and hard steel disc as
3 Mn 0.068
counter face. The above tests may not exhibit the real 4 Mg 2.78
wear behavior in case of MMC’s used for brake rotor 5 Zn 5.11
applications. Therefore, a real study is required to know 6 Ti 0.029
about the actual wear behavior of those MMC’s sliding 7 Cr 0.278
8 Si 0.089
against automotive friction lining. 9 Al Reminder
In the present work, sand cast brake disc made of
7075Al-25wt% SiC composite manufactured by using
stir casting technique. The effect of load range of 30-
110N and speed range of 3-9m/s on the tribological
behavior of cast iron and MMC brake disc material was
investigated. A comparative study between the wear
resistance and frictional behavior of the composite and
cast iron was carried out.
II. Experiments
Fig. 1. Cast iron disc
II.1. Fabrication of MMC Brake Disc
AA7075Al alloy was used as a matrix material and
SiC particles with 120 mesh size and 25 wt% were used
as reinforcement. The composite was prepared by stir
casting technique. The alloys were melted in an electric
furnace in a graphite crucible. The specially designed
mechanical graphite stirrer is introduced into the melt
and stirred at 400 rpm. The preheated (800°C) SiC
particulates were added through a preheated pipe by
manual tapping into the slurry, while it was being stirred.
After complete insertion of the SiC particulates in the Fig. 2. MMC disc
191
II.3. Preparation of Pins The following equation was used to obtain the wear
rate for the pin and disc: W=M/ρD, where W is the wear
A commercial automotive brake material was used as
rate (mm3/m), M denotes mass loss (g), and ρ (g/mm3)
pins for the wear test. The pins were machined such that
and D (m) are the density and sliding distance.
each pin was of 10mm diameter and a height of 25mm as
shown in Fig. 3. The pin is fixed on a pin holder, for
mounting it on the machine. The surface is polished by II.5. Characterization of Worn Surfaces
using A320 emery paper. The surface is cleaned and
conditioned before starting of every experiment. The worn surfaces of the cast iron disc, composite disc
and friction material were analyzed using optical
microscope to investigate the wear mechanisms. XRD
technique was used to identify the various elements
present in the friction material.
From Fig. 5 it can be observed that the friction
material consists of number of elements viz. C, Fe and
Cu and compounds like CaCo3, TiO2 and ZnO.
Fig. 3. Friction material
II.4. Wear Test

Dry sliding frictional and wear behavior of the C.I and
MMC disc were investigated in a pin-on disc type
apparatus shown in Fig. 4. It consists of vertical motor
with shaft on which the discs were mounted and the Fig. 5. XRD analysis of friction material C: Carbon, T:
horizontal bar with the provision of placing the load TiO2, Ca: CaCO3, Z: ZnO and F: Fe
directly on the top of the pin. The pin material was fixed
on a holder. During the test, the end surface of the
friction material (pin) was loaded against a horizontal III. Results and Discussion
rotating C.I or MMC disc. III.1. Wear of C.I Sliding Against Friction Material
Tests were conducted at different loads in the range of
30-110N and at a linear speed range of 3-9m/s for 30 The wear rate of the C.I disc sliding against the
minutes. The friction coefficient was calculated from the friction material as a function of applied load at different
friction force measured during the wear test. During each sliding speeds is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the
test, the contact temperature was measured, by using wear rate increases almost linearly with the applied load,
chromel-alumel thermocouple inserted in the friction irrespective of the sliding speed. These results are in
material pin at a distance of 2mm from the contact agreement with those reported in the literature [1], [2].
surface. The discs and pins were weighed before and At minimum loads the contact pressure and
after each test by using a microbalance having an temperature rise are low, so that at lower loads the
accuracy of 0.1mg and the weight loss was used to minimum wear rate is observed. Higher wear is observed
determine the wear rate. for the maximum load. The same trend is observed for
the increased sliding velocity.
Fig. 4. Experimental set up used for wear test Fig. 6. Variation of wear rate of cast iron disc with applied load
192
III.2. Wear of MMC Sliding Against Friction Material III.4. Wear of Friction Material Sliding
Against MMC Disc
The wear rate of MMC disc sliding against the friction
material as a function of applied load at different sliding In Fig. 9 the wear rate of the friction material as a
speed is presented in Fig. 7. It can be observed that the function of applied load is shown. It is found that the
wear increases with applied load at a slower rate. wear of lining material is increases with applied load and
The wear rate decreases with increase in the applied this increase is more for higher loads. Due to the high
load from 50 to 90N at sliding speeds of 3 and 5m/s and load the temperature increases at the contact surfaces,
increases with further increase in the load from 90 to there by destroying the transfer film at a faster rate. For
110N. For the speed of 7 and 9 m/s, the wear rate all sliding speeds the wear rate of the friction material
increases with the applied load. increases with the applied load. The higher wear rate is
The same tendency is also observed by A.Daoud et al because of the presence of the SiC particles in the MMC
[2]. The results show that the wear rate of the 7075Al-25 disc. The SiC particles presence in the counter face
wt% SiC composite is lower than that of C .I. These destroys the transfer film and the lining material. Initially
results are in agreement with those reported by Natarajan the SiC particles are sharper and harder, because of the
et al [1]. greater degree of sharpness of the SiC particles, the
The larger amount of SiC particle attributes the lower higher amount of stress acts on the pin material, therefore
wear rate of MMC disc. The reinforcement particles take the wear rate of pin material is high. The wear of pin is
over the contact stresses and thereby preventing plastic mainly due to cutting actions of hard SiC particles. With
deformations and hence reduce the amount of wear. further increase in sliding speed and load the temperature
rise increases to a critical value at which the SiC particles
act as lubricating agent, thus reduce the wear rate of
friction material, also reduces the frictional heating.
Fig. 7. Variation of Wear rate of MMC disc with applied load
Further, it is observed from Figs. 6 and 7 that the wear

Fig. 9. Variation of wear in friction material sliding against MMC disc
rate is high for C.I disc.
For MMC’s, the wear rate is low, because of the The comparison of wear in the friction material sliding
presence of the hard SiC particles, which acts as the load against C.I and the MMC under identical conditions are
resisting element. shown in Figs. 8 and 9. It is observed that the wear rate
of friction material is more while sliding against the
III.3. Wear of Friction Material Sliding Against C.I MMC counterpart.
Disc
The wear rate with load for friction material sliding III.5. Friction Coefficient of C.I Disc
against C.I disc is shown in Fig. 8. At all sliding speeds, The variation of friction coefficient for C.I and lining
the wear rate of friction material is increases with material pair is shown in Fig. 10. It is observed that the
increasing the applied load. friction coefficient is high for lower loads and decreases
for increase of applied loads. This is because the transfer
film is found to be stable at lower loads and also the
temperature rise is low. But at higher loads the transfer
film is damaged at faster rate and temperature rise is also
high. For all loads the friction coefficient is found to
increase with increase of sliding velocity as shown in
Fig. 10.
III.6. Friction Coefficient of MMC Disc

Fig. 11 presents the variation of friction coefficient for
Fig. 8. Variation of wear in friction material sliding MMC and lining couple.
against cast iron disc
193
III.9. Contact Temperature of MMC

and Friction Material
Fig. 13 shows the variation of increase in contact
temperature of MMC and friction material with applied
load at different sliding speeds. It is noted that, the
temperature increases slowly with applied load from 30
to 50 N and increases rapidly at the load from 70 to
110N. Also, it is observed that the contact temperature
shows uniform increase with increase in the sliding
Fig. 10. Variation of friction coefficient with applied load sliding speed.
against C.I. disc The present experimental results also indicate that the
contact surface temperature increases with increase in
In all observation it is found that the friction applied load and sliding velocity. The temperature rise is
coefficient is slightly higher than that of C.I. It is more in the case of C.I disc as that of MMC disc.
observed that the friction coefficient decreases uniformly These results are in agreement with those reported by
with applied load and increases uniformly with sliding Q.D Qin et al [6] and R.N. Rao et al [3]. The frictional
velocity. The coefficient of friction for composite is heating parameter (Φ) can be used to calculate the heat
significantly higher than that of the alloy. generation in the disc surface due to applied load and
This is because part of the SiC particles are entered in sliding velocity. The frictional heating parameter can be
between the pin and the MMC disc possibly leading to calculated by using the following relation [11]:
three-body abrasion (tribolayer), resulting in surface
roughness between contact surfaces and increase Φ = ΔT/µFvt (1)
coefficient of friction. These results are in agreement
with those reported by Adem Onat [5] and R. N. Rao et where ΔT is the temperature rise (°C), µ is the average
al [3]. coefficient of friction, F is the applied normal load (N), v
is the sliding speed (m/s) and t is the sliding time (s).
During sliding, frictional force acts between the
counter surfaces, which cause frictional heating of the
counter surfaces. Lower the frictional heating parameter
[10], less heat only dissipated to the surroundings. The
average value of frictional heating parameter for Al7075-
25wt% SiC composite disc was found to be 9.98×10-5
°
C/J, where as it was 14.55×10-5 °C/J for cast iron disc,
therefore the MMC disc runs cooler than C.I disc.
Fig. 11. Variation of friction coefficient with applied load sliding

against MMC disc
III.7. Coefficient of Friction Comparison between

C.I and MMC
By comparing Figs. 10 and 11 it can be observed that
the friction coefficient of MMC is higher than that of C.I
at all test conditions. The decrease in friction coefficient
with increasing the load is more for C.I than MMC. The
Fig. 12. Increase in contact temperature as a function of load
MMC disc shows higher friction coefficient compared to of C.I. disc sliding against friction material
C.I. A stable and higher friction coefficient is important
for brake drum applications.
III.8. Effect of Load and Speed on Contact Temperature

of C.I and Friction Material
Fig. 12 shows the variation of increase in contact
temperature of C.I and friction material with applied load
at different sliding speeds. It is observed that, the
temperature increases slowly with increase in applied
load. Also, it can be noted that the contact temperature Fig. 13. Increase in contact temperature as a function of load
increases uniformly with the sliding speed. of MMC disc sliding against friction material
194
III.10. Optical Micrograph of Contact Surface Fig. 14(c) shows the micrograph of composite.
Micrograph indicates that there is fairly uniform
The optical micrographs of the contact surfaces of the
distribution of SiC particulates throughout the matrix
cast iron, the composite and friction material are
alloy; also it is observed that the porosity is lower. Fig.
analyzed before and after the wear test at a speed of 7
14(d) shows the micrograph of composite after wear test,
m/s and load of 70 N. Fig. 14(a) shows the contact
from this it can be observed that the formations of
surface of cast iron before wear test. Fig. 14(b) shows the
transfer film along the sliding track. Also it shows that
optical micrograph the cast iron surface after wear test. It
the presence of some bright patches, these represents
shows the wear traces formed on the sliding surfaces.
region from which the wear debris have been removed.
The optical micrographs of friction material before
and after wear against cast iron are shown in Figs. 15(a)
and 15(b) respectively. Fig. 15(b) shows the wear traces
formed on the friction material while sliding against cast
iron. It shows the formation of wear grooves and transfer
film on the surface of the friction material. The worn
surfaces of the friction material while sliding against
MMC disc are shown in Fig. 15(c). From Figs. 15(b) and
(c) it can be observed that the friction material sliding
against cast iron is subjected to less wear damage and
with the grooves of smaller width and depth, where as it
was observed more for friction material while sliding
against composite disc. This is due to the action of hard
SiC particles present in the composite disc.
Figs. 15. Optical micrographs of friction material surfaces (a) Friction

Figs. 14. Optical micrographs of (a) cast iron surface before wear material surface before wear (b) Frictional material surface after wear
(b) cast iron surface after wear (c) Microstructure of MMC against C.I disc (c) Friction material surface after wear
(d) MMC surface after wear against MMC disc
195
IV. Conclusion [10] Senthil Kumar, P., Manisekar, K., Friction and dry sliding wear
behavior of powder metallurgy- processed Cu-tin alloy with
1. The wear rate of C.I has been found to increase with molybdenum disulphide additions: A factorial design approach,
applied load from 30 to 110N and sliding velocity of (IREME), 7 (7), pp. 1355-1361.
3 to 9m/s. [11] PJ.Blau, B.C.Jolly, J.QU, WH.Peter, C.A.Blue. Tribological
2. The wear resistance of 7075Al-25 wt% SiC investigation of titanium-based materials for brake, Wear,
composite disc fabricated by the stir casting method Vol.263, pp.1202-1211, 2007.
is considerably higher than that of the cast iron disc.
However the wear rate of lining material is very high Authors’ information
when sliding against MMC disc, due to the presence
1
of hard SiC particles. Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Arunai
Engineering College, Thiruvannamalai-606603, India.
3. The friction coefficient of the MMC is higher than E-mail: jkpathy@yahoo.com
that of the C.I disc, while sliding against automobile 2
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Road
friction material under identical conditions. and Transport Technology Erode-638316, India.
4. Because of formation of the stable tribolayer, the E-mail: drkbalamurugan@yahoo.co.in
MMC disc has superior wear resistance. The
3
formation of this layer depends on the magnitude of Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SMK Fomra
Institute of Technology, India.
the applied load and sliding speed. E-mail: ezhilshriram.c@gmail.com
5. The temperature rise near the contacting surfaces for
a cast iron disc is higher than that of the composite L. Jayakumar, M. E Date of Birth; 31-10-1977.
disc. Thus, Composite disc runs cooler than that of He received his M.E (Master of Engineering) in
2005 from Arunai engineering college,
C.I disc.
Tiruvannamalai, Tamil nadu, India. He is
presently working as Asst prof in the department
of Mechanical engineering, Arunai engineering
Acknowledgments college, Tiruvannamalai, Tamil nadu, India. He
has published 5 papers in the International
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of conferences. His area of interest include Tribology, Material
the Nanotechnology Research Centre (NRC), SRM characterization, composites
University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India for its support of
Dr. K. Balamurugan M.E, PhD, Date of Birth; :
this research. The authors would also like to gratefully 04-06.1977. He received his PhD in 2006 from
acknowledge Arunai Engineering College, CIT Coimbatore, Anna University, Chennai,
Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, India, for using the lab India. He is presently working as Associate
facilities. professor in the department of Mechanical
engineering, Institute of Road and Transport
Technology, Erode, India. He has published 32
papers in International Journals, and 25 papers
References in the International conferences. His area of interest include Tribology,
Material characterization, Machining of composites, Optimization.
[1] N.Natarajan, S.Vijayarangan, I.Rajendran, Wear behavior of
A356/25SiC aluminium matrix composites sliding against
Dr. C. Ezilarasan, M.E, PhD, (Corresponding
automobile friction material, Wear, Vol.261, pp.812-822 2006.
Author) Date of Birth; 09-05-1976. He received
[2] A .Daoud, M.T. Abou El-khair. Wear and friction behavior of
his M.E (Master of Engineering) in 2000 from
sand cast brake rotor made of A359-20vol% SiC particle
Thigarajar College of engineering, Madurai,
composites sliding against automobile friction material, Tribology
Tamil nadu, India. He received his PhD in 2013
International, Vol 43, pp.544-553, 2010.
from college of engineering, Anna University,
[3] R.N .Rao, S .Das, D.P .Mondal, G .Dixit. Dry sliding wear
Chennai, India. He is presently working as
behavior of cast high strength aluminium alloy (Al-Zn-Mg) and
professor in the department of Mechanical
hard particle composites. Wear, Vol.267, pp.1688-1695 2009.
engineering, SMK Fomra Institute of Technology, Chennai, India. He
[4] A.M.Hassan, A.Alrashdan, M.T. Hayajneh, A.T.Mayyas. Wear
has published 11 papers in International Journals, 2 papers in national
behavior of Al-Mg-Cu-based composites containing SiC particles.
journals and 10 papers in the International conferences. His area of
Tribology International, Vol.42, pp.1230-1238, 2009.
interest include Machining, Production engineering, Optimization,
[5] A Onat. Mechanical and dry sliding wear properties of silicon
Metal forming.
carbide particulate reinforced aluminium-copper alloy matrix
composites produced by direct squeeze casting method. Journal
of Alloys and Compounds, Vol.489, pp.119-124, 2010.
[6] Q.D. Qin, Y.G.Zhao, W.Zhou. Dry sliding wear behavior of
Mg2Si/Al composites against automobile friction material, Wear
Vol.264, pp.654-661, 2008.
[7] R.N .Rao, S.Das. Effect of matrix alloy and influence of SiC
particle on the sliding wear characteristics of aluminium alloy
composites, Materials and Design, Vol.311, pp.200-207,2010.
[8] T. Gomez-del Rio, A .Rico, M.A .Garrido, P .Poza, J .Rodriguez.
Temperature and velocity transitions in dry sliding wear of Al-
Li/SiC composites, Wear, Vol.268, pp.700-707, 2010.
[9] R.Dasgupta. Sliding wear resistance of Al-alloy particulate
composites: An assessment on its efficacy, Tribology
International, Vol.43, pp.951-958, 2010.
196
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
On Real Time Prediction of Cutting Forces Using ANN
Hany A. El Kadi1, Ibrahim M. Deiab2, Amal A. Khattab3
Abstract – Due to the increased calls for environmentally benign machining processes, there has
been more focus and interest in making processes more lean and agile to enhance efficiency,
reduce emissions and increase profitability. One approach to achieving lean machining is to
develop a virtual simulation environment that enables fast and reasonably accurate predictions of
machining scenarios, process output, and provide access to needed information. This paper
investigates the utilization of artificial neural networks (ANNs) to predict the cutting forces
resulting from various combinations of cutting parameters and can also provide values for the
cutting coefficients usually predicted to calibrate the force models. Predictions are compared to
measured experimental results obtained and are shown to be in good agreement. Copyright ©
2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cutting Forces, Cutting Coefficients, Artificial Neural Networks, Mechanistic Model,
Face Milling
Nomenclature The literature is rich with research done on the milling

process (see for example [2]-[4]) and different techniques
AC Chip area have been used to predict cutting forces: these vary in
ANN Artificial neural networks their generality, accuracy and amount of data required as
ao, a1, bo, b1 Specific cutting pressure coefficients input into the model.
CFBP Cascade forward back propagation neural Analytical methods are hindered by their low accuracy
network in predicting forces and by their lack of generality as
ELM Elman back propagation neural network well as the large amount of experimental data needed for
FFBP Feedforward back propagation neural each work piece and tool material under various cutting
network conditions [5]; this renders their use expensive and time
Fa, Fr, Ft Axial, radial and tangential cutting force consuming. The authors concluded that, whereas
component mechanistic methods have a high accuracy of predicting
FR Resultant cutting force cutting forces, their main drawback is their lack of
Fx, Fy, Fz Cutting forces in the x, y and z directions generality. Therefore, traditional identification methods
Kt, Kr Tangential and radial specific cutting fail to provide a general, accurate force prediction using
pressure minimal data. For the above reasons, ANNs can be an
LR Layer recurrent neural network alternative option to use as a substitute or as a supporting
NMSE Normalized mean square error tool for the prediction of the cutting forces and shall be
t Time investigated in this study to find a model that gives a
A , R Axial and radial rake angles general, accurate and low data requirement prediction.
L Lead angle In mechanistic modeling of the cutting forces, the
underlying assumption is that the cutting forces are
proportional to the uncut chip area. The constants of
I. Introduction proportionality depend on the cutting conditions, cutting
Knowledge of cutting forces before hand is valuable geometry and material properties.
as it leads to an efficient automated process through the The literature includes many research papers on
proper selection of machining parameters, fixture design mechanistic force modeling. Following are a few
and appropriate machine and tools used. The challenge in examples of these published studies.
accurately modeling the cutting forces in face milling lies Ehmann et al. [5] traced the historical evolution of
in the fact that the process is very complex due to the research in process modeling and have found that, in
many variables influencing these forces. As shown by general, the analytical models do not accurately predict
Luttervelt et al. [1], these variables are highly interlinked the dynamic forces. The experimental methods were
and a change of a single parameter will result in different investigated and it was found that deriving the dynamic
cutting forces. In addition, the machining process is cutting force coefficients, although not trivial, delivers
nonlinear and time-dependent. values close to experimental results.
197
H. A. El Kadi, I. M. Deiab, A. A. Khattab
Mechanistic and numerical methods are of more Then, nonlinear algorithms are used to solve the
recent origin and rely on empirical models and computer established equations. The method has been validated
simulation techniques; the latter include both mechanistic and was found to be in good agreement with the
and finite element methods. The authors concluded that a measured results in both shape and magnitude of the
combination of the above listed methods is typically force signal.
needed to obtain a working model and stated that the An alternative approach to using mechanistic force
mechanistic models showed the most predictive power modeling is the use of numerical finite element method
compared to other methods. For this reason, most current to model the cutting process. For example, Saffar [10]
research is steered towards the mechanistic force models. has proposed a finite element method based model to
In their well-documented investigation, simulate the cutting force components as well as tool
Koeringsberger and Sabberwal [6] presented a method in deflection in the end milling operation. An advantage of
which the cutting forces are assumed to be proportional this model is that the material properties are defined
to the chip cross sectional area with the constants of based on the Johnson Cook theory whereas in theoretical
proportionality called the specific cutting pressures. relationships the material properties are constants.
These pressures depend on the cutter geometry, cutting Another accuracy enhancer is that the simulation allows
conditions, insert grade and work piece material for the use of non linear geometric boundaries. The
properties. Calibration was performed by running tests at author concluded that using a finite element based
different combinations of spindle speed, feed rate and simulation gives more accurate results than theoretical
depth of cut. In face milling, these tests were conducted relationships.
using a single cutting insert to avoid the effect of run out. The open literature has a large number of research
In addition, these tests were conducted on a work piece papers addressing the modeling of cutting forces using
with no surface discontinuities to simplify the correlation artificial intelligence methods (such as [5]); some of
between the cutting forces and the angular position of the these papers are briefly summarized next. Tandon and
cutting insert. El-Mounayri [11] have presented an ANN force model
Coelho [7] has used an end mill fitted with a single for the end milling process. The process depends on a
point indexable insert to perform an orthogonal milling number of parameters that are strongly interlinked. The
operation. An average value of cutting force was authors designed a feed forward back propagation neural
obtained using five consecutive rotations. A simple force network with one or two hidden layers and sigmoid
model as a function of the undeformed chip thickness activation functions. They used eight parameters as input
was fitted into the force data. Although his results agreed variables, where the maximum force and the mean force
with experimental data, huge differences were observed are the output parameters. Their predictions compared
between the specific cutting coefficient and friction well with the experimental results. They have attributed
coefficient, depending on cutting speed, feed rate and the resultant error to inaccuracies in the computation of
cutting width. the immersion geometry as it varies during cornering and
A method for estimating the specific cutting pressures to the wear condition of the tool which results in an
for mechanistic cutting force models in face milling was increase in the cutting forces.
presented by Jayaram [8]. His research is considered Aykut et al. [12] developed a model for predicting the
untraditional because it uses multiple cutting inserts. cutting forces as function of cutting parameters for the
Moreover, the specific cutting pressures were estimated face milling of Stellite6 (a cobalt based alloy) using
from data collected during actual production and hence ANN. Asymmetric milling was chosen over symmetric
there was no production interruption. Results obtained milling because, in this case, the cutting tool diameter is
using both the traditional method and the author’s larger than the milling width which extends tool life. A
method were validated through simulation and feed-forward type network with a back-propagation
experimental tests carried out on a rigid 2024 aluminum algorithm was used for training. In order to reach the
work piece using an uncoated carbide insert. These optimal network architecture, the authors experimented
results have shown that both the traditional method and with various network architectures, different training
the authors’ proposed method are of similar accuracy. algorithms and altering the number of neurons per hidden
Wan [9] proposed a new and simplified mechanistic layer and transfer functions in the hidden layers/output
method for the calibration of cutting force coefficients layer. The selected multi-layered ANN model consisted
and cutter run out for cylindrical end milling using the of three inputs corresponding to: cutting speed, feed rate
instantaneous cutting forces measured instead of the and depth of cut, 35 hidden neurons and three outputs
average ones. A simplified method for calibrating the corresponding to the cutting forces in the x-, y- and z-
cutting force coefficients valid over a wide range of directions. The authors stated that the ANNs can be used
cutting conditions was proposed. The cutting force to accurately predict the effects of machinability on chip
coefficients were expressed as power functions of the removal cutting parameters for face milling of stellite 6
instantaneous uncut chip thickness. The method is in asymmetric milling processes.
achieved by following two steps: first, mathematical A neural network based approach to select optimized
relationships between the instantaneous cutting forces cutting parameters in turning was proposed by Cus et al.
and the uncut chip thickness are established. [13].
198
This need arises because optimizing the machining The range for each of the parameters was chosen to
parameters is a non linear problem with constraints accommodate for a wide variety of manufacturing setups.
making it difficult to solve using the conventional The experimental data used in this study was taken
optimization algorithms due to problems with from [16] and is shown in Appendix A (Table A1).
convergence speed or accuracy. The proposed algorithm Milling operations with a single insert were carried out
works on the basis of feed forward and back propagation. on an OKUMA Cadet V4020 machining center for a
The authors also compared these predictions with wide range of cutting conditions.
those obtained using radial basis networks. The radial The workpiece material was aluminum A6061 and the
basis ANNs require more neurons than the standard feed face milling cutter was a four-inch diameter with four
forward ANNs with the back propagation learning rule, insert of uncoated carbide H10. Both axial and radial
but conceiving of radial basis neural networks lasts only rake angles are equal to 18o. The range of cutter
part of the time (8 s) necessary for training compared to rotational speed was 500 to 3000 RPM. The feed per
the feed forward neural networks. The feed forward tooth range was 0.002 to 0.008 inch and the depth of cut
ANNs give more accurate results, but they require more range was 0.040 to 0.250 inch. The three components of
time (~25min) for training and testing. the cutting force were measured using a Kistler
Zuperl et al. [14] modeled the end milling machining dynamometer type 9225A. The sampling frequency of
process of hardened die steel with a ball end mill cutter the dynamometer is 2005 Hz. Calibration cutting tests
using neural networks to predict the effect of machining were carried out with one insert. Force data files used for
variables (spindle speed, feed rate, axial/radial depth of training of the ANN were obtained from averaging the
cut, number of flutes, tool geometry and flank wear). values of five revolutions of the same insert at the same
Back propagation and radial basis networks were used. It cutting conditions to accommodate for any experimental
was concluded that a radial basis network can be used as error due inhomogeneous workpiece material and tool
a cutting force modeler. Al-Ahmari [15] studied different wear. Data was preprocessed by only taking the average
predictive machinability models: multiple linear of the first five cutting cycles.
regression analysis techniques (MLRA), response surface The ANNs used to predict the variation of the cutting
methodology (RSM) and artificial neural networks forces with time consist of an input layer with five
(ANN) to predict tool life, surface roughness and cutting neurons (corresponding to the four input parameters:
forces in turning. He found out that the ANN models revolution per minute, depth of cut, chipload, and time),
provide better prediction capabilities due to their ability an output layer with three neurons (corresponding to the
to offer better predictions of complex nonlinearities and output parameters – Fx, Fy and Fz as a function of time)
interactions compared to MLRA and RSM. Furthermore, and one or two hidden layers, as shown in Fig. 1(a). The
the RSM models yielded better results than the MLRA various neural networks architectures used to predict the
models. variation of the cutting forces with time are shown in
The current work is a preliminary study eventually Appendix B (networks 1 – 24) (Table B1). Because of the
aimed at investigating the optimum ANN architecture to different ranges on the input parameters, a min-max
provide a fast and reasonably accurate estimate of the normalization was used to transform all the input
cutting forces needed in simulating different aspects of parameters to a zero-to-1 range.
the machining process. Two approaches are investigated: The normalization used is defined as:
first, the direct prediction of the cutting forces via ANNs
(similar to the work done in [12] and [13]); second, the  original value  minimum value 
prediction of forces via the prediction of cutting normalized value 
coefficients.
 maximum value  minimum value 
Both approaches are investigated in this study for the
purpose of obtaining more accurate prediction of the The networks used for predicting the average and the
cutting forces and ultimately resulting into a more maximum cutting forces consist of an input layer with
efficient and lean machining process. three neurons (corresponding to the three input
parameters: revolution per minute, depth of cut, and
chipload), an output layer with three neurons
II. Predicting Cutting Forces and (corresponding to the 3 average or maximum output
Coefficients using Artificial Neural parameters – Fx, Fy and Fz ) and one or two hidden layers
Networks (Fig. 1(b)). The network used to predict the resultant
force consists of an input layer with three neurons
The current investigation is performed to develop a (corresponding to the three input parameters: revolution
procedure to study the effect of varying ANN parameters per minute, depth of cut, and chipload), an output layer
on the prediction accuracy which could eventually be with a single neuron (corresponding to the resultant force
used to determine the optimum ANN architecture for output) and one or two hidden layers (Fig. 1(c)). The
predicting the cutting forces and coefficients in face neural networks architectures used to predict the average
milling. and maximum cutting forces are shown in Appendix B
The cutting test matrix was populated by varying three (Table B1) (networks 25 - 41). As shown by Deiab [16],
parameters: spindle rpm, depth of cut, and chipload. in the mechanistic cutting force model, the specific
199
cutting pressures, Kt and Kr, are represented by the inconsistencies that may result due to the randomness of
following equations: the ANN’s initial guess. The Matlab software [21] and its
toolboxes were used to build, train and test the ANN.
ln(Kt(t))=a0+a1ln(tc(t)) (1)
ln(Kr(t))=b0+b1ln(tc(t)) (2) III. Results and Discussion

To obtain an optimum neural network structure to
The constants a0, a1, b0 and b1 are called the specific predict the cutting forces in face milling, the effect of
cutting pressure constants. These constants are typically varying the type of ANN, the training algorithm, the
estimated from experiments for a given combination of number of hidden layers, the type of transfer function
work piece and insert material. The single insert off-line and the number of neurons per hidden layer must be
method is commonly used to calibrate the mechanistic investigated.
cutting force models and determine the specific cutting
pressure. In this method, the specific cutting pressure
constants are obtained from linear regression of the
specific cutting pressures with respect to the chip
thickness in the logarithmic space [17]. If tests at
different values of feed rate and depth of cut are used to
calibrate the cutting force model, then a least squares fit
that is valid for a wide range of conditions can be
obtained.
The cutting forces in the tangential and radial
directions are obtained by multiplying the specific (a)
cutting pressures by the chip area, AC(t):
Ft(t)=Kt(t)Ac(t) (3)
Fr(t)=Kr(t)Ac(t) (4)
The tangential and radial cutting forces described in

the above equation depend on the rake face geometry of
the cutting insert. The axial rake angle, γA, radial rake
angle, γR and lead angle, γL are then used to transform
these forces to the global tangential, Ft, radial, Fr, and (b)
axial, FA, directions [18]. To predict the cutting
coefficients via the four cutting parameters, a neural
network (Fig. 2) consisting of an input layer with three
neurons (corresponding to the three input parameters:
revolution per minute, depth of cut, and chipload), an
output layer with two (corresponding to the 2 cutting
coefficients – Kr, and Kt) and one or two hidden layers
was used. Similar to the work done by Zain [19] to
predict the surface roughness in end milling, a wide
range of network types such as the feed forward back
(c)
propagation network, cascade feed forward back
propagation, radial basis, Elman back propagation and Figs. 1. Network inputs and outputs to predict (a) cutting forces as a
layer recurrent are used in the current study. Details function of time (b) maximum and average cutting forces
about the theory and structure of these networks can be (c) resultant cutting force
found in the book by Skapura [20]. Runs with different
number of hidden layers and/or number of neurons per
hidden layer were performed to study the impact of these
parameters on the predictions obtained.
The networks were trained using different training
algorithms, such as Levenberg-Marquardt, resilient back
propagation and scaled conjugate back propagation
algorithms using different transfer functions such as
tansig, logsig and purelin. In all cases, the predicted
results presented are obtained using average values of
five ANN training runs to overcome the effect of any Fig. 2. Network inputs and outputs to predict the cutting coefficients
200
In the following, an initial study showing general used to study this effect for cutting condition C4 (see
trends of the effect of these parameters on the cutting Appendix A – Table A1). FFBP networks with one and
forces prediction is presented. It is understood that in two hidden layers were used.
order to draw a definite conclusion about the effect of Table I shows that the Levenberg-Marquardt
these parameters and obtain an optimum network algorithm with one and two hidden layers resulted in the
architecture, a more detailed statistically-based study lowest NMSE when compared to the experiments for this
must be undertaken. The normalized mean square error cutting condition. Additional runs are needed to
(NMSE) obtained during testing was used to compare the generalize these findings for other cutting conditions and
predictions to the experimental results in each of the other types of ANN.
cases. The results obtained are shown next.
TABLE I
EFFECT OF TYPE OF TRAINING FUNCTION ON PREDICTION
III.1. Effect of Varying the Type of ANN FOR CUTTING CONDITION C4
Net Number of hidden Training NMSE
Type
To investigate the effect of varying the type of ANN number layers function (%)
on the prediction of the cutting forces, several network 1 FFBP 2 trainlm 4.44
4 FFBP 1 trainlm 4.55
types were used: Feed Forward Back Propagation 12 FFBP 1 trainrp 6.85
(FFBP), Radial Basis Function (RBF), Cascade Forward 13 FFBP 1 trainscg 6.03
Back Propagation (CFBP), Elman Back Propagation 14 FFBP 2 trainrp 4.35
(ELM) and Layer Recurrent (LR). The results obtained 15 FFBP 2 trainscg 6.03
show that both ELM and LR require a long time to
converge. The results also show that the error obtained III.3. Effect of Varying the Number of Hidden Layers
using RBF is very high.
Fig. 3 shows a comparison between the predictions To study the effect of varying the number of hidden
obtained using several of the considered networks layers on the accuracy of the ANN prediction, FFBP
(Appendix B – Table B1) and the experimental results for networks with one and two hidden layers were
cutting condition C10. The lowest normalized mean investigated. Since the predictions obtained from varying
square error (NMSE) of 4.8% was obtained by using the training function (Table I) showed that trainlm gave
network 1. Since the error obtained with FFBP was the best results, it was used here for all the cases
consistently lower than that obtained using the CFBP, the considered. The tansig transfer function was selected as
current investigation was continued with FFBP. For the the use of this function allows a nonlinear relationship
FFBP, the effect of varying the training function, the between the input and the output, moreover, this function
transfer function, the number of hidden layers, and the is self limiting and hence the output cannot grow
number of hidden neurons was investigated next. infinitely large or small [22]. Table II shows a
comparison of the results obtained using one and two
hidden layers for cutting condition C8. For the case
III.2. Effect of Varying the Training Algorithm shown in Table II, the predictions show that a FFBP with
The effect of the type of training algorithm used was two hidden layers result in the lowest error. Additional
investigated next. Levenberg-Marquardt (trainlm), runs are needed to generalize these findings for other
Resilient Back Propagation (trainrp) and Scaled cutting conditions and other types of ANN.
Conjugate Back Propagation (traincg) algorithms were
Fig. 3. Predicted and measured resultant force for one insert cutting, C10 (RPM 1000, Depth of cut of 40 and Chipload of 8)
201
TABLE II lowest NMSE. For this cutting condition (C10),

EFFECT OF THE NUMBER OF LAYERS ON THE FFBP PREDICTIONS
comparing the predictions obtained for networks with
FOR CUTTING CONDITION C8
Layer 1 Layer 2
one and two hidden layers, it was found that the neural
Number Transfer Transfer network with 2 hidden layers resulted in the lowest error
Net of function/ function/ Training NMSE compared to the experimental results. Additional runs are
hidden Number Number function (%) needed to generalize these findings for other cutting
layers of of
Neurons Neurons
conditions and other ANN architectures.
2 1 Tansig/20 trainlm 6.08
4 1 Tansig/10 trainlm 5.00 TABLE III
18 2 Tansig/10 Tansig/10 trainlm 4.12 EFFECT OF VARYING THE TRANSFER FUNCTION
19 2 Tansig/10 Tansig/20 trainlm 9.85 Layer 1 Layer 2
20 2 Tansig/10 Tansig/5 trainlm 4.08 Number Transfer
Transfer
22 2 Tansig/20 Tansig/10 trainlm 8.87 of function/ Training NMSE
Net function/
hidden Number function (%)
Number of
layers of
Neurons
III.4. Effect of Varying the Type of Transfer Function Neurons
4 1 Tansig/10 trainlm 14.85
To explore the effect of varying the transfer function, 6 1 Purelin/10 trainlm 21.52
25 1 Logsig/10 trainlm 10.49
three single hidden layer networks with the same number 1 2 Logsig/10 Purelin/5 trainlm 4.44
of neurons in the hidden layers and same training
20 2 Tansig/10 Tansig/5 trainlm 3.65
function are compared with two two-hidden layer
networks as shown in Table III for cutting condition C4.
TABLE IV
The two networks with two hidden layers were shown EFFECT OF THE NUMBER OF HIDDEN NEURONS IN A FFBP TYPE ANN
to produce the lowest RMSE (3.65% for network 20 and WITH ONE HIDDEN LAYER FOR CUTTING CONDITION C10
4.44% for network 1). A comparison between these two Number
Net Transfer Training NMSE
networks and the experimental results is graphically of
number function function (%)
represented in Fig. 4. Additional runs are needed to neurons
2 tansig 20 trainlm 16.45
generalize these findings for other cutting conditions. 3 tansig 5 trainlm 9.7
III.5. Effect of Varying the Number of Neurons
in the Hidden Layers TABLE V
EFFECT OF THE NUMBER OF HIDDEN NEURONS IN A FFBP TYPE ANN
To examine the effect of varying the number of WITH TWO HIDDEN LAYERS FOR CUTTING CONDITION C10
hidden neurons, the predictions obtained from several Layer 1 Layer 2
networks with one hidden layer using the same training Transfer Transfer
Training NMSE
function (trainlm) and the same transfer function (tansig) Net function/ function/
function (%)
were compared. Table IV shows that, for cutting Number Number
of neurons of neurons
conditions C10, the network with 5 hidden neurons has 18 Tansig/10 Tansig/10 trainlm 14.74
the lowest NMSE at 9.7%. Table V shows the effect of 19 Tansig/10 Tansig/20 trainlm 24.59
varying the number of hidden neurons for networks of 20 Tansig/10 Tansig/5 trainlm 9.20
the same type with the same training function and 21 Tansig/10 Tansig/40 trainlm 57.64
transfer function using two hidden layers. In this case, 22 Tansig/20 Tansig/10 trainlm 33.11
the network with 10-5 hidden neurons resulted in the
Fig. 4. Predicted and measured resultant force for one insert cutting, C4 (RPM 1000, Depth of cut of 40, and Chipload of 4)
202
III.6. Predicting the Average Cutting Forces been carried out using the same 12 cutting conditions
data sets as in sections 3.6 and 3.7 and three networks.
Knowledge of the average forces produced in milling
The maximum cutting forces in the x-, y-, and z-
operations can provide a fast estimate of the forces
direction were predicted.
needed for different machining scenarios and can be used
The comparison between the predicted results for the
in different analyses of the machining process.
component Fx is shown in Fig. 6. For the cases
Tests have been carried out using 12 cutting
considered, network 33 produced the lowest NMSE at
conditions data sets (C2, C4, C8, C10, C14, C18, C19,
4.1%. Comparable results were obtained for the
C23, C26, C28, C33 and C35) and 4 network
maximum cutting force components in the y- and z-
architectures.
directions.
The average cutting forces in the x-, y-, and z-
direction were predicted. Fig. 5 shows the predictions
obtained for the component Fx compared to the III.9. Predicting of Cutting Coefficients from Cutting
experimental results. For the cutting conditions Parameters
considered, network 28 gave the lowest average NMSE
As mentioned earlier, although mechanistic methods
of 1.67% compared to experimental results. Similar
are very accurate in predicting cutting forces, they lack
results were obtained for the cutting force components in
the y- and z-directions. generality. To address this problem, ANNs will be used
next to predict the cutting coefficients. The effect of
varying ANN parameters and types on the prediction
III.7. Predicting the Resultant Cutting Force accuracy was investigated. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show a
comparison between the calculated and the predicted
Tests have been carried out using the same12 cutting
values of the tangential cutting coefficient (Kt) and the
conditions data sets as in section 3.6 and five neural
radial cutting coefficient (Kr) respectively, using a
networks to predict the cutting force resultant. Table VI
number of different networks. All networks used in this
shows the average NMSE obtained with each of the
case were FFBP with Levenberg-Marquardt training
networks considered. For the cases considered, the radial
function. For the cases considered, network 37 resulted
basis function network 33 showed the lowest NMSE of
in the minimum average NMSE when predicting both
4.3%.
components of the cutting coefficients.
III.8. Predicting the Maximum Forces

III.10. Prediction of Cutting Coefficients
Predicting the maximum forces is very useful in from the Cutting Forces
machine tool selection as it simulates the worst case
Another possible approach is to use the three force
scenario: conservative analysis. Thirty-six tests have
components to predict the cutting coefficients Kr and Kt.
Fig. 5. Typical comparison between the average cutting force component Fx and the predictions obtained
using several neural networks architectures for different cutting conditions
203
Fig. 6. Typical comparison between the maximum cutting force component Fx and the predictions obtained using several
neural networks architectures for different cutting conditions
Fig. 7. Comparison between the calculated values of the tangential pressure coefficient and the predictions obtained
using various ANN architectures for a variety of cutting conditions
Fig. 8. Comparison between the calculated values of the radial pressure coefficient and the predictions obtained
204
TABLE VI This approach is helpful in simulating the cutting

RESULTANT FORCES PREDICTION FOR SEVERAL ARCHITECTURES
process when the force variation is needed, e.g. finite
CONSIDERED USING TANSIG/LOGSIG TRANSFER FUNCTION AND
TRAINLM TRAINING FUNCTION element analysis. Alternatively, if the cutting force
Layer components are collected experimentally, they could be
Number
of
1/2
Transfer NMSE
used as inputs to the network to predict the cutting
Net Type Number coefficients, rather than using the cutting parameters.
hidden function (%)
of
layers
Neurons
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 compare the predictions obtained using
29 FFBP 1 8 tansig 16.1 a variety of ANNs with the values calculated using
30 FFBP 2 8/4 tansig 37.7 average forces for several cutting conditions. The
31 FFBP 1 8 logsig 20.5 average NMSE obtained in this case was higher than
32 FFBP 2 8/16 tansig 6.7 those obtained in the previous methods: for Kt prediction,
Radial
33 24 4.3 network 39 gave the lowest average NMSE of 18.31%
Basis
whereas in Kr prediction Network 40 gave the lowest
average NMSE at 16.8%.
Fig. 9. Comparison between the values calculated for the tangential pressure coefficient using the average forces and the predictions obtained
Fig. 10. Comparison between the values calculated for the radial pressure coefficient using the average forces and the predictions obtained
205
IV. Conclusion parameters which would enable leaner and more efficient
machining process.
In this paper, artificial neural networks were used to For the cutting conditions considered, the best cutting
estimate the cutting forces and the cutting coefficients forces predictions were obtained using FFBP networks
usually obtained from mechanistic force model with the Levenberg-Marquardt training function
calibration. It can be claimed that the comparison of the algorithm and the tansig transfer function. When
predictions obtained from the neural models with the predicting the resultant and the maximum forces, the
experimental results confirms the potential of the model radial basis network produced the lowest error compared
to predict both the cutting forces and cutting coefficients. to the experimental values. These results are preliminary
The approach ensures estimation of the cutting forces and additional runs are needed to generalize these
in real time which is needed for simulation of different findings for other cutting conditions and other ANN
aspects of the machining process such as fixture architectures. A factorial experiment or a Taguchi
configuration selection and optimization of cutting experiment can be used for generalization.
Appendix A
TABLE A1
CUTTING CONDITIONS
Set RPM DOC Chipload Set RPM DOC Chipload
C1 1000 40 2 C19 1000 150 6
C2 2000 40 2 C20 2000 150 6
C3 3000 40 2 C21 3000 150 6
C4 1000 40 4 C22 1000 150 8
C5 2000 40 4 C23 2000 150 8
C6 3000 40 4 C24 3000 150 8
C7 1000 40 6 C25 1000 250 2
C8 2000 40 6 C26 2000 250 2
C9 3000 40 6 C27 3000 250 2
C10 1000 40 8 C28 1000 250 4
C11 2000 40 8 C29 2000 250 4
C12 3000 40 8 C30 3000 250 4
C13 1000 150 2 C31 1000 250 6
C14 2000 150 2 C32 2000 250 6
C15 3000 150 2 C33 3000 250 6
C16 1000 150 4 C34 1000 250 8
C17 2000 150 4 C35 2000 250 8
C18 3000 150 4 C36 3000 250 8
Appendix B
TABLE B1
NETWORKS TESTED
Layer 1 Layer 2
Network Number of Training
Type Transfer Number of Transfer Number of
number hidden layers function
function neurons Function neurons
network 1 FFBP 2 logsig 10 purelin 5 trainlm
network 2 FFBP 1 tansig 20 trainlm
network3 FFBP 1 tansig 5 trainlm
Spread
network 8 RBF 1 1780
constant 1
network 9 CFBP 1 tansig 10 trainlm
network 10 ELM 1 tansig 10 trainlm
network 11 LR 1 tansig 10 trainlm
network 12 FFBP 1 tansig 10 trainrp
network 13 FFBP 1 tansig 10 trainscg
network14 FFBP 2 logsig 10 purelin 5 trainrp
network15 FFBP 2 logsig 10 purelin 5 trainscg
network 17 FFBP 1 logsig 50 trainlm
network 18 FFBP 2 tansig 10 tansig 10 trainlm
206
Layer 1 Layer 2
Network Number of Training
Type Transfer Number of Transfer Number of
number hidden layers function
function neurons Function neurons
Spread
network 27 RBF 1 25
constant 1
Spread
network 33 RBF 1 24
constant 1
network 38 FFBP 2 logsig 8 purelin 4 trainlm
network 40 FFBP 1 tansgi 6 trainscg
References approach for tool cutting force modeling of end milling

operations, International Journal of General Systems, Vol. 35, pp.
[1] C.A. Luttervelt, T.H.C. Childs, I.S. Jawahir, F. Klocke, P.K. 603-618, 2006.
Venuvinod, Keynote papers: Present situation and future trends in [14] U. Zuperl, F. Cus, B. Mursec, T. Ploj, A hybrid analytical-neural
modeling of machining operations, CIRP PCals - Manufacturing network approach to the determination of optimal cutting
Technology, Vol. 47, pp. 587-626, 1998. conditions, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.
[2] Mahesh, G., Muthu, S., Devadasan, S.R., Experimentation and 175, pp. 82–90, 2004.
prediction of vibration amplitude in end milling with reference to [15] A.M.A. Al-Ahmari, Predictive Machinability models for a
radial rake angle, (2012) International Review of Mechanical selected hard material in turning operations, Journal of Materials
Engineering (IREME), 6 (6), pp. 1164-1174. Processing Technology, Vol. 190, pp. 305-311, 2007.
[3] Yanda, H., Ghani, J.A., Haron, C.H.C., Modeling and simulation [16] I.M. Deiab, Effect of fixture dynamics on the face milling process,
of temperature generated on work piece and chip formation in Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Mech. Eng., McMaster University,
orthogonal machining, (2011) International Review of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 2003.
Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 5 (2), pp. 340-348. [17] F. Gu, Prediction of cutting forces and surface errors in face
[4] Arun Premnath, A., Alwarsamy, T., Rajmohan, T., Experimental milling with generalized cutter and workpice geometry, Ph.D.
investigation on hardness, cutting force and roughness in milling dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL,
of hybrid composites, (2012) International Review of Mechanical 1994.
Engineering (IREME), 6 (1), pp. 44-49. [18] H.S. Kim, K.F. Ehmann, A cutting force model for face milling
[5] K.F. Ehmann, S.G. Kapoor, R.E. Devor, I. Lazoglu, Machining operations, International Journal of Machine Tool &
process modeling: A review, Journal of Manufacturing Science & Manufacture, Vol. 33, pp. 651-673, 1993.
Technology, Vol. 119, pp. 655-663, 1997. [19] A.M. Zain, Prediction of surface roughness in the end milling
[6] F. Koenigsberger, J.P. Sabberwal, An Investigation into the machining using artificial neural network, Expert Systems with
cutting force pulsation during milling operations, International Applications, Vol. 37, pp. 1755-1768, 2010.
Journal of Machine Tool Design and Research, Vol. 1, pp. 15-33, [20] D. Skapura, Building neural networks (ACM Press, Addison-
1961. Wesley, 1996).
[7] B.V. Coelho, Experimental Evaluation of Cutting force parapeters [21] MATLAB, www.mathworks.com
applying mechanistic model in orthogonal milling, Journal of the [22] M. Nalbant, H. Gokkaya, I. Toktas, G. Sur, The experimental
Brazilian Society of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Vol. investigation of the effects of uncoated, PVD and CVD coated
XXV, pp. 247-253, 2003. cemented carbide inserts and cutting parameters on surface
[8] K.D. Jayaram, Estimation of the specific cutting pressures for roughness in CNC turning and its prediction using artificial neural
mechanistic cutting force models, International Journal of networks, Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Vol.
Machine Tool & Manufacture, Vol. 41, pp. 265-281, 2001. 25, pp. 211-223, 2009.
[9] M. Wan, A novel cutting force modelling method for cylindrical
end mil, Applied Mathematical Modeling, Vol. 34, pp. 823-836,
2010. Authors’ information
[10] R.J. Saffar, Simulation of three dimension cutting force and tool
1
deflection in the end milling operation based on finite element Mechanical Engineering Department,
method, Simulation Model and Practise Theory, Vol. 16, pp. College of Engineering,
1677-1688, 2008. American University of Sharjah,
[11] V. Tandon, H. El-Mounayri, A novel artificial neural networks Sharjah, P.O. Box 26666, UAE.
force model for end milling, International Journal of Advanced
2
Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 18, pp. 693-700, 2001. School of Engineering,
[12] S. Aykut, M. Gölcüa, S. Semiz, H.S. Ergur, Modeling of cutting University of Guelph,
forces as function of cutting parameters for face milling of ON, Canada N1G 2W1
satellite 6 using an artificial neural network, Journal of Materials
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Processing Technology, Vol. 190, pp. 199–203, 2007. Caracal, Tawazun Subsidiary,
[13] F. Cus, U. Zuperl, M. Milfelner, Dynamic neural network P.O. Box 94499, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
207
Hany A. El Kadi obtained his PhD from the

University of Alberta, Canada in 1993. His
research interests are in fatigue and fracture of
composite materials as well as the effect of
processing on their mechanical properties. His
current research involves the use of artificial
neural networks in various mechanical
engineering problems. Dr. El Kadi is a member
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the
American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE).
Ibrahim M. Deiab had his Ph.D. from

McMaster University, Ontario Canada in 2003.
His research interest are focused on
machinability, online detection and predictive
modeling of tool wear using ANN, effect of
fixture dynamics on the machining system
output and stability, finite element analysis,
modal analysis of machine tools and
experimental study of the tribological aspects of workpiece/fixture
frictional contact.
Amal A. Khattab obtained her MSc in

Mechatronics Engineering from the American
University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates in
2011. Her research interests are in tool condition
monitoring methods and automation of
manufacturing to increase efficiency. Her
current research involves the use of artificial
neural networks in various mechanical
engineering problems. She is currently working in Caracal International
as a Product Line Manager.
208
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Primary Superheater Spray Control Valve Modeling

Based on Levenberg-Marquardt Learning Algorithm
N. A. Mazalan1, A. A. Malek2, Mazlan A. Wahid3, M. Mailah4
Abstract – Main steam temperature is one of the most important parameters in a coal fired
power plant and its characteristics are non-linear and having large inertia with long dead time.
Successful control of main steam temperature within ± 2 deg C from its setpoint is the ultimate
target for the coal fired power plant operators. Two of the most common main steam temperature
circuit are primary superheater spray and secondary superheater spray. This paper present the
primary superheater spray control valve modeling based on Levenberg-Marquardt learning
algorithm. The neural network algorithm will be trained using actual plant data. The result of the
simulation showed that the primary superheater spray control valve modeling based on neural
network with Levenberg-Marquardt learning algorithm is able to replicate closely actual plant
behavior. Generator output, main steam flow, total spraywater flow and secondary superheater
outlet steam temperature are proven to be the main parameters affected the behavior of spray
control valve opening in the unit. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Main Steam Temperature, Primary Superheater Spray, Neural Network, Levenberg-
Marquardt Learning Algorithm
Nomenclature that depend on heuristic approach. As such, PID tuning

will need experience engineer to have great effect. It is
PID Proportional, Integral, Derivative also important to note that it is impossible to realize
Deg C Degree Celsius perfect performance for the controller for all plant
MW Mega Watt behavior that might happen [3].
t/hr Tonne per hour Typically, main steam temperature control circuit in
IDF Induced Draught Fan coal fired power plant consist of two main circuits;
FDF Forced Draught Fan primary superheater spray control and secondary
PAF Primary Air Fan superheater spray control. The primary objectives of both
LM Levenberg Marquardt control are to maintain main steam temperature at desired
1-D One Dimensional output, most of the time at 540 Deg C. Current control
type for primary superheater spray is feedforward PID
control while secondary superheater spray utilizes
I. Introduction
feedforward cascade PID control.
Main steam temperature has been identified as one of
the most critical parameters in coal fired power plant [1],
[2]. The complexity of main steam temperature behavior II. The Power Plant Steam Circuit
which depends on multiple variables makes it one of the The important parameters at rated load for 700MW
most challenging variables to control in thermal power coal fired power plant are as indicated in Table I. The
plant. Furthermore, the successful control of main steam coal fired power plant are of sub-critical type boiler with
temperature ensures stable plant operation. Increase in opposed firing, using balance draught system with two
efficiency and improvement in process safety are several sets of IDF, FDF, and PAF respectively.
advantages obtained when main steam temperature is The boiler feedwater circulation using natural
controlled within the acceptable range [3]. One thing circulation that depend on different in feedwater density.
unique about main steam temperature is its characteristic Fig. 1 shows the coal fired power plant steam circuit
which are non-linear, large inertia and having long dead which consists of furnace water wall, primary
time [4]. In industrial application especially in utilities superheater, secondary superheater, final superheater,
sector, PID controller remain the popular choices among reheater, economizer, and downcomer pipe [1].
the control companies. This is due to its simple structure The furnace is enclosed with front, rear and sidewalls
and robustness. Having said that, PID have its own with radiant platen superheaters at the upper furnace.
disadvantages which is the determination of its constant
209
N. A. Mazalan, A. A. Malek, Mazlan A. Wahid, M. Mailah
Fig. 1. The coal fired power plant steam circuit with important steam temperature setpoint [1]
The reheater at the boiler back pass is convection type

and shares the heat recovery area with the primary
superheater.
III. Current Main Steam Temperature

Control Circuit
The power plant apply 2 stages main steam
temperature control circuit as shown in Fig. 2 [1]. The
first stage control is feedforward PID control.
TABLE I
PLANT TECHNICAL DATA
Variables Values
Nominal capacity 700MW
Fig. 2. Current main steam temperature control circuit [1]
Main Steam Pressure 166 Barg
Main Steam Temperature 541 Deg C
Reheat Steam Temperature 568 Deg C Around the same time, Hebb's introduced Hebb's
Main Steam Flow 2365 t/hr learning rule or Hebb's synapse [7] which discussed
Condenser Pressure 79 mbara
Firing Pattern Opposed Firing
about hypotheses of neural substrate of learning and
memory. However Rosenblatt's work of Perceptron really
increase the understanding about artificial neural
The main objective for the first stage control is to
network. Rosenblatt's demonstrated his algorithm
control the secondary superheater outlet steam
capability of pattern recognition that could learn and its
temperature at 452 Deg C at rated load. The second stage
ability to classify linearly separable pattern classes [8]-
control type is feedforward cascade PID control and the
[11]. Neural network also used for solving non-linear
main objective is to control the boiler outlet steam
problem by integrating with other type of non-linear
temperature at 541 Deg C at rated load.
solving method [12]. There are also modeling of the
complete power plant utilizing neural network [13].
IV. Neural Network System In artificial neural network, learning algorithm is
defined as an adaptive method by which a network of
Neural network breakthrough came in 1943 when computing units self-organizes to implement the desired
McCulloch and Pitts introduced the term "Boolean behavior [14], [18], [19]. Learning algorithm can be
Brain" in their paper [5]. Since then, many works done in classified into supervised and unsupervised type.
understanding human brain and reflected it to artificial Supervised learning uses a method in which some input
neural network but work by von Neumann in [6] is most are collected and presented to the algorithm [14]. While
significant with the introduction of first digital unsupervised learning is used when, for any input, the
computers. output for a network should produce is unknown [14].
210
V. Levenberg-Marquardt in Table II.

Learning Algorithm TABLE II
INPUT AND OUTPUT FOR THE PROPOSE MODELING
LM learning algorithm is an iterative techniques that
Input Unit
locates the minimum of a multivariate function that is Generator Output MW
expressed as the sum of squares of non-linear parameters Total Main Steam Flow t/hr
[15], [16]. LM can be considered as a combination of Total Spray Flow t/hr
steepe st descent and the Gaussian Newton method. Secondary SH Outlet Temperature Deg C
Output Unit
When the solution is far, the algorithm behaves like a Primary Spray Flow Control Valve Opening %
steepest descent method while the algorithm will behave
like Gauss-Newton when the solution is close. LM is
To get better performance from the algorithm, the
well known algorithm used in many software application
training and validation data must be adequate and
for solving curve fitting problems. However, it is
accurate. As such, 26374 sampling data taken from actual
important to note that sometime LM finds only local
plant are taken and fed to the algorithm as the training
minimum, which not necessary the global minimum.
and validation data for the neural network algorithm. The
A short description of LM based on the explanation in
neural network have four inputs and single output with 2
[17] are as below. Given:
hidden layers.
The input selected are generator output, total main
(JTJ + µI)h1m = -g with g = JTf and µ ≥ 0 (1)
steam flow, total spray flow and secondary superheater
outlet steam temperature. The output are primary spray
where J = J(x) and f = f(x). The damping µ has several
flow control valve.
effects:
The hidden layers using tansig as the transfer function
1. For all µ>0 the coefficient matrix is positive definite,
and contains fifteen and ten neuron respectively.
and thus ensure that h1m is a descent direct ion.
Levenberg-Marquardt is selected as the learning
2. Large value of µ we get:
algorithm. The training data denoising had been done by
using Multiple 1-D Multivariate Denoising method.
h1m ≈ g= F' (x) (2)
which is a short step in the steepest descent direction. VII. Result

This is good if the current iterate is far from solution. MATLAB Neural Network toolbox was used to test
3. If µ is very small, then h1m≈hgn, which is good in the neural network algorithm. The model's mean square
the final stage of iteration, when x is close to x*. If error reaches 6.98 × 10-5 after 35 iterations. Figure 3
F(x*) = 0, then we can get almost quadratic final shows the result.
convergence. The detail description of Levenberg-
Marquardt can be found in [16].
VIII. Discussion
VI. Neural Network with Levenberg- The result showed that the primary spray flow control
valve modeling using neural network with Levenberg-
Marquardt Learning Algorithm Marquardt learning algorithm able to produce accurate
Structure behavior of the control valve when comparing with
The input and output for the propose modeling are as actual plant.
Fig. 3. Result for neural network modeling for primary spray flow control valve using Levenberg-Marquardt learning algorithm
211
However, the training data acquired from actual plant Engineering (IREME), 5 (7), pp. 1333-1339.
[13] Devi, S., Sivakumar, L., Saravanan, M., An innovative study and
needed to be pre-processed to remove the unnecessary
binary modeling of thermal power plant using artificial neural
noise which can affect the performance of the neural network and multiple linear regression, (2013) International
network model. Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 7 (6), pp. 1171-
The result also showed the neural network showed 1179.
[14] R Rojas (1996). Neural Networks: A Systematic Introduction.
better generalization capability and reflects good Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
dynamic behavior with the changing of generator load. It [15] K. Levenberg. A Method for the Solution of Certain Non-linear
also proved that generator output, total main steam flow, Problems in Least Squares. Quarterly of Applied Mathematics,
total spray flow and secondary superheater outlet steam 2(2):164–168, Jul. 1944.
[16] D.W. Marquardt. An Algorithm for the Least-Squares Estimation
temperature are the parameters directly affected the
of NonlinearParameters. SIAM Journal of Applied Mathematics,
behavior of the primary spray flow control valve in coal 11(2):431–441, Jun. 1963.
fired power plant. [17] K. Madsen, H.B. Nielsen, and O. Tingleff. Methods for Non-
Linear Least Squares Problems. Technical University of
Denmark, 2004. Lecture notes.
IX. Conclusion [18] Piasecki, J.S., Zohdy, M.A., Robust hybrid complex motion
control using fuzzy logic, inverse dynamic and PID-Q controllers,
Primary superheater spray control valve modeling (2013) International Review of Automatic Control (IREACO), 6
(1), pp. 19-28.
based on neural network with Levenberg-Marquardt [19] Paulusova, J., Dubravska, M., Neuro-fuzzy predictive control,
learning algorithm was able to produce accurate result (2012) International Review of Automatic Control (IREACO), 5
when compared with actual plant. The control valve (5), pp. 667-672.
action is important in the main steam temperature control
of coal fired power plant.
Generator output, total main steam flow, total spray Authors’ information
flow and secondary superheater outlet steam temperature 1
Faculty Of Mechanical Engineering (FKM), UTM, Skudai Johor,
are four main parameters contributed in the behavior of Malaysia.
the primary superheater spray control valve in coal fired 2
Malakoff Corporation Berhad, Kuala Lumpur, 50430, Malaysia.
power plant
3
High Speed Reacting Flow Laboratory (HiREF), Department Of
Thermofluids, Faculty Of Mechanical Engineering, (FKM), UTM,
References Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
[1] N.A Mazalan, A. A Malek, Mazlan A. Wahid, M. Mailah, 4
Aminuddin Saat, Mohsin M. Sies, " Main Steam Temperature High Speed Reacting Flow Laboratory (HiREF), Department Of
Modeling Based on Levenberg-Marquardt Learning Algorithm," Thermofluids, Faculty Of Mechanical Engineering, (FKM), UTM,
Applied Mechanics and Materials, Vol. 388 (2013) pp. 307-311. Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
[2] Ilhan Kocaarslan, Ertugrul Cam, Hasan Tiryaki (2005). A fuzzy
Logic Controller Application For Thermal Power Plants. Energy N. A. Mazalan currently pursuing Doctors Of
Conversion And Management 47 (2006) pg 442-458. Philosophy (PhD) in Mechanical Engineering at
[3] S. Matsumura, K. Ogata, S. Fujii, H.Shoya and H. Nakamura Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai,
(1994). Adaptive Control For The Steam Temperature Of Thermal Johor, Malaysia. He graduated in Bachelor of
Power Plants. Control Engineering Practice, Vol 2, No. 4, 567- Mechanical Engineering (BME) from Universiti
575. Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) in Bangi, Malaysia
[4] Hui Peng, Toru Ozaki, Yukihiro Toyoda, Keiji Oda (2001). in 2002. He is registered Professional Engineer
Exponential ARX Model-Based Long-Range Predictive Control with Board Of Engineers Malaysia (BEM). His
Strategy For Power Plants. Control Engineering Practice 9 (2001) research interest is process control using neural network at coal fired
pg 1353-1360. power plant .
[5] McCulloch, W.S., and Pitts, W., . A Logical Calculus of The E-mail: norazizi.mazalan@malakoff.com.my
Ideas Immanent In Nervous Activity. Bull. Of Mathematical
Biophysics, 5 (1943) pg 115-133. A. A. Malek graduated in Bachelor Of
[6] von Neumann, J., The General And Logical Theory Of Automata. Mechatronic Engineering from International
Cerebral Mechanisms Of Behavior: The Hixon Symposium, Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in 2008.
Wiley, New York, NY (1951) pg 1-32. His research interest includes robotic controls as
[7] Hebb, D.O., The Organization Of Behavior. John Wiley, New well as process control using neural network.
York, NY, (1949). E-mail: azlan.abmalek@malakoff.com.my
[8] Rosenblatt, F. (1958). The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For
Information Storage And Organization In The Brain.
Psychological Review, 65 (1958) pg 386-408.
[9] Rosenblatt, F. (1960). On The Convergence Of Reinforcement Associate Professor Dr. Mazlan A. Wahid is
Procedures In Simple Perceptrons. Tech. Rep. VG-1196-G-4, currently Head of High Speed Reacting Flow
Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Buffalo, NY, (1960). Laboratory (HiREF), Department of
[10] Rosenblatt, F. (1960). Perceptron Simulation Experiments. Thermofluid, Faculty of Mechanical
Proceedings Of The Institute Of Radio Engineers, 48 (1960) pg Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
301-309. (UTM), Skudai, Johor. He graduated in
[11] Rosenblatt, F. (1962). Principles Of Neurodynamics. Spartan Bachelor of Science in Aeronautical
Books, Washington, (1962). Engineering from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
[12] Ganesan, T., Elamvazuthi, I., Vasant, P., Solving engineering University, Daytona Beach, Florida, USA in 1988. He received his
optimization problems with the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker hopfield Masters degree in Combustion and Energy Studies from University of
neural networks, (2011) International Review of Mechanical Leeds in 1994 and his Doctor of Philosophy from State University of
212
New York, Buffalo in 2003. His research interest includes in the areas
of combustion, energy, heat transfer, turbulence and high speed
combustion.
E-mail: mazlan@fkm.utm.my
Professor Dr. Musa Mailah is currently Deputy

Dean (Academics) at Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
(UTM), Skudai, Johor. He graduated in
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering from
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 1988 and
receive his Masters and PhD from University Of
Dundee in 1992 and 1998 respectively. His
research interest is focus on the area of Applied Mechatronics and
Systems & Control.
E-mail: musa@fkm.utm.my
213
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Fuzzy-Based Controller Design for Intelligent Robot Arm
A. Jebelli, M. C. E. Yagoub, N. Lotfi, Seyyed Hossein Kazemi Riabi
Abstract – In this paper, a fuzzy logic-based control system is proposed, which lays emphasis on
the functionality of the system rather than developing a mathematical model. Applied to an arm
robot, it can achieve precise motion control along with power consumption minimization.
Dynamic equations of the physical modeling of a two-arm planar robot were first derived and then
a Proportional-Integral (PI) fuzzy logic controller was designed to maintain a desired trajectory
of motion. Numerical results show promising performance since the proposed PI-type fuzzy logic
controller can be used for trajectory tracking of dual-arm robots during safely load transportation
tasks. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Arm Robot, Dual-Arm Robot, Fuzzy Logic, PI, PID, PWM
I. Introduction Three of these degrees of freedom allow positioning in

a 3D space, while the last two or three are used for the
First introduced by L.A. Zadeh [1] in 1965, Fuzzy orientation of the end effector.
logic has become a very promising tool in artificial The robot owns seven electrical geared motors that
intelligence area such as in control systems. Fuzzy logic drive the joints to reach a desired location with a
is also widely used in tuning schemes of conventional predefined arm position. The seven motors are:
controllers [2]. In general, there are two main types of  Zed (Up/Down)
fuzzy logic controllers namely, Proportional-Derivative  Shoulder
(PD) and Proportional-Integral (PI) controllers. In both
 Elbow
types, the inputs are usually the error and its derivative
 Yaw
whereas the outputs are different; the output for the PD-
type fuzzy logic controller is the control signal while the  Pitch
output for the PI-type fuzzy logic controller is the  Roll
incremental change in the control signal [3].  Grip
It is well known that PD-type fuzzy logic controllers They also keep tracking of movements by an encoder,
have better transient response but can cause steady state which relates counts measured by the robot in terms of
errors [4]. Bekit et al. used fuzzy logic to tune the gain of distance, angular or linear, covered by the joint.
a combined Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
controller [5]. The proposed controller, which combines
III. Electronics Parts
fuzzy logic and conventional proportional integral (PI)
control techniques, is relatively fast and cost effective. A. Microprocessor
Preliminarily experimental results show that We first designed a control system based on a
controllers with a fuzzy compensator can significantly ATMEGA16L microcontroller to perform all codes and
improve the tracking performance. On the other hand, tasks.
reducing power consumption is very important for an
autonomous robot with limited resources. Therefore, an
optimal control approach was developed to minimize the
energy usage when moving up a piece from a surface.
Primitive behaviors were implemented to provide the
robot with basic capabilities with the help of a finite state
machine driven by signals from robot sensors
representing the status of the robot. The effectiveness of
the proposed approach is demonstrated through
experimental results.
II. System Description

The studied robot has 5 or 6 degrees of freedom.
Fig. 1. Robot Joints and Links Modeling
214
distance, rotational velocity, and/or moving angle of a

robot or robot part.
IV. Fuzzy Controller Design

Design of fuzzy-logic controllers involves three main
stages namely, fuzzification, inference and
defuzzification. In the first stage, membership functions
(MF) are defined for the variables used. Thus, crisp
values are converted to their fuzzy counterparts.
Then, in the second stage a rule base is constructed
with the predefined fuzzy rules, which are based on the
knowledge about the system characteristics coming from
the experts. Since the outputs of fuzzy controllers cannot
Fig. 2. Coordinate frame of Robot be used directly, they are converted, in the last stage, to
crisp values using a suitable defuzzification method (Fig.
This Microcontroller uses a JTAG interface for on- 3, [6]).
chip-debug and up to 8 MIPS throughput at
a8MHzoperating frequency with a 3V supply; it
integrates Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) outputs for
controlling the robot lights and a serial RS232 port for
communication with other devices.
With its small size and weight, the proposed control
system is cost-effective, involving minimum number of
components.
Fig. 3. Three steps for output computation [6]
B. Motors and Gripper
Forward and backward controllers use the whole range
The robot’s five axes and gripper are operated by DC
of the device universe. Therefore, the maximal values of
servo motors, each of them being fitted with an encoder
the error and its changing range should be equal to the
for close-loop control.
limit of the universe. The universe is in the range of -90o
The robot has a servo jaw gripper fitted with rubber
to +90°.
pads. These pads can be removed to allow the attachment
The shapes of the antecedent MFs are triangular and
of other end effectors devices, such as suction pads.
trapezoidal with a specific overlap of 50% to ensure that
Three bevel gears form a differential gear train which
each value of the universe is a member of at least two
moves the wrist joint. As for motors 4 and 5, when they
sets, except possibly for elements at the extreme ends. In
are driven in opposite directions, the wrist pitch moves
the first aspect, the number of the input/output fuzzy sets
up and down. When motors 4 and 5 are driven in the
was four; Encoder is as input and weight sensor and
same direction, the wrist rolls clockwise and
force sensor as outputs.
counterclockwise. A lead screw coupled directly to
For each of the input/output variables, the following
motor 6 causes the gripper to open and close.
eleven linguistic labels are assigned to the membership
functions:
C. Sensors VNL = Very Negative Big, NB= Negative Big,
Sensors allow the robot arm to receive feedback about NM = Negative Medium, NS = Negative Small,
its environment. They collect information, giving the VNS = Very Negative Small, ZR = Zero,
robot a limited sense of sight and sound. Another use of VPS = Very Positive Small, PS = Positive Small,
these sensors is to prevent contact with nearby robots. PM = Positive Medium, PB = Positive Big
Sensors can also assist end effectors by adjusting for part These variables in the premise parts are fuzzy, while
variances. singletons in the consequence part with values between 0
The robot moves to a fixture equipped with FS-100ia and 1 [7]. The actual Mamdani fuzzy system approach
force sensor; this sensor is rugged, highly reliable and was chosen [8], by using MFs in the input and singletons
provides high resolution for robotic applications. in the output control system [9], [10].
Encoder is a sensor attached to a rotating object (such
as a wheel or motor) to measure rotation. By measuring
rotation, the robot can determine displacement, velocity, V. Fuzzification
acceleration, or rotating angle to provide a series of
electrical pulses to the microcontroller. These pulses can A. Membership functions
be used as part of a PID feedback control system to Fuzzy logic uses linguistic variables instead of
determine some desired parameters such as translation numerical variables. In a closed loop control system, the
error (E) between the desired balance and the surface
215
slope and the rate of change of error (∆E) can be labeled B. Construction of the rule base
as Zero (ZR), Negative Big (NB), Negative Medium In conventional controllers, there are control laws,
(NM), Negative Small (NS), Positive Small (PS), which are combinations of numerical values that govern
Positive Medium (PM), Positive Big (PB). In the real the feedback of the controller. In fuzzy logic control, the
world, measured quantities are real numbers (crisp). The equivalent term is rules.
process of converting a numerical variable (real number) Rules are linguistics in nature and allow the operator
into a linguistic label (fuzzy number) is called to develop a control decision in a more familiar human
fuzzification. environment [12]. A typical rule can be written as
To design this microprocessor fuzzy controller, the follows:
input/output membership functions as well as the fuzzy  E = DB-SS
rule table were first created. Then, a code was generated o IF E > 0 turn on the clamp and turn on the derrick
to model the processes of the controller. To setup the o IF E< 0 turn on the derrick.
number of membership functions for an input variable,  ∆E = |E(K)| - |E(K-1)|
labels must initially be determined for the membership o IF ∆E > 0 away from the desired balance
functions. o IF ∆E < 0 near the point & ∆E = 0 is steady
The numbers of labels correspond to the number of o If Error is very large the most suction severe
regions in which the universe should be subdivided. A o If Error is small
scope must be assigned to each membership function that  If ∆E ≤ 0 gentle clamp
numerically identifies the range of input values  If ∆E > 0 clamp powerful
corresponding to a label. The shape of the membership The rules for the PI-type fuzzy logic controller are
function should be representative of the variable. summarized in Table I.
However the available computing resources also restrict
this shape. TABLE I
Generally, a 8-bit microcontroller uses triangular FUZZY LOGIC RULE TABLE
shapes and singletons represented in a point-slope E
VNB NB NM NS VNS ZR VPS PS PM PB VPB
format. Singletons require one byte for descriptions ΔE
while triangular shapes need three bytes: two points NB VVF M M L VVL VVL VVL L M M VVF
located on the variable axis and one slope or grade value. NM VF F F M VVL VVL VVL M F F VF
Figs. 4 show the different membership functions used in NS VF VVF VF M VL VVL VL M VF VVF VF
ZR VVF VF F M VL VVL VL M F VF VVF
this work to fuzzify the inputs [11]. PS VVF VVF VF VF M VL M VF F VVF VVF
PM VVF VVF VF VF F VL F VF VF VVF VVF
PB VVF VVF VVF VF VF VL VF VF VVF VVF VVF
After evaluating the rules, each output membership

function will contain a corresponding membership from
which a numerical (crisp) value must be produced. This
process is called defuzzification [6], [13].
(a)
VI. Defuzzification
Defuzzification plays an important role in a fuzzy
logic- based control system. It is the process in which the
fuzzy quantities defined over the output membership
functions are mapped into a non-fuzzy (crisp) number.
There are a variety of methods to achieve this;
(b) however such discussion is confined to the process used
in this research design.
Singleton fuzzy output has been chosen due to its
quick processing speed [14]:
n
 Bn K n
t 1
Z n
(1)
(c)  Bn
t 1
Figs. 4. Membership Functions of the Fuzzy Logic Controller: (a)
Membership functions when the robot moves to take a piece from a flat
surface, (b) Membership functions when the robot rises up on a with Bn the weight of the rule which is fired and Kn the
90°ramp, (c) Membership Functions of the speed (PWM) singleton output value for that specific rule.
216
VII. PID Control IX. Robot Dynamic Model

Since this work requires a feedback control, a Forward Kinematics is the means by which the pose
Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID) has of the tool tip is determined given the joint angles.
been used [15]. We thus have: A sample of simulated Kinematics parameters is
summarized in Table II. Inverse Kinematics is used to
 1 t de  t   determine the joint angles (required by the robot
u t   k  e t   0 e t  d t   T d  (2) controller) for a desired tool tip pose.
 Ti dt 
TABLE II
KINEMATICS PARAMETERS
VIII. Experiments in Robot Using Balance Joints θi αi(o) ai di Joint Range(o)
1 θ1 0 0 0 ±155
Sensor and Fuzzy PI Control 2 θ2 90 0 110 +135/-135
3 θ3 0 220 0 ±130
One of the drawbacks of using simple fuzzy 4 θ4 0 220 0 ±130
proportional (P) controllers is because in dynamic 5 θ5 90 0 0 ±570
systems, which are unpredictable, the steady-state error is
one of the main design factors to consider and such A. Forward kinematics solution
devices take time to reach a desirable situation. One The implementation was done through MATLAB.
solution is to use fuzzy PI to reduce the steady-state The following coding shows the forward solution for the
error. The rules written for the proposed controller are: robot:
Fuzzy P rules:
IF Error is Low THEN P-Pwm is Max. [ cos(q) -sin(q)cos(a) sin(q)sin(a) acos(q) ]
IF Error is Low AND Error rate is Zero THEN P- [ sin(q) cos(q)cos(a) -cos(q)sin(a) asin(q) ]
Pwm is Medium. [0 sin(a) cos(a) d]
IF Error is Zero THEN P-Pwm is Zero. [0 0 0 1]
IF Error is Low AND Error rate is Zero THEN P-
Pwm is Medium. A1=
IF Error is high THEN P-Pwm is Max. [ c1 0 -s1 a3 c1 ]
Fuzzy I rules: [ s1 0 c1 a3s1 ]
[0 -1 0 d1 ]
IF Error rate is Low THEN I-Pwm is Max. [0 0 0 1]
IF Error rate is Low AND Error is Zero THEN I-
Pwm is Medium. A2=
IF Error rate is Zero THEN I-Pwm is Zero. [ c2 -s2 0 a2 c2 ]
IF Error rate is Low AND Error is Zero THEN I- [ s2 -c2 0 a2 s2 ]
Pwm is Medium. [0 0 1 0]
IF Error rate is High THEN I-Pwm is Max. [0 0 0 1]
The values for P and I membership functions are: A3=

[ c3 0 -s3 a3 c3 ]
P: Min= -90, Zero = 0, Medium = 20, High = 45. [ s3 0 c3 a3s3 ]
I: Zero = 0, Low = 65, High = 95. [0 -1 0 0]
[0 0 0 1]
The Fuzzy PI surface has been plotted using
MATLAB in Fig. 5. The PWM output is based on the PI A4=
controller equation as Pwm = P + I [16]. [ c4 0 -s4 0]
[ s4 0 c4 0]
[0 -1 0 d4 ]
[0 0 0 1]
A5=
[ c5 0 -s5 0]
[ s5 0 c5 0]
[0 -1 0 0]
[0 0 0 1]
B. Inverse kinematics solution

The following coding shows the inverse kinematic
solution:
Fig. 5. Fuzzy PI output surface
217
[ cos(q) -sin(q) cos(a) sin(q)sin(a) acos(q) ] [0 0 0 1]

[ sin(q) cos(q) cos(a) -cos(q)sin(a) asin(q) ] T35 =
[0 sin(a) cos(a) d] [cos(x4+x5), 0, sin(x4+x5), 220*cos(x4)]
[0 0 0 1] [sin(x4+x5), 0, -cos(x4+x5), 220*sin(x4)]
[ 0, 1, 0, 0]
C. Forward Kinematics of Robot [ 0, 0, 0, 1]
Syntax no 1:
Using Matlab program, we obtained the A1, A2, A3, A4, T05 =
A5 matrices: [½*cos(x4+x5-x1+x2+x3) +
1/2*½*cos(x4+x5+x1+x2+x3 ) -sin(x1-x2)
A1 = ½*sin(x4+x5-x1+x2+x3) + ½*sin(x4+x5+x1-x2+x3)
[ cos(x1) sin(x1) 0 0] 110*cos(x4-x1+x2+x3) + 110*cos(x4+x1-x2+x3)
[ sin(x1) cos(x1) 0 0] + 220*cos(x1-x2)]
[ 0 0 1 0] [½*sin(x4+x5+x1+x2+x3)- ½*sin(x4+x5-x1-x2+x3) -
[ 0 0 0 1] cos(x1+x2) -½*cos(x4+x5+x1+x2+x3) +
½*cos(x4+x5-x1-x2+x3)
A2= 110*sin(x4+ x1+x2+x3) - 110*sin(x4- x1-x2+x3) +
[ cos(x2) 0 sin(x2) 0] 220*sin(x1+x2)] [ sin(x3+x4+x5) 0 -
[ sin(x2) 0 -cos(x2) 0] cos(x3+x4+x5) 220*sin(x3+x4) +
[ 0 1 0 110 ] 110+220*sin(x3)]
[ 0 0 0 1] [0 0 0 1]
A3 = Syntax no. 2:
[ cos(x3) -sin(x3) 0 220 ]
For x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x4 = 0, x5 = 0, we obtain
[ sin(x3) cos(x3) 0 220*sin(x3) ]
[ 0 0 1 0]
[ 0 0 0 1] A1 =
[1 0 0 0]
A4 = [0 1 0 0]
[ cos(x4) -sin(x4) 0 220*cos(x4) ] [0 0 1 0]
[ sin(x4) cos(x4) 0 220*sin(x4) ] [0 0 0 1]
[ 0 0 1 0]
[ 0 0 0 1] A2 =
[1 0 0 0]
A5 = [0 0 -1 0]
[ cos(x5) 0 sin(x5) 0] [0 1 0 110 ]
[ sin(x5) 0 -cos(x5) 0] [0 0 0 1]
[ 0 1 0 0]
[ 0 0 0 1] A3 =
[1 0 0 220 ]
5
[0 1 0 0]
with a robot with 5 degrees of freedom ( T05   Ai ) [0 0 1 0]
i 1
[0 0 0 1]
T03=A1*A2*A3;
→ T03 = simple(T03)
A4 =
T35=A4*A5;
→ T35 = simple(T35) [1 0 0 220 ]
T05=T03*T35; [0 1 0 0]
→ T05 = simple(T05) [0 0 1 0]
[0 0 0 1]
we can obtain :
A5 =
T03 = [1 0 0 0]
[½*cos(-x1+x2+x3) + ½*cos (x1-x2+x3) [ 0 0 -1 0]
-½*sin (x1-x2+x3) - ½*sin (-x1+x2+x3) [0 1 0 0]
-sin(x1-x2) 220*cos(x1-x2)] [0 0 0 1]
[ ½*sin(x1+x2+x3) - ½*sin(-x1-x2+x3)
-½*cos(-x1-x2+x3) + ½*cos(+x1+x2+x3) T03 =
-cos(x1+x2) 220*sin(x1+x2)] [1 0 0 220 ]
[ sin(x3) cos(x3) 0 110+220*sin(x3)]
218
[0 0 -1 0] T05C =
[0 1 0 110 ] [ 0.3624 0 0.9320 299.7187 ]
[0 0 0 1] [ 0 -1.0000 0 0]
[ 0.9320 0 -0.3624 315.0486 ]
T35 = [ 0 0 0 1.0000 ]
[ 1 0 0 220 ]
[ 0 0 -1 0] D. Inverse Kinematics of Robot
[0 1 0 0] Given the position and orientation of the end effectors
[0 0 0 1] of the manipulator, as well as the geometric link
parameters, the corresponding joint configurations can be
T05B = determined.
[ 1 0 0 440 ]
[ 0 -1 0 0] Syntax no. 4:
[ 0 0 -1 110 ] Note: x1  1 ,x2   2 ,x3  3 ,x4   4 ,x5  5
[0 0 0 1] Setting x3=0 while using T05B, we get
Syntax no. 3:
X4:
For x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x4 = 1.2, x5 = 0, we obtain:
Eq1 = T05(15) - T05B(15)
x4 = vpa(x4)
A1 =
[1 0 0 0]
X5:
[0 1 0 0]
Eq2 = T05(3) - T05B(3)
[0 0 1 0]
Eq2 = vpa(Eq2)
[0 0 0 1]
x5 = solve(Eq2,x5)
A2 = x5 = vpa(x5)
[1 0 0 0]
[0 0 -1 0] For x1and x2:
[0 1 0 110 ]
[0 0 0 1] Eq3 = T05(5)-T05B(5)
Eq4 = T05(6)-T05B(6)
A3 = Eq3 = simple(Eq3)
[1 0 0 220 ] Eq4 = simple(Eq4)
[0 1 0 0] X1 = solve(Eq3,x1)
[0 0 1 0] Eq4 = subs(Eq4,x1)
[0 0 0 1] X2 = solve(Eq4,x2)
A4 = we obtain:
[0.3624 -0.9320 0 79.7187 ]
[0.9320 0.3624 0 205.0486 ] Eq1 = 220*sin(x4)
[0 0 1.0000 0]
[0 0 0 1.0000 ] When x4 =0
A5 = Eq2 = sin(x4+x5)
[1 0 0 0] Eq2 = sin(x5)
[0 0 -1 0]
[0 1 0 0] When x5 = 0
[0 0 0 1]
Eq3 = -sin(x1-x2)
T03 = Eq4 = -cos(x1+x2) + 1
[1 0 0 220 ]
[0 0 -1 0] If x1 = x2
[0 1 0 110 ]
[0 0 0 1] Eq4 = -cos(2*x2) + 1
T35 = → x2 = 0
[ 0.3624 0 0.9320 79.7187 ]
[ 0.9320 0 -0.3624 205.0486 ] Similarly, setting x3 = 0 while using T05C, we get:
[ 0 1.0000 0 0] Eq1= T05(15) - T05C(15)
[ 0 0 0 1.0000 ] x4 = solve(Eq1, x4)
x4 = vpa(x4)
219
Eq2 = T05(3) - T05C(3) Syntax no. 3:

Eq2 = vpa(Eq2)  All θi are set to zero except for θ4=1.2. This new
x5 = solve(Eq2, x5) value of θ4 was used to demonstrate the previous
x5 = vpa(x5) derivation.
Eq3 = T05(5) - T05C(5)  Obtain the valued 0T5 or T05C.
Eq4 = T05(6) - T05C(6)
Eq3 = simple(Eq3) Syntax no. 4:
Eq4 = simple(Eq4)  Use T05B as the corresponding output matrix. θ3 (or
x1 = solve(Eq3, x1) x3) is set to zero for simplification.
Eq4 = subs(Eq4, x1)  Obtain θ4 (or x4), θ5 (or x5), θ2 (or x2), and θ1 (or x1).
x2 = solve(Eq4, x2)  All θi are compared to the previous values.
 T05C is used as the corresponding output matrix. θ4
thus: (or x4) is now changed to 1.2.
 Obtain the listed θ4 (or x4), θ5 (or x5), θ2 (or x2) and θ1
Eq1 = -3607/1759 + 220*sin(x4)
(or x1) are obtained.
x4 = 1.2000
 Compare the two values of θ4 (or x4) to validate the
Eq2 = sin(x4+x5) - 233/250
code.
→ Eq2 = sin(1.2000+x5) - 0.9320
It can be seen that the value of x4 obtained via the
x5 = - 0.10786e-3 ≈ 0
inverse kinematics matches the value from the forward
Eq3 = -sin(x1-x2)
kinematics matrices by using the same Matlab syntax.
Eq4 = -cos(x1+x2) + 1
Hence the matrix T05 is verified. Using the values
given in Table III, we validated the above procedure with
If x1 =x2:
different values of xi:
Eq4 = -cos(2*x2) + 1 A1=
→ x2 = 0 [ cos(x1) -sin(x1) 0 0]
[ sin(x1) cos(x1) 0 0]
From the previous section when x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, [ 0 0 1 56 ]
x4 = 0, and x5 = 0, we obtain: [ 0 0 0 1]
T05B = A2=
[ 1 0 0 440 ] [ cos(x2) 0 sin(x2) 40*cos(x2) ]
[ 0 -1 0 0] [ sin(x2) 0 -cos(x2) 40*sin(x2) ]
[ 0 0 -1 110 ] [ 0 1 0 120 ]
[0 0 0 1] [ 0 0 0 1]
Similarly, when x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x4 = 1.2, and A3=

x5 = 0, we obtain [ cos(x3) -sin(x3) 0 500*cos(x3) ]
[ sin(x3) cos(x3) 0 500*sin(x3) ]
T05C = [ 0 0 1 0]
[ 0.3624 0 0.9320 299.7187 ] [ 0 0 0 1]
[ 0-1.000 0 0 0]
[ 0.9320 0 -0.3624 315.0486 ] A4=
[0 0 0 1.0000 ] [ cos(x4) -sin(x4) 0 350*cos(x4) ]
[ sin(x4) cos(x4) 0 350*sin(x4) ]
[ 0 0 1 0]
X. Microprocessor Programming [ 0 0 0 1]
and Testing
A5=
The subsequentsteps were followed to code the [ cos(x5) 0 sin(x5) 0]
microprocessor using the mathematical symbol tool [ sin(x5) 0 -cos(x5) 0 ]
(Symbolic Math) of Matlab. [0 1 0 160 ]
[0 0 0 1]
Syntax no 1:
 Obtain 0T3 and 3T5 or T35. Then determine 0T5 or T05 as :
 Determine 0T5 or T05.
T03=A1*A2*A3
Syntax no. 2: T03=simple(T03)
 Set all θi = 0. T35=A4*A5
 Obtain the valued 0T5 or T05B. T05=T03*T35
220
To get the values of 0T5 or T05B, set xi = 0 (i = 1 … 5): [2] Emami M.R., Goldenberg A.A., Turksen, B.I., “Fuzzy-logic
control of dynamic systems: from modeling to design,
“Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 13,
T05B = 2000, pp. 47-69.
[1 0 0 890 ] [3] Lee, J., “On methods for improving performance of PI-type fuzzy
[ 0 -1 0 -160 ] logic controllers,” IEEE Trans. Fuzzy Systems, Vol. 1, 1993, pp.
298-301.
[ 0 0 -1 176 ] [4] Mudi R.K., Pal N.R., “A robust self tuning scheme for PI- and
[0 0 0 1] PD-type fuzzy controllers,” IEEE Trans. Fuzzy systems, Vol.7,
1999, pp. 2-16.
TABLE III [5] Bekit B.W., Seneviratne L.D., Whidborne J.F., Althoefer K.,
KINEMATICS PARAMETERS “Fuzzy PID tuning for robot manipulators,” Annual Conf. of the
Joints θi αi(o) ai di IEEE Industrial Electronics Soc., 1998, pp. 2452-2457.
1 θ1 0 0 56 [6] K.S. Fu, Gonzales R.C., Lee C.S.G., Robotics: Control, Sensing,
2 θ2 90 40 120 Vision and Intelligence, Mcgraw-Hill, 1987.
3 θ3 0 500 0 [7] Gonzalez-Lopez M.J., Recio T., “The ROMIN inverse geometric
4 θ4 0 350 0 model and the dynamic evaluation method,” A.M. Cohen, Ed.,
5 θ5 90 0 160 Computer Algebra for Industry: Problem Solving in Practice, J.
Wiley and Sons, 1993, pp. 117-141.
[8] Wallen, J., “On robot modeling using Maple,” Technical Report
Then, numerical results for the dual arm robot system LiTH-ISY-R-2723, Linköping university, Sweden, 2006.
can be obtained. Figure 6 shows the outputs from the [9] La Meres B.J., “Design and implementation of a fuzzy logic based
microcontroller using the proposed logic coding. The voltage controller for voltage regulation of a synchronous
generator,” B.S. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT,
fuzzy output for -90o to 90 o is x5 = ± [1.5708]. 1998.
Note that the microcontroller integrates many useful [10] Necsulescu D., Mechatronics, Prentice Hall, 2000.
capabilities like PWM outputs for controlling the derrick [11] Jebelli A., Ruzairi A.R., “Intelligent exhaust fan controller
or clamp speed. It is particularly well suited for this type system”, Progress in Process Tomography and Instrumentation
System, Chapter 13, University Teknology Malaysia, 2011.
of applications because of its small size and weight and [12] Panda D., Ramanarayanan V., “Fuzzy logic based control of
relatively low cost. switched reluctance motor”, Int. Conf. on Signal Processing
Applications and Technology, 1998.
[13] Jebelli A., “Intelligent Exhaust Fan Controller System,”
University Technology Malaysia, 2009.
[14] Wakami N., Araki S., Nomura H., “Recent applications of fuzzy
logic to home appliances”, Int. Conf. IECON, 1993, pp. 155-160.
[15] Wang L., Adaptive Fuzzy System and Control, Guofang Industrial
Press, Changsha, China, 1995.
[16] Mohsen Habibi Tehrani, Ala Eldin Abdallah Awouda, Rosbi Bin
Mamat, Microcontroller-Based Fuzzy Logic Controller for a
Small Autonomous Underwater Robot, (2010) International
Review of Automatic Control (IREACO), 3. (1), pp. 60-65.
Ali Jebelli received the B.Sc. degree in
Electrical Engineering from Iran in 2004. He
Fig. 6. Plotting the output values from the microcontroller received his Master degree in Electrical -
Mechatronic & Automatic Control from
University Technology Malaysia (UTM) in
XI. Conclusion March 2010. He is currently a graduate student
at the University of Ottawa, Canada.
This paper deals with the kinematic and dynamic E-mail: ajebe080@uottawa.ca
analysis of a dual arm robot used in tasks requiring Mustapha C. E. Yagoub received the Dipl.-Ing.
handling and transportation of a load in a horizontal degree in Electronics and the Magister degree in
plane. First, a physical model of the robot was obtained. Telecommunications, both from the École
Then, a mechanical analysis of the model was carried Nationale Polytechnique, Algiers, Algeria, in
1979 and 1987, respectively, and the Ph.D.
out and a PI-type fuzzy logic controller, which can degree from the Institut National Polytechnique,
produce the required joint torque, was successfully Toulouse, France, in 1994. After few years
applied to the robot system. Indeed, the PI-type fuzzy working in industry as a design engineer, he
logic controller allows the robot arms to maintain the joined the Institute of Electronics, Université des Sciences et de la
Technologie Houari Boumédiene, Algiers, Algeria, first as an Lecturer
desired trajectory with high accuracy during the load during 1983-1991 and then as an Assistant Professor during 1994-1999.
transportation. The effectiveness of the proposed From 1996 to 1999, he has been head of the communication
approach was demonstrated through experimental results. department. From 1999 to 2001, he was a visiting scholar with the
Department of Electronics, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada,
working on neural networks applications in microwave areas. In 2001,
References he joined the School of Information Technology and Engineering
(SITE), University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada, where he is
[1] Zadeh L.A., “Fuzzy sets,” Information and Control, Vol. 8, 1965, currently a Professor. His research interests include RF/microwave
pp. 338-353. CAD, RFID design, neural networks for high frequency applications,
221
planar antennas, and applied electromagnetics. He has authored or

coauthored over 300 publications in these topics in international
journals and referred conferences. He authored Conception de circuits
linéaires et non linéaires micro-ondes (Cépadues, Toulouse, France,
2000), and co-authored Computer Manipulation and Stock Price Trend
Analysis (Heilongjiang Education Press, Harbin, China, 2005). Dr.
Yagoub is an Editorial Board member of the International Journal of
RF and Microwave Computer-Aided Engineering, a senior member of
the IEEE, and a registered member of the Professional Engineers of
Ontario, Canada.
E-mail: myagoub@eecs.uottawa.ca
Nafiseh Lotfi received the B.Sc. degree in Psychology from Iran and
degree in 2008. She is currently working on several research projects
involving behavioral neuroscience.
E-mail: nafiseh.lotfi@hotmail.com
Seyyed Hossein Kazemi Riabi received the

B.Sc. degree with Honours in Electronic
Engineering in 1997 from Iran. He received his
Master and Ph.D in Telecommunication
Engineering from Ferdowsi University, Iran in
2000 and 2009. At present he is a Professor in
the School of Engineering at Quchan Institute of
Engineering and Technology (QIET), Iran.
E-mail: sh.kazemi@qiet.ac.ir
222
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Feasibility Study for Energy Recovery

from Internal Combustion Engine’s Waste Heat
Musthafah M. T.1, Safarudin H.1, R. A. Bakar2, M. A. Salim1, A. M. Mohd Shafie1
Abstract – To mitigate the world’s energy problems and global warming, researchers are
focusing on renewable energy, regenerate energy, efficient energy usage and finding alternative
energy. In an automobile, Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) also produces heat which is released
as waste heat which have a potential to generate energy. Power distribution of an automotive is
showing that only about 20% of the power from engine combustion is convert to wheel or driving
power and more than 60% of the power will be wasted. One way to convert heat to useful work is
by using Rankine cycle. Research study to described the effects of thermal properties of an organic
working fluid on the turbine power had also been reported. This research is to investigate the
actual potential energy and power from the waste heat released by the an actual passenger car’s
ICE through radiator. Feasibility study is conducted, to investigate the capability of the system
and to help developing a system that can be used in an actual automobile. With the collected data,
an efficient waste heat recovery system for the passenger car’s engine will be develop in the
future. From the experiment result, the power output up to 800 W from heat released in the
radiator as the temperature difference about 35 C (heat in and out difference). From this study, it
is found out there is a significant problem when the radiator cooling fan operates. The power from
the waste heat intended to reduce and also becoming unstable. A power storage system and the
radiator cooling fan control will be vital to obtain high usable energy from ICE heat. Copyright ©
Keywords: Energy Recovery, Rankine Cycle, Waste Heat, Potential Power, Engine Radiator
Nomenclature Power distribution of an automotive is showing that

only about 20% of the power from engine combustion is
m Mass flow rate, kg s transform to wheel or driving power, where else about
W Work, kJ kg 70% is release as waste heat [1]. To use energy
Enthalpy, kJ kg efficiently, this waste heat have to be reused as a power
h
supply to other system in the automobile.
n Polytrophic index The research organic Rankine cycle (RC) to convert
P Pressure, MPa heat into useful work have been done for many years.
T Temperature, °C or K Research study to described the effects of thermal
W P Pump power, W properties of an organic working fluid on the turbine
W T Turbine power, W power had also been reported [2]. Previous research by
the author showed also that the expansion ratio and
Q C Heat release at condenser, W turbine efficiency should play an important role to
Q E Heat gain in evaporator, W achieve high efficiency of an organic RC system [3].
Commercial RC system the converts waste heat into
v Specific volume, m3 kg electricity were also introduced [4], [5]. The research to
use waste heat from automobile engine had been done
but until now there is no application to actual vehicle due
I. Introduction to efficiency problems.
To mitigate the world’s energy problems and global There were also two heat resources that have been
warming, researchers are focusing on renewable energy, studied in the ICE vehicle. The main study was to
regenerate energy, efficient energy usage and finding recover energy from heat released in the exhaust
alternative energy. manifold line. The other method is to recover energy
For an automobile, engines also produce heat which is from heat released in the radiator system. In this research
now released as waste heat which have a potential to the Rankine cycle energy recovery system was built
generate energy. inside an actual automobile for feasibility study, to
investigate the capability of the system and to develop a
223
Musthafah M. T., Safarudin H., R. A. Bakar, M. A. Salim, A. M. Mohd Shafie
system that can be used in every automobile. A compact Q E  m WF h3'  h2'

  (5)
RC system to be used in the engine room will be design
and tested in the actual vehicle running condition. The
potential power output from this RC system was II.2. Potential Energy Calculation
measured to investigate and analyzed the possible
amount of energy/work that can be used from the waste In this study, it is measured the possible energy that
heat released in the radiator of the passenger car. can be achieved from the heat source from ICE Q E . This
is done by measuring the temperature and pressure of the
hot water flow out from the engine, before it enters the
II. Experiment of Rankine Cycle radiator for cooling purposed. The value can be achieved
for Waste Heat Recovery using the Eq. (5). Although there are researches
II.1. Rankine Cycle Outline concluded that the expansion ratio inside an expander is
an important for power output [8], the potential energy
Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the operation principle of from heat that wanted to reuse is needed to be known
a closed Rankine cycle. The organic Rankine cycle before can be decided whether the energy is can be
(ORC) is a Rankine cycle in which an organic working recovered efficiently or not.
fluid is used [6], [7]. The Rankine cycle consists of five For all equations, enthalpies and entropies were
main components: a pump, evaporator, expander, calculated using the given pressure and temperature for
condenser, and working fluid. each process. REFPROP ver.8 developed by the NIST
The evaporator and condenser are heat exchangers [9] should be used in the calculation.
which absorb heat into the cycle and release it from the
cycle. The cycle is started by the pump pushing the
working fluid to the evaporator. In the evaporator, the hot II.3. Experiment Setup
source water heats the working fluid up to the saturated Rankine cycle is used to convert waste heat into
or superheated vapor state. Then, the vapor expands and energy in this waste heat recovery system. The waste
rotates the expander to produce power. After the vapor from ICE can be obtained in the exhaust manifold and
leaves the turbine, the cold source water cools and also from the engine radiator system.
condenses the working fluid into the liquid state in the
condenser. Then, the pump re-circulates the fluid. Fig. 2 WT
shows the pressureenthalpy  p  h  diagram
corresponding to Fig. 1. 3 Expander
Process 1  2 shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 is the
isentropic compression by the pump. The ideal pump Evaporator
power is given by: . 4
QE
W P  m WF  h2  h1  (1) Condenser
Process 2  3 is the heating of the working fluid at a 2 1

constant pressure in the evaporator. The heat absorbed by .
Pump QC
the working fluid is given by:
WP
Q E  m WF  h3  h2  (2)
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of operation of closed Rankine cycle
Process 3  4 is the isentropic expansion in the

expander. The expander power is given by:
Pressure P [MPa]
WT  m WF  h3  h4  (3) 2 3
Process 4  1 is the cooling of the working fluid at a

constant pressure in the condenser. The heat released 1 4
from the working fluid is given by:
Q C  m WF  h4  h1  (4)
Enthalpy h [kJ/kg]
Potential power released from ICE can be calculated
by the following equation: Fig. 2. Diagram of  p  h for closed Rankine cycle
224
In this study it is focused on the waste heat released in TABLE I

SPECIFICATION FOR A PROTON GEN-2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
the radiator water.
Description Specification
It is measured the possible energy from the heat that Number of cylinders 4 in-line
can be converted into electric energy by calculating the Combustion chamber Swirl chamber
potential energy from circulate cooling water in the Total displacement cm 1.597 cc
radiator. The water or coolant from the radiator will enter Cylinder bore × Piston stroke 76.0 × 88
Bore/stroke ratio 0.86
the ICE to absorb the heat from the ICE. Compression ratio 10.0:1
Then this coolant will be condensed in the radiator by
releasing the heat to ambient. The data from the waste
heat were measured to understand its potential power. III. Results and Discussion
The experimental work was conducted using a Proton
Gen-2 car with 1.6 liter petrol engine. The detail of the From the data has been measured, the graphs of
engine specifications are listed as in Table I. potential power released by heat vs. time is plotted. In
The cooling water that flow to the radiator was Fig. 5, it is observed that the energy increased as the
reconnected to a heat exchanger. After flowing out from temperature differences increased.
the heat exchanger the cooling water will enter the Fig. 6 showed that 10 minutes after the engine started,
radiator for condensing process. the power in the circulated water (from engine to
At this heat exchanger the heat temperature and radiator) increased drastically. The reason for this is
pressure will be measured to obtain the potential energy because the circulated water have changed phase from
and power output that can be re-used from the radiator liquid to vapor and due to the changes, potential energy
cooling water. or the enthalpy increased.
The temperature differences between circulate water
I.C.E. in and out are about 43 to 49 C, but the enthalpy
Hot water differences are in the range of 2495 kJ/kg to 2503 kJ/kg
from engine which gave higher potential power.
Water
(heat source)
flow into
radiator
Pressure
Pressure
sensor, P1
sensor, P2
Thermocouple,
T1 Thermocouple,
T2
Cooling
water out
Cooling
water in
Cooling water Heat Exchanger
flow direction Hot water
flow direction
Fig. 3. Equipment setup to measure energy from ICE released heat
Circulate hot water in Fig. 5. Potential power measured 1 minute after engine start
(Heat source)
P3’ Cooling
T3’ Water out
Heat
Engine Radiator
Exchanger
Cooling
Water in
T2’ P2’
Circulate
water out
Fig. 4. Schematic of the experimental setup

Fig. 6. Potential power measured 10 minute after engine start
225
iv. Pressure and temperature play an important role to

obtain what phase that the hot water is at, and it will
determine the power output from the hot water.
From the above conclusions, it has suggested a power
storage system will be necessary to keep the unstable
energy from the heat recovery system in ICE vehicle. It
also suggests using a radiator fan control system to keep
the temperature differences at an optimum condition.
Acknowledgements
Fig. 7. Potential power measured 20 minutes after engine start
This research is supported by Green Technology
with radiator fan operating Vehicles Research Group (GTeV) and funded by the
Short Term Grant No. PJP/2012/FKM(16A)/S01092
Fig. 7 showed an intermittent power decreased after scheme from Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka.
engine running for longer period. At this condition, the
circulate water temperature and pressure was affected by
the radiator cooling fan operation. This showed that References
when the radiator fan started to cool down the circulate [1] Ibaraki, S., Endo, T., Kojima, Y., Takahashi, K., Baba, T. and
water, its potential power is not stable, between 63 W to Kawajiri, S., Study of efficient on-board waste heat recovery
788 W. At this stage temperature difference between system using Rankine cycle, Japan Society of Automotive
Engineers, Vol. 28, 2007, 307-313.
water at heat exchanger in and out are about 38 to 40 C [2] T. Yamamoto, T. Furuhata, N. Arai, and K.Mori, Design and
but the pressure difference resulted the enthalpy testing of the organic Rankine cycle, Energy, Vol. 26, 2001, 239-
difference varied from 160 to 2469 kJ/kg. 251.
From the results it shows that the potential power in [3] Musthafah M.T., Yamada N. and Hoshino T., Efficiency of
compact organic Rankine cycle system with rotary-vane-type
the circulated water from ICE to radiator is unstable. It expander for low-temperature waste heat recovery. International
will be difficult to use the potential power directly but it Journal of Environment Science and Engineering, Vol. 2 No.1,
could be converted it into useable energy, so it have to 11-16.
keep the power. A power storage system is definitely [4] Freepower, Introduction to Freepower ORC systems, June,
(2005), (online) available from <http: www.freepower .co.uk>,
vital to capture the potential power produced. One way of (accesesed 2009-08-20).
storing the power is by converting it to electric energy [5] EletraTherm Green Machine, "ElectraTherm waste heat
and keeps it in a battery which it can be used the power generator," 2008, (online) available from
when it is necessary. <http://www.electratherm.com/products.html>, (accessed 2009-
11-29). -
[6] O. Badr, S. Naik, P.W. O. Callaghan, and S.D. Probert, Expansion
machine for a low power- output steam Rankine-cycle engine,
IV. Conclusion Applied Energy, Vol.39, 1991, 93-116.
[7] Y.Glavatskaya, G. Olivier, O.F. Shonda, P. Podevin, Heat
The experimental work to measure the potential power Recovery Systems For Passengers Vehicles, Scientific Bulletin
from the waste heat released in the radiator system. From Automotive series, No. 21, 93-104.
the data collected the temperature differences between [8] Musthafah M. T. and Yamada N., Characteristics of small ORC
hot source and the cold source after the heat exchanger system for low temperature waste heat recovery, JSME, Journal
of Environment and Engineering, Vol. 4, 2009, 375–385.
and its pressure play an important role to decide the [9] NIST, Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties
power available from the waste heat. The conclusions of Database (REFPROP) Version 8.0, U.S. Department of
our studies are as follows: Commerce, Maryland, 2002.
i. The temperature difference should be more that 30 C
to gain minimum energy of 37 W.
ii. To achieve a high potential power from the waste
1
heat released in the radiator, the circulate water Centre for Advanced Research on Energy, Faculty of Mechanical
should be best in a vapour saturation phase. When the Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya,
76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia.
circulate water in liquid phase the potential power
achieved is only about 64 W, where else in the vapour 2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang,
saturated phase the power achieved can be up to 788 26600 Pekan, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia.
W.
iii. The waste heat released in a radiator can produced Musthafah M. T., is a Deputy Dean of
Research and Graduate Studies, Faculty of
power but this power output is not stable due to the Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknikal
effect from radiator fan. The energy recovery system Malaysia Melaka. His current research interest
should take into account this effect in order to reuse includes internal combustion engine, heat
the energy produced. The actual power obtained will transfer and renewable energy.
be far below the maximum power, which is recorded
in range of 400 to 600 W.
226
Safarudin H., is a Senior Lecturer at Green

Technology Vehicles Research Group, Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka. His current research interest
includes green vehicles, thermodynamics and
fluid mechanics.
R. A. Bakar is a Professor at Faculty of

Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia
Pahang. His current research interest includes
internal combustion engine, solar energy,
renewable energy and heat transfer.
M. A. Salim (Corresponding author) is a Senior

Lecturer at Green Technology Vehicles
Research Group, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka. His current research interest includes
structural dynamics, vibration control and
hybrid materials.
A. M. Mohd Shafie is a postgraduate Student at Green Technology

Vehicles Research Group, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka. His research interest includes
heat transfer and internal combustion engine.
227
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Applicability of Robotic Welding for Aluminum Boat Manufacturing
Paul Kah, Esa Hiltunen, Raimo Suoranta, Jukka Martikainen
Abstract – Robotic welding is commonly viewed as one of the most effective ways to reduce costs
and increase competitiveness in welding production. However, several requirements need to be
taken into account when exploiting welding robotics. The main issues to be considered are the
construction of the item to be welded, for example, the joint types, and accessibility to weld sub-
assemblies such as stiffeners and cross supports. Furthermore, the type of base material places
some restrictions upon the sensing technology applied. This work studied the robotic welding of an
aluminum boat. Several sensor technologies were examined and welding experiments undertaken
to clarify their potential. Redesign of sub-assemblies of the aluminum boat through modularization
and selection of suitable welding processes for aluminum welding are found to provide the optimal
solution for the adoption of sensor guided robotic welding. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy
Keywords: Aluminum Welding, GMAW, GTAW, Optical Sensing, Real-Time Sensing, Robotic
Welding, TAST
I. Introduction Welding automation and robotics offer an effective

tool in the context of dynamic industrial markets.
Aluminum alloys are characterized by their high Robotic production set-ups exhibit the best “cost per
resistance to corrosion, high thermal and electrical unit” performance for both mass and low volume
conductivity, good strength, outstanding ductility production.
properties, and low density, which is reflected in the low Manufacturing of unsophisticated products with
mass of the product. extensive manual work is moving to low-salary regions
These features ensure their suitability for a wide of the world and to ensure the future of manufacturing
variety of industrial applications. plants in high-income, high-cost developed countries,
Welding is used as a joining process to join aluminum manual work should be minimized and replaced with
alloys in many industries such as the automotive, robots wherever possible. However, cost-effective
maritime, and aerospace industries. Many welding robotic welding requires relatively large welding
difficulties arise when joining aluminium structural volumes, and products thus need to be constructed in
elements that have to possess strictly defined and such a way that the same parts can be used in several end
stringent mechanical properties. The most common products.
welding problems are due to the chemical and structural
composition of the precipitation-hardened alloys, which
can cause a considerable drop in the mechanical II. Automated Welding Processes
properties of the welding zone, as well as heighten the for Welding of Aluminum Boats
risk of hot cracking.
One particular problem is the affinity of aluminum for The most widely used processes for the welding of
oxygen: aluminum typically has a surface layer of aluminum boats are GMAW and GTAW welding. The
aluminum oxide that impedes the flow of molten metal in latter is preferred in the welding of thin sheets (<3 mm)
the weld pool during welding and leads to the formation and where good aesthetic appearance is required. Friction
of very poor welds containing oxide inclusions. Another stir welding as a solid-state process is becoming more
problem is that aluminum absorbs high quantities of competitive, thanks to the latest developments combining
hydrogen when it melts, which generates hydrogen articulated arm robots with high-speed motor spindles[4].
porosity when the weld pool solidifies [1], [2], [3]. However, the process still remains difficult to utilize
The manufacturing industry in developed countries is in the welding of fillet joints and its usage is therefore
under considerable strain as international competition restricted mainly to the welding of panels.
forces companies to strive for higher efficiency.
Automated welding is widely considered by industry II.1. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
as not only a way of augmenting productivity and
lowering manufacturing costs, but also a way of Automation of gas tungsten arc welding (or tungsten
improving weld quality. inert gas, TIG) for aluminum alloys is mostly used with
228
P. Kah, E. Hiltunen, R. Suoranta, J. Martikainen
alternate current (AC-GTAW) because of the lack of tolerances when used to weld thin aluminum at high
oxide layer removal with DCEN (DC electrode negative) welding speeds (higher than 2 m/min) [11]. Aluminum
[5]. Automation is achieved by adapting manual GMAW offers the advantages of high welding speeds,
techniques using a conventional robotic manipulator. smaller heat affected zones than GTAW, excellent oxide
Most of the welding robots are “teach and playback” film removal, and all-positional welding [5]. GMAW is
robots, which commonly need sensing technology and known for its versatility and high deposition rates [7] and
control to overcome welding variables like errors in pre- is the most widely used manual arc welding process for
machining or fitting of the workpiece and in-process the joining of aluminum [5]. Some typical aluminum
thermal distortions [6]. Power sources with pre-flow, GMAW welding applications, in addition to boat
post-flow and high frequency arc starting control building, include general construction, ship building,
capabilities are normally used. The drawback of GTAW railroad vehicles, storage tanks, pressure vessels, large
mechanization is the need to provide the welding fixture diameter pipelines, and armored vehicles [7].
with more accurate and consistent weld preparation than
required by a manual welder [5].
The benefits of aluminum GTAW are high weld III. Sensors for Robotic Welding
quality, good aesthetic appearance, and the possibility to Automated welding can be applied without the use of
weld in all positions. Drawbacks are slow speed, low intelligent control if there is total control of part
deposition rate, limited use for small material thickness, tolerances. This means that automated weld joints are
and the need for highly skilled operatives. GTAW is consistent and repeatable. In reality, weld joints often
normally suitable for applications in which weld integrity deviate greatly from the programmed weld path, the
and aesthetics are more important than speed. Typical geometry of the groove may vary, in-process thermal
aluminum GTAW applications are boat building, piping distortions may occur, and penetration cannot always be
systems, chemical and pressure vessels, gas bottles, thin ensured. Consequently, sensing technology that allows
sheet metal work, and work requiring intricate torch automated cells to have the ability to adjust welding
manipulation [7]. variables and parameters to encountered welding process
imperfections and uncertainties is of great importance in
II.2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) the progression from a teaching and playback level to an
intelligent and adaptive robotic welding process.
A continuously fed wire process, gas metal arc Aluminum sensing can be difficult because of the high
welding (or metal inert gas, MIG) is easily mechanized reflectivity of the material [13], its sensitivity to heat
[5]. When welding aluminum, special control is needed, input, its heat conducting properties [14], and the need to
normally adaptation of the welding parameters for the obtain information from arc current data [15].
four welding steps: striking an arc, weld formation, arc
end, and burn back [8]. Starting the arc can be the most
difficult step in aluminum GMAW [8]. III.1. Touch Sensing
Typically, GMAW automatized welding cells use a Touch sensing (or tactile sensing) is a low-cost,
DC pulsed power source AC pulsed GMAW is software-based seam finding system. This system works
sometimes used because of its reduced heat input without by using the welding electrode, nozzle, or other sensing
reducing the amount of deposit metal [9] and reduced pointer to make electrical contact with the part (Fig. 1).
average temperature of molten droplets transferred [10], The robot stores the position data and then
which makes it useful for welding thin aluminum alloy automatically makes adjustments to the weld path prior
sheets, for example, in the manufacturing of car bodies to the arc start. Touch sensing can make adjustments in
[11]. one, two, or three dimensions [15]. The robotic process
When taken out of the welder’s hand, the GMAW usually starts with the robot in a search start position; a
torch can be used at welding currents limited only by the safe voltage is added to either the wire or the gas nozzle
torch or power source and at a higher travel speed than (or a probe attached somewhere near the welding torch)
can be achieved by manual welding[5]. Automated and the robot starts moving towards the expected joint
GMAW is more flexible than GTAW and able to weld position.
more complex weld shapes. Sensor technology may be
needed to provide correction for component tolerances
and fit-up variation, ensuring that the weld path is
optimized for every individual workpiece [12].
Drawbacks of automating the GMAW of aluminum
are the need for more accurate and consistent weld
preparations, the need for more planning to fully realize
the benefits, and the need for more capital to purchase
manipulators and handling equipment [5]. DC pulsed
GMAW can also bring problems because of burn
through, the formation of holes in the bead, and low gap Fig. 1. Touch sensing representation [15]
229
When the robot touches the part, the point of contact One disadvantage with vision sensing is the fact that
is stored and compared to the original expected the hardware used can be cumbersome and the robot may
coordinates. The robot path is then adapted to the new not be able to weld in difficult positions.
data and the weld is executed. Touch sensing has been
used for adaptive purposes, because it is able to make Real-Time Passive Vision Sensing
several touches on a butt joint and can choose welding Passive vision sensing is a classification of vision
parameters based on the calculated joint volume [16]. sensor systems in which imaging operates with arc light
One disadvantage of touch sensing is the increase in illumination [19]. Passive vision sensing is able to obtain
cycle time caused by performing the search routines. a large amount of information related to the process and
Extra time of typically from 3–5 seconds per joint seam.
dimension has been reported. In addition, for touch The approach is restricted by the ability to process the
sensing to be at its most effective, the part must have images captured, and eliminating the disturbance of arc
clearly defined edges for the sensor to find [15]. light is a challenge. Research on real-time passive vision
sensing of the seam, gap and penetration has been
conducted with GTAW of aluminum using one, two or
III.2. Through-the-Arc Seam Tracking three CCD (charged-coupled device) cameras. The use of
Through-the-arc seam tracking (TAST) is another filters, dimmers and image processing algorithms makes
low-cost welding sensing technology, and it is widely it possible to control the process intelligently [14], [18],
applied in robotic GMAW. It uses welding current [20]-[22].
feedback to determine the vertical position of the torch. The seam direction and gap size can be tracked using
As the contact tip to work distance (CTWD) increases, one CCD camera looking at the top face surface of the
the current in GMAW should get smaller, and as the weld (Figs. 2). Based on the spectral character of the
contact tip to work distance shortens, the amount of aluminum alloy being welded, a wideband filter and two-
current should increase. TAST is also used with a dimmer glasses can be used for the sensor [20]. The filter
weaving motion of the robot to determine the lateral is a 590–710 nm glass filter, and only light with a
position of the torch in the weld joint. Unfortunately, wavelength longer than 590 nm or shorter than 710 nm
TAST is considered unsuitable for aluminum welding may pass through it; therefore, it filters out the high and
because the change in the current due to a change in intense noise.
stick-out is not significant enough for tracking [15]. The image is then processed to measure.
The use of voltage feedback signals has been found to
be successful in real-time tracking of the height of the
torch; this system is described in the section III.4 [17].
III.3. Vision Sensing

Vision sensing is widely used in aluminum welding
due to problems encountered with through-the-arc seam
tracking and the abundance of information it can bring.
Vision sensing can be divided into different types
according to the source: passive mode (imaging with arc
light illumination) and active mode (imaging with a
supplementary high-intensity light source) [18].
Prior to the welding process, vision sensing can be
used to locate the initial weld position with precision.
This is achieved economically using a fixed camera on
the end-effector of the welding robot to observe the
welding environment and to guide the weld torch to the
initial weld position. As aluminum reflects visible light
in the whole wave spectrum and can have the function of
a mirror, different algorithms from the ones used with
steel have to be used to process the imaging data [13].
In robot guidance, the operator calibrates the camera
and teaches the weld path on an ideal part.
This reference image is stored, and for each part
thereafter, the camera takes a picture before an arc is
established. The robot then performs a pattern match
between the reference image and the new image,
calculating any offsets and adjusting the weld path Figs. 2. (a) GTAW robot welding system
accordingly [15]. (b) seam gap viewed by CCD [20]
230
The penetration of aluminum GTAW can be tracked Real-Time Active Vision Sensing
in real time by acquiring images from the back side of Active vision sensing is a classification of vision
the weld; weld pool geometry can also be measured sensing in which imaging operates with a high-intensity
effectively [14], [18] [23]. Two CCD cameras are used, light source [19]. Thus, laser vision tracking provides a
one for the topside of the weld and the other for the three-dimensional real time method for tracking weld
backside [18]. These cameras use filters and dimmers seams. A laser sensor is attached to the robot arm, a laser
that are chosen based on the characteristics of aluminum diode projects a line onto the part, and the camera detects
welding, such as high reflectance. It is possible to the the joint seam based on the distortion in the laser line.
seam edges and direction control the penetration of the Since the laser operates on a single wavelength, it is
weld by adjusting the pulse current amplitude with not susceptible to interference from ambient light.
information obtained from measuring the backside width Despite its extensive use in many industries, active vision
of the weld. The edges of the topside geometry of the sensing has many of the disadvantages associated with
weld pool are obtained using image processing (filtering, laser vision, namely, its high cost, inability to track
edge detection, binary processing, and edge thinning) and complex seams, and errors associated with look-ahead
network edge extraction; however, this data is not used detection.
for the control of the process. In [27], laser vision tracking was used to achieve the
Three CCD cameras were used in [14], to obtain following features: precise measurement of groove
images of the back topside (where the weld pool can be geometry; additional measurement for the pre-weld
observed), front topside (where the workpiece gap and assembly and its quality control; seam tracking,
welding direction can be observed), and backside (where including automatic torch lateral alignment and height
the back of the weld pool and the penetration can be adjustment; and online adaptive welding parameter
observed), as illustrated in Fig. 3 This application of adjustment, including welding current and wire feeding
pulsed GTA welding of aluminum uses methods similar speed in automatic GTAW of aluminum.
to those of GTAW for the penetration control. However,
pulse AC-GTAW has been used for real-time sensing
systems because, when the current is at peak level, the III.4. Composite Sensing
arc light is still very intensive even though there is a filter Composite sensing is the use of two different sensing
system. When the current is at base level, the weld pool systems together (for example a vision sensing system
can be well observed. A system that tracks the width of and an arc sensing system) to try to achieve a synergic
the weld pool using a CCD camera and controls the pulse effect. In [17], a passive vision system, employing two
duty ratio and the wire-feed speed of the process has CCD cameras with the usual filters and dimmers, was
been successfully applied for aluminum welding using used to capture the welding image during the period of
pulsed GMAW [24]. base current as a way of achieving plane weld seam
Likewise, in the vision sensing of aluminum welding tracking. When the pulse rising time was detected, the
with GTAW, the images are captured during the low arc sensor system began to acquire voltage signals,
current bringing the ability to control the process and determining the height of the arc after processing the
wire feed rate to compensate for gap size disparities. signal. Thus, three-dimensional weld seam tracking
Tracking and control of the wire extension, thus could be achieved.
controlling the wire-feed rate, has been successfully
applied to meet the control requirements of wire
extension stability [25]. Coupling the two prior sensing IV. Case: Aluminum Boat
cameras permits control of the wire extension and weld Aluminum boats are very popular thanks to their
pool width at the same time [26]. No application for durability, practicality, and seaworthiness. The light but
real-time seam tracking using passive vision has been durable aluminum material (typically alloy AW5754)
reported for aluminum GMAW. tolerates shocks, scratches and bottom contact without
deforming or structural deterioration. It does not absorb
water, nor does it bum, crack, fade or rust. Furthermore,
it withstands extreme temperatures and weather,
extending the boating season from early spring to late
autumn in Nordic conditions.
There are two different alternatives in the construction
of aluminum boats: the hull is either made of aluminum
or it is a combination of aluminum and fiberglass. In both
structures, the hull consists of bottom sheets, side
enclosures, stiffeners, and a deck with or without a cabin.
Side enclosures are made separately as sub-assemblies
(either welded or riveted). They are packed with
Fig. 3. Three directional image acquired polyurethane to enable floating and prevent the boat from
in GTAW aluminum welding [14]
sinking should it be filled with water.
231
In traditional boat hull manufacturing, the first step is A new aluminum boat hull was designed based on a
to weld the bottom sheets. In an upside-down position, 3D model of the old boat hull. Catia V5 software was
the sheets are placed on top of a welding fixture (which used for the modelling. As a solution to the accessibility
gives a preliminary shape for the boat bottom) and butt problems, the large transversal structure was changed to
welded. The side enclosures are connected to the bottom a longitudinal structure, which gave more space for robot
sheets using especially designed extruded profiles (e.g. operations.
AW6060). The profile has grooves for both the bottom The complexity of the stiffener structure was reduced
sheet and side enclosure, ensuring fluent positioning and by 31 parts, based on the modeling process. The reduced
easy welding. This profile also helps the boat to get on number of parts also made it possible to weld the new
plane while boating. structure robotically since the robot welding gun could
The last step in this position is to weld the transom on reach all the welds easily. In addition, since the new
the hull. The boat is then turned to the normal position structure was designed specifically for robotic welding,
and inner welds are welded. The stiffener structure inside the stiffener module can be loaded on the fixture in a
the hull consists of longitudinal and transversal separate working point outside the robot welding station
stiffeners, which are connected to each other by and no tack welding is needed.
triangular brackets (Fig. 4). Finally, the boat is turned A reduction in the number of parts has a great
upside down and long external welds (side influence on the time consumed to pick up, locate, and
enclosure/bottom sheets) are welded. In addition, some fix them. In the new structure, this time is less than 4
extra longitudinal L-profiles are welded on the bottom minutes, whereas in the old structure it took up to 18
sheets to help the boat to get up on plane. minutes. In practice, the time difference will be much
bigger, because the current structure needs separate
measuring instruments in order to locate parts in the
V. Results and Discussion correct positions. Assembling the new designed structure
V.1. Design Considerations will be much faster since the parts are automatically
located in their correct positions and are no longer tack
An old stiffener structure of an aluminum boat, as welded prior to welding.
shown in Fig. 4, was examined from the point of view of
robotic welding. Accessibility was somewhat of a
challenge for robotic welding due to limited space inside V.2. Welding Considerations
the hull of the aluminum boat. In addition, the large An aluminum boat is a challenging subject for
number of triangular brackets made positioning for tack automated welding. Imperfect dimensional accuracy of
welding rather difficult. parts, cramped structures and partly uncontrollable
The actual welds are short, because the brackets are deformations resulting from the welding sequence,
welded to both the longitudinal and transversal stiffeners. among others, force aluminum boats to be welded
manually at present.
The aim of the welding experiments was to find out
the usability of robot technology to weld aluminum
boats. The main aspects considered were:
- Boat construction and access to weld joints
- Sensor technology
V.3. Joint Types and Boat Construction

By far the most common type of joint in aluminum
hull constructions is the T-joint, which offers an
excellent starting point for robotic welding, as the T-joint
is the most suitable type of joint for welding robots. In
Fig. 4. Aluminum boat hull and internal stiffener structure boatbuilding, T-joints are used especially in support
structures and as longitudinal stiffeners. The overlapping
Modularization process, such as the modular function joint is the second most common type. For example, the
deployment (MFD), was used directly from the exterior longitudinal welds on a boat bottom are typically
manufacture base. The two MFD factors chosen for welded with overlapping joints, which are nearly as well
consideration were the “common unit” and the suited to robotic welding as T-joints. In addition to these
“manufacturing process”. In the “common unit” step, one joint types, some corner joints and butt joints can also be
or several modules were created such that they could be found.
utilized in several boat models, as such or with minor Weld analysis based on a 3D model of the new boat
modifications. In the “manufacturing process” step, the hull with Catia V5 software showed that approximately
module design was considered from the point of view of 70% of the aluminum boat hull welds could be
robotic welding. robotically welded in current constructions.
232
These include the exterior longitudinal welds, the The most common solution to this problem is to
intermittent welds in spray rails, and the prepared sub- provide the welding robot with sensors for seam finding
assemblies in the structures inside the hull. Tack welds and seam tracking functions. Touch sensing is the most
and the remaining fastening and fitting welds must be common form of seam finding since this method is based
welded manually. on the electrical contact of the welding torch. The
Optimal welding parameters for robotic GMAW were method could be reliable also when sensing aluminum
established through the modelling process. sheet surfaces. The traditional method of seam tracking is
When welding with typical parameters, a welding therefore based on arc sensing, i.e. through-arc seam
speed of 0.9–1.3 m/min was used. In the weldability tracking (TAST). However, the electrical properties of
analysis, it is vital to determine the limits of allowable the arc are so unstable in the GMAW welding of
fit-up errors in the pieces to be joined so that a weld of aluminum that arc sensing will not work. Therefore,
sufficient quality can be achieved. Based on air gap tests, optical seam tracking methods or similar must be used
the largest acceptable tolerance fault on a 3 mm AW for seam tracking in GMAW of aluminium.
5754 sheet is about 1 mm (Figs. 5). The functionality of optical sensing was tested by
welding a sub-assembly that simulated the structures of a
real boat. At the same time, access to the weld joints
could be evaluated when welding the stiffener structure
inside the boat hull. Optical sensing was extremely
successful in welding the hull exterior welds (Fig. 6(a)).
However, the laser power of the sensor had to be set
almost to the maximum due to the strong reflective
characteristics of the aluminum sheet.
When welding the inside stiffener structure, problems
were encountered because of the lack of space. The
structure was so cramped that a welding gun equipped
with a large sensor could not fit into the corners between
the workpieces (Fig. 6(b)).
Figs. 5. Automated GMAW welds with 1 mm maximum air gap

(a) fillet weld (v=17 mm/s, I=165 A, U=22.1 V), (b) overlapping joint
(v=22 mm/s, I=174 A, U=21 V). Material AW5754, 3mm
Sub-assemblies are not used in traditional aluminum

boat manufacturing, apart from the side box structures
and possibly the transom. Rather, the workpieces to be
joined are first tack welded and then welded into the final
assembly at different stages of production. The welding
of such a stiffener structure, and especially its
automation, is very challenging, due to a lack of space,
among other things (Fig. 4).
The number of triangular brackets in the stiffener is
very high and they are difficult to fix into correct
position for tack welding. The actual welds are very
short, because brackets are welded to both the
longitudinal and transversal stiffeners. Based on design
analysis, it was found that the boat structure could be
divided into sub-assemblies, which can be robot welded
separately. In the final assembly, the stiffener structure
would be robot welded to the boat hull [28].
V.4. Seam Finding and Seam Tracking

Form and dimensional errors always exist in welded Figs. 6. Optical sensing in welding an aluminum boat, (a) Exterior
structures, and consequently, the path created for the overlapping joint in the boat bottom sheet, (b) Problems in access to the
robot will not precisely match the seam to be welded. weld joint inside the boat
233
In practice, optical sensing in welding the boat hull through modularization. Reducing the number of sub-
must be implemented with the help of seam finding. assemblies would enable or enhance accessibility for
There are sensor models on the market that can be robotic welding of the aluminum boat.
attached to the wrist of the robot. These sensors are
capable of defining the location of the seam extremely
quickly and with sufficient accuracy. The drawback of References
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are more easily accessed by the welding robot. control technology during welding robot GTAW process based on
For the case studied here, the best way to maximize passive vision sensor, Journal of Materials Processing
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[20] H. Y. Shen, H. B. Ma, T. Lin, S. B. Chen, Research on weld pool Authors’ information
control of welding robot with computer vision, Industrial Robot:
An International Journal, Vol. 34, n. 6, pp. 465-475, 2007. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lappeenranta University of
[21] F. Chongjian, S. B. Chen, T. Lin, Visual sensing and image Technology LUT, PL20, Lappeenranta 53851, Finland.
processing in aluminum alloy welding, In T. J. Tarn, S. B. Chen, E-mail: paul.kah@lut.fi
C. Zhou (Eds.), Robotic Welding, Intelligence and Automation,
LNCIS 362 (Springer Verlag, 2007, 275-280). Dr. Paul Kah obtained a professional Master’s
[22] P. Kah, E. Hiltunen, J. Martikainen, Sensing in Aluminum Alloy degree certificate, DIPET II from ENSET at the
Welding, Advanced Materials Research, Vol. 849, pp. 291-297, University of Douala, Cameroon in 2001 and
2013. graduated from Lappeenranta University of
[23] Temmar, M., Khatir, M., Sellam, M., Study of the ductile-fragile Technology, Finland with a MSc (Tech) in
transition welding effects on mechanical properties and 2007. He completed his doctoral studies at
microstructure evolution of 7075 t6 aluminum alloys, (2010) Lappeenranta University of Technology in 2011.
International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 4 (6), Dr. Kah is currently working as a senior
pp. 755-760. researcher, whilst also carrying out other duties in the Department of
[24] S. Yu, Z. Yuyao, F. Ding, C. Jianhong, Development of a visual- Mechanical Engineering, LUT, Finland. His main research areas are
based welding pool width control system for Al-P-MIG welding advanced welding processes and welding of metals and automation of
process, In T. J. Tarn, S. B. Chen, C. Zhou (Eds.), Robotic aluminum welding. He has published more than 20 refereed papers in
Welding, Intelligence and Automation, LNCIS 362 (Springer various journals and presented many papers at international
Verlag, 2007, 267-273). conferences. Dr Kah is an expert in the International Institute of
[25] L. Lu, D. Fan, J. Huang, J. Fan, Y. Shi, Wire extension control Welding (IIW) Commission V, IX, and XII.
based on vision sensing in pulsed MIG welding of aluminum
alloy, In T. J. Tarn, S. B. Chen, G. Fang (Eds.), Robotic Welding,
Intelligence and Automation, LNEE 88 (Springer Verlag, 2010,
153-159).
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pulsed GMAW process of aluminum, Journal of Material
Processing Technology, Vol. 212, n. 4, pp. 801-807, 2012.
[27] Z. Chen, Y. Song, J. Zhang, W. Zhang, L. Jiang, X. Xia, Laser
vision sensing based on adaptive welding for aluminum alloy,
Journal of Beijing University of Technology, Vol. 32, n. 8, pp.
714-718, 2006.
[28] E. Hiltunen, J. Martikainen, Modularization of Aluminium Boat’s
Hull to Enhance Robotic Welding, Proc. of the 17th Int. Conf.
Mechanika, Kaunas, 2012, pp. 77–81.
235
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Numerical and Mathematical Modeling of Reactive Mass Transfer

and Heat Storage Installations of Argan Waste
S. Men-la-yakhaf1, K. Gueraoui1, 2, A. Maaouni1, M. Driouich1
Abstract – The main objective of this study was to improve the management of bioreactors,
existing or in the future. We have studied the thermo-hydro-biological behavior of waste in the
anaerobic phase. For this, we have presented the equations of conservation of matter and of
energy and the thermodynamic functions. We have developed a numerical model to simulate the
coupled behavior of bioreactors, using the finite volume method. Copyright © 2014 Praise
Keywords: Waste, Anaerobic Phase, Numerical Model, Reactive Mass Transfer, Heat Transfer
Nomenclature According to literature, the two main factors

controlling the most waste degradation and biogas
Kip Intrinsic permeability(m2) production are temperature, humidity of waste (Farquhar
Krp Relative permeability(m2) and Rovers (1973)[14], Rees (1980)[11], Jokela and al
µp Dynamic viscosity of each phase (liquid, gas) (1999), McDougall and Pyrah (1999)[6] and more
ρp Density of each phase (liquid, gas) (kg/m3) particularly the distribution of leach-ate within the waste
Pp Pressure of each phase (liquid, gas) (Pa) mass (Klink and Ham, 1982)[10].
Sl Liquid saturation Leach-ate recirculation is stimulatory for
Sr Residual saturation biodegradation because liquid movement distributes the
Se Effective saturation inocula, minimizes local shortage of nutrients and dilutes
Mg Molecular mass(kg / mol) potential toxins (Novella and al., 1997)[7].
R Universal gas constant (J / mol K) However, in the absence of active acetogenic and
n Porosity of the medium methanogenic populations, recirculation of leach-ate may
Ai Fraction of the waste cause an accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs).
Cg Potential the production of biogas (m3 / kg) VFAs which are transferred from the acidogenic to the
αg Term the production of biogas methanogenic areas, serve as the precursor for methane
Vp Velocity of moving fluid(m/s) production. High VFA concentration inhibits both
Q Volume flow (Wm-3) methanogenesis and hydrolysis/acidogenesis (Vavilin and
al., 2002)[3]. Mathematical models could be used to
 C p  f Volumetric heat capacity (Jm-3 K-1) simulate the coupled biological and hydraulic behavior of
T Temperature, K bioreactor landfills and help to a better understanding of
(ρCp)* Volumetric heat capacity(Jm-3 K-1) processes taking place over stabilization time and during
leach-ate recirculation. These models could make it
possible to predict gas and leach-ate production and to
I. Introduction optimize the time and cost of operating bioreactor
landfills by optimizing the volume of injected leach-ate,
The management of waste has become a priority of the
the number and spacing of injection devices and the
environmental policy of our country. Today, the
duration of recirculation.
continuity of the program is the study of the anaerobic
The mathematical models which have been developed
phase which succeeds the aerobic phase [1]-[24]. It is the
previously (El Fadel and Findikakis, 1996[8]; Vavilin
longest of the leach-ate degradation during which the
and al., 2002[3]) are usually based on constant values of
biogas is produced in large quantities period. The
temperature in controlled laboratory conditions or
development of such techniques requires knowledge of
controlled industrial digesters and so they can hardly be
the parameters which influence the process and
directly applied to landfills where temperature is the
degradation reactions; conditioned by numerous
result of coupled processes. In these models the growth
environmental parameters. These parameters are now
and decay rates of biomass are supposed to be constant,
fairly well known, but their effects are still difficult
at a given temperature.
quantifiable because of their mutual dependence (Aran,
In this work, we have developed a numerical model
2000) [4].
based on the finite volume method (Benard and Eymard,
236
S. Men-la-yakhaf, K. Gueraoui, A. Maaouni, M. Driouich
2005[2]; Eymard and al., 2000[5], Gueraoui and al. porous medium and the effective saturation of Se is
1996[17]; Ghouli and al., 2009[18]) incorporating basic defined by:
concepts from hydrodynamics and microbiology to S  Sr
simulate the hydraulic, thermal and biological behavior Se  l
1  Sr
of anaerobic bioreactor landfills during the methanogenic
phase. This model is composed of a two-phase flow
model of leach-ate and biogas based on Darcy’s law, The density of gas can be defined as follows:
coupled with a biological model of heat and gas
generation, considering the effects of saturation and M g Pg
g 
temperature changes on the biological behavior. RT
This gas production is controlled essentially by two
factors which are the temperature and humidity. This last
parameter appears as being the key factor of the II.2. Conservation of Mass
degradation. Consider the case where the porous medium is
We consider a bioreactor as a porous medium where composed of the solid matrix, a liquid and a gas. The
there production of biogas and heat. This porous medium conservation of each constituent (liquid, gas) writes
and heterogeneous (for the composition of the waste, the (Shabnam Gholamifard (2009))[1]:
water content and size of the components) consists of
three main phases: a solid phase constituted by the waste,  ml
the liquid phase that is the leach-ate and the gaseous  t     lVl   0
phase which the biogas is considered a mixture of  (2)
methane and carbon dioxide in the methanogenic  mg     V  
anaerobic phase. The equations that govern our problem  t 
g g g 
are the equations of conservation of matter and energy
and the thermodynamic functions. with:
ml  nSl l and m g  n 1  Sl   g
II. Mathematical Formulation
where n is the porosity of the medium, and ρl , ρg the
The main objective is the modeling of two phase density of liquid and gas phases. Vp the rate of filtration
flows without inter-phase changes. For this, we present of P the phase defined by Darcy's law and αg the term the
the equations of conservation of matter, energy and the production of biogas. This latter term is defined from the
thermodynamic functions. biological model of degradation and biogas production.
Therefore the Eq. (2) and Darcy's law leads to the
II.1. Generalized Darcy Law following equations:
The authors’ affiliation should appear at end of the
 nSl l  K K 
paper. The velocity of the fluid phases flowing in a      l il rl  Pl  l g    0
porous medium can be expressed by using the  t  l 
generalized Darcy law Aran, C. (2000):  (3)
 n 1  Sl   g  K ig K rg 
 t
    g
 g

Pg   g g    g

K ip K rp   
Vp  m / s   
p
 Pp   p g  (1)
II.3. Conservation of Mass

Mualem [13] proposes a simple analytical model to
predict the relative permeability curves of water from the The production of biogas depends on different
capillary pressure curves as a function of the effective parameters, such as the waste composition, the water
saturation, associated with the model from Burdine [16], content, temperature and density of the medium to be
Brooks and Corey [15] gives: taken into account in the kinetic models biogas
production. The production of biogas changes depending
2  3 of degradable components waste and quantity. The
K rl  Se  production of biogas is defined by exponential law
proposed by Halvadakis. This law is malfunctioning for
 2  
2 the first years degradation of a young waste, but applies
K rg  1  Se  1  Se   very well to the anaerobic phase (Finidikakis and al) [9]:
The parameter λ> 0 describes the distribution of the 3

Ai  t  dt   Ai  t 
pores. The low values of λ indicate that the porous  g  Cg  (4)
i 1 dt
medium compound a single type of grain, while large
values of λ indicate the great non-uniformity of the
237
where Ai is the fraction of the waste, Cg the potential the V. Results

production of biogas m3 / Kg and αg is the rate of biogas
generation. Fig. 1 shows the change of the saturation according to
the axial variable.
Note that this quantity decreases slowly with this
II.4. Conservation of Energy variable, quite logical, since the saturation increases from
The macroscopic law of conservation of energy in the its minimum value and increased to reach the residual
porous medium, taking into consideration the saturation of the medium.
phenomenological Fourier law, is written: Fig. 2 illustrates the change of the temperature as a
function of the axial variable. It is found that the
temperature increases with time. This can be explained
* T 
 C p  t
 Vp C p   f T     *  T   Q (5) by the fact that over time, the component is deposited,
and therefore the interaction between them increases and
therefore the temperature.
where: Fig. 3 shows the evolution of the mass of waste
T the temperature (the solid phase and fluids phases), material according to the axial variable. We found that

V p the velocity of moving fluid, given by Darcy's law as the mass decreased with time. This can be explained by
the fact that over time, the component is deposited,
follows:
   therefore, the mass of waste decreased.
V p  V p1 er  V p 2 ez Fig. 4 shows the evolution of the volume as a function
of the axial variable.
where: One finds that the volume increases with time, this
result can be interpreted in that the component is
V p1 , V p 2 velocity components,   C p  f the volumetric deposited.
-3 -1
heat capacity (Jm K ) of the moving fluid, the volume
flow Q (Wm-3) of energy produced or consumed by the r=0,05m and t=50
r=0,05m and t=100
chemical reactions. 0,120 r=0,05m and t=150
* r=0,05m and t=200

And  C p  equivalent volumetric heat capacity (at 0,115
constant pressure), defined as the average, weighted by 0,110

the volume fractions of the heat capacities of all three
phases (solid matrix, water and gas). It is expressed in 0,105
Saturation
Jm-3 K-1. The projection system of Eqs. (5) in the

0,100
cylindrical coordinates system while noting that:
0,095
* T  T T 
 C p  t

 C p f  V p1
 r
 Vp2 
z 
0,090
0,085
*   T  *  2T
 r  Q
z 2
0,080
r r  r  0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
altitude(m)
III. Method of Resolution r=0,1m and t=50

0,120 r=0,1m and t=100
The equations obtained previously do not admit r=0,1m and t=150
analytical solutions, so the use of numerical methods 0,115 r=0,1m and t=200
appears mandatory. We opted for this purpose the finite 0,110

volume method. All equations are discredited using a
0,105
centered space and delayed in time. The algebraic
Saturation
equations obtained are solved using the dual scanning 0,100
method [22]. 0,095
0,090
IV. Resolution Process Primed 0,085
The calculations will be initiated by an initial profile 0,080
that whatever may be provided that meets the boundary 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
conditions. However, to reduce the computation time, we altitude(m)
choose an initial profile that is fairly close to the actual
profile. Using these values allows the determination of Fig. 1. Saturation profile as a function of time
and the axial variable
profiles of temperature and saturation [23][24].
238
r=0,05m and t=50

r=0,05m and t=50
r=0,05m and t=100
355 0,000295 r=0,05m and t=100
r=0,05m and t=150
r=0,05m and t=150
350 r=0,05m and t=200
0,000290 r=0,05m and t=200
345
0,000285
340
0,000280
Temperature(K°)
335
volum e(m 3 )
0,000275
330
325 0,000270
320 0,000265
315
0,000260
310
0,000255
305
300 0,000250
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
altitude(m) altitude(m)
r=0,1m and t=50 0,000295 r=0,1m and t=50

355 r=0,1m and t=100 r=0,1m and t=100
350 r=0,1m and t=150 0,000290 r=0,1m and t=150
r=0,1m and t=200 r=0,1m and t=200
345 0,000285
340
0,000280
Temperature(K°)
volum e(m 3 )
335
0,000275
330
325 0,000270
320
0,000265
315
0,000260
310
305 0,000255
300 0,000250
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
altitude(m)
altitude(m)
Fig. 2. Temperature profile as a function of time

and the axial variable Fig. 4. Volume profile as a function of time and the axial variable
r=0,05m and t=50

r=0,05m and t=100 VI. Conclusion
1,34E-007 r=0,05m and t=150
r=0,05m and t=200 We have developed a 2D mathematical model based
on conservation equations and using a finite volume
Differential of the mass
1,32E-007
method to model bioreactor landfills.

1,30E-007
The coupled model contains a two-phase flow model
1,28E-007 based on Darcy’s law and a biological model based on
the simplified Monod’s model [19], [20], [21] and
1,26E-007
considering the biogas production via degradation of the
1,24E-007
biodegradable solid wastes and VFA production. In
contrast to general biological waste degradation models,
1,22E-007
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
this model considers the effect of temperature on growth
altitude (m)
rate of biomass.
r=0,1m and t=50

r=0,1m and t=100
r=0,1m and t=150
References
1,34E-007
r=0,1m and t=200
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[17] K. Gueraoui , A. Hammoumi , G. Zeggwagh, Ecoulements pulsés
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[18] Ghouli, A., Gueraoui, K., Walid, M., Aberdane, I., Hammoumi,
A.E., Kerroum, M., Zeggwagh, G., Haddad, Y.M., Numerical
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Hammoumi, A., Kerroum, M., Taibi, M., Fassi Fehri, O.,
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240
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Effect of Swirl Strength to Axial Flow Development Inside

the Can Combustor
M. S. A. Ishak1, M. N. M. Jaafar2
Abstract – The main purpose of this paper is to study the internal flow effect of varying the swirl
number inside the combustor. The flow field inside the combustor is controlled by the liner shape
and size, wall side holes shape, size and arrangement (primary, secondary and dilution holes),
and primary air swirler configuration. Air swirler adds sufficient swirling to the inlet flow to
generate central recirculation region (CRZ) which is necessary for flame stability and fuel air
mixing enhancement. Therefore designing an appropriate air swirler is a challenge to produce
stable, efficient and low emission combustion with low pressure losses. Four radial curve vane
swirler with 30o, 40o, 50o and 60o vane angle corresponding to swirl number of 0.366, 0.630,
0.978 and 1.427 respectively were used in this analysis to show vane angle effect on the internal
flow field. The flow behavior was investigated numerically using CFD solver Ansys 14.0. This
study has provided the characteristic insight into the flow pattern inside the combustion chamber.
Results show that the swirling action is augmented with the increase in the swirl number, which
leads to increase in the turbulence strength, recirculation zone size, and amount of recirculated
mass. The current study report that the 50° swirler (swirl number > 0.7), produced enough
swirling flow to generate good CRZ in the combustion chamber. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy
Keywords: Swirler, Swirl Number, Combustor, Turbulence, CFD Simulation
I. Introduction In addition swirling flows are used to improve and

control the mixing process between fuel and air streams
The main focus of this research is to investigate the and enhance heat release rate [6]-[8].
dynamics of the swirling flow inside the combustor. The degree of swirl in the flow is quantified by
Aerodynamics curved vane radial swirlers with dimensionless parameter, S known as swirl number
various vane angle were used. Flow pattern which is defines as [6]:
characteristics include velocity components and turbulent
stresses, which are the main characteristics of the G
swirling flows, have been studied to understand the S (1)
physical process both by numerical modeling CFD G  ro
software Ansys 14.0 [1]. Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) is an attractive design tool, since it has the where Gø is the axial flux of angular momentum:
potential to explain the flow physics inside the
combustor. A numerical analysis can be used to reduce 
the number of design iterations by providing an approach G  2 0 U xU r 2 dr (2)
to the changes that a design parameter should undergo
regarding the characteristics of the flow. and Gx is the axial flux of momentum (axial thurst):
This study focuses on flow aerodynamics inside a gas
turbine combustor using CFD. The flow pattern inside  
the combustor is significantly affected by the air swirler G  2 0 U x2 rdr  2  prdr (3)
0
configuration. This paper, therefore, numerically
investigates the swirler configuration effects on the flow In the above, ro is the outer radius of the swirler and
inside the combustor. Air swirlers are used as a flame
Ux and U are the axial and tangential component of
holder by adding swirl to the incoming air. The presence
velocity at radius r.
of swirl results in setting up of radial and axial pressure
Since the pressure term in Eq. (3) is difficult to
gradients, which in turn influence the flow fields. In case
calculate due to the fact that pressure varies with position
of strong swirl the adverse axial pressure gradient is
in the swirling jet, the above definition for swirl number
sufficiently large to result in reverse flow along the axis
can be simplified by omitting this pressure term. Swirl
and generating an internal circulation zone [2]-[5].
number can be redefined as:
241
M. S. A. Ishak, M. N. M. Jaafar
G
S'  (4)
G'x ro
where:


G'x  2 U 2 x rdr (5)
0
The swirl number should, if possible, be determined Fig. 1. Combustor model

from measured values of velocity and static pressure TABLE I
profiles. However, this is frequently not possible due to TECHNICAL DATA OF THE SWIRLERS
the lack of detailed experimental results. Therefore, it has Swirler 30 40 50 60
been shown Beer and Chigier [6] that the swirl number Swirl No. (S) 0.366 0.630 0.978 1.427
may be satisfactorily calculated from geometry of most Passage width, h (mm) 13.6 12.3 11.2 9.6
Hub diameter, d (mm) 50
swirl generator. Outer diameter, D (mm) 98
Swirl does not only help to stabilize the flame but also
to produce other effect which is beneficial to the
combustion system. These effects primarily include
promoting fuel and air mixing and assisting the control of
combustion temperatures and emissions. This is because
of string shear regions, high turbulence and rapid mixing
rates produced by the swirling vortices and the resulting
toroidal recirculation zone. The various characteristics of
swirl combustion are discussed extensively in the
literature [7], [9].
The swirling flow spreads as it moves downstream
and centrifugal force creates a low pressure zone in the Fig. 2. Combustor model meshing
centre of the flow. At a certain point downstream, the Due the complexity of the flow within the gas turbine
low pressure region in the centre of the flow causes the combustor, CFD is used as a regular tool to enable better
vortex to collapse inwards on itself in a process known as understanding of the aerodynamic and process associated
vortex breakdown [10]. This creates a recirculation zone with combustion inside the gas turbine combustors. As
in the centre of the flow. This is essential to provide mentioned above, FLUENT solves the equations for
sufficient time, temperature and turbulence for a conservation of mass and momentum in their time
complete combustion of the fuel [6], [11]. averaged form for the prediction of isothermal flow
fields. For the process of Reynolds decomposition and
II. Modeling, Meshing and Boundary time averaging results in unknown correlation of the
fluctuation velocity components, a turbulence model is
Condition required for equations closure purposes. In the present
The basic geometry of the gas turbine can combustor simulation, k-epsilon turbulence model was used.
is shown in Fig. 1. The size of the combustor is 1000 mm Turbulence is represented by the realizable k-epsilon
in the Z direction, 280mm in the X and Y direction. model, which provides an optimal choice and economy
The primary inlet air is guided by radial curve vanes for many turbulent flows [12]. Menzies [13], had studied
swirler to give the air a swirling velocity component. the behavior of five k-epsilon variants in modelling the
Four difference vane angles of 30o, 40o, 50o and 60o were isothermal flow inside a gas turbine combustor and
analyzed numerically at different boundary conditions to compared the results with the experimental data of Da
show the effect of the swirler configuration on the Palma [14] for the velocity and turbulence fields. The
turbulence production, recirculation zone and also studied models were the standard, the RNG, the
pressure loss. The intake condition for the simulations is realizable, the Durbin modified, and the nonlinear k-
50 m/s intake velocity. The technical data of the four epsilon models. The results showed that the realizable
swirlers used in this study are listed in Table I. and the Durbin k-epsilon models gave the best agreement
The physical domain of radial swirlers was with the experimental data. This supported the finding of
decomposed to several volumes to facilitate meshing Durst and Wennerberg [15], where good agreement
with cooper hexahedral structured grid. The geometry between k-epsilon model predictions and experimental
meshing was done to have a variable density distribution results were reported.
by mean of small mesh size which was incorporated in The appropriate choice of boundary conditions is
high gradient zone and bigger size in low gradient zone. essential and is a critical part in modelling a flow
The combustor model meshing for the present work is accurately. Typical boundary conditions for FLUENT
shown in Fig. 2. simulation are the inlet, the wall and the outlet
242
boundaries. At the inlet of the computational region, the angles are shown in Figures 4(a) to 4(d). For the chamber
inlet boundary condition is defined as velocity inlet while with the swirler angle of 30 (S = 0.366), the axial
the exit boundary is defined as outflow. Some velocity peak is a lot lower than the chambers with
assumptions for boundary conditions that were not higher swirler angles, and the position where the peak
directly measured had to be made as follows: velocity occurs is shifted toward inlet point. This is due
i. Velocity components and turbulence quantities at the to the fact that there is no recirculation zone for the
inlet were constant, chamber with 30 swirler angle. The flow in other
ii. Turbulence at inlet is calculated from the following chambers with higher swirler angles, result in higher
equations [16]: negative axial velocities at the core, giving lower overall
magnitude of axial velocities.
 
kinlet  0.002 u 2
inlet
(6) This phenomena can be seen in Figures 4 which show
the axial flow at across sections at distances 10 mm (z/R
= 0.036) from the chamber inlet. Axial flow variations
1.5
kinlet across other section further down streams are shown in
 (7) Figs. 4(a) to 4(d). At other sections further away from the
0.3 D
inlet, the core reverse flow velocities are significantly
reduced.
where u axial inlet flow velocity and D is hydraulic
The flow characteristics at cross sections near the inlet
diameter.
(Figs. 4(a) and 4(b)) show that there occurs significant
reverse velocity at the core of the chamber for all
III. Results and Discussion chambers except for the one with 30 swirler. For the 30
swirler the core flow does not reverse, just that the core
All the axial flow characteristics are presented in two reverse axial flow velocity merely got reduced by 50
parts, first part is Figs. 3 to 5 for swirl strength analysis compared to the chamber with higher swirl angles.
and second part is Fig. 6 to 9 for flow variation analysis. As the swirler angles increased, the core flow zone
become increasingly negative and the cross section area
III.1. The Effect of Swirl Strength of these core flows become wider. Although there is a
central negative zone, the overall mass flow for the
To validate the first part, CFD model experiments section is still positive. At cross sections further from the
were conducted to measure the axial flow velocity at the inlet point, the core axial velocity continuously become
axis of the chamber for all swirlers. Figure 3(a) shows less negative and negative flow cone area become bigger.
the results of CFD analysis showing the axial flow The axial flow variations from CFD analysis at
velocity distribution along the chamber axis. These different cross sections for chambers with 30 to 60
results were then compared to experimental results as swirler angle are shown in contour form in Figures 5(a)
part of the validation of the CFD model, as shown in to 5(b) respectively. The axial flow velocity distribution
Figure 3(b) (results for only 30 and 60 swirlers were shown here confirms the values shown in Figures 4(a) to
presented for clarity). 4(d).
For boundary conditions discussed in article II axial
velocity profiles for chambers with different swirler
Fig. 3(a). Axial Flow Velocity results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with different Swirl Angles
243
Fig. 3(b). Axial Flow Velocity comparing CFD and experimental results
These plots show the reverse flow areas become wider areas [17], [18]. From the results, further work was
at sections further along the axis of the combustor and conducted to see the effects of variations in axial velocity
hence the peak reverse velocity at these sections reduces on the centre core flow in the combustion chamber.
significantly. The wider areas indicate more efficient The flow was varied from 30 m/s to 60 m/s
mixing area.The characteristics of the flow point towards (equivalent to Reynolds Number from 0.6 to 1.2 x 106).
good mixing of air and fuel when the core peak reverse The results showing the variations in the transient core
velocity is high and these core velocities only cover flow at 25 s after the air was injected into the chamber
small cross section area. This flow condition occurs for are depicted in Fig. 7. The figures show the reverse axial
swirler 40 and 50. For more precise maximum mixing velocities in the central axial section of the chamber. The
phenomenon, more detail studies should be done for white portion of the figures means the axial flow is
swirl angle from 40 to 50, say at 45. positive.
The results show similar flow pattern for all injection
velocities, or at all Reynolds numbers, but as the
III.2. The Effect of Velocity Variation on Swirl Strength injection velocities increased the reverse flow velocities
To validate the second part of CFD model analysis, in the core increases from 15 m/s for the 30 m/s injection
experiments were conducted to measure the axial flow (Fig. 8(a)) to 30m/s for 60 m/s injection (Fig. 8(d)). But
velocity at the axis of the chamber for 50 m/s inlet the core size does not change. Taking the cross section at
velocity. Figure 6 shows the results of CFD analysis L/D= 0.1, the core size is r/R=0.05 for all injections
compared to experimental results as part of the validation velocities. The differences are mainly due to higher
of the CFD model. injection velocities, where the core reverse flow
A past researcher shows that, 50° swirl gives the best velocities also increases.
result in terms of swirl zone and size of recirculation
Fig. 4(a). Axial Flow Velocity across section z/R = 0.036 results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with different Swirl Angles
244
Fig. 4(b). Axial Flow Velocity across section z/R = 0.072 results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with different Swirl Angles
Fig. 4(c). Axial Flow Velocity across section z/R = 0.143 results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with different Swirl Angles
Fig. 4(d). Axial Flow Velocity acress section z/R = 0.286 results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with different Swirl Angles
245
These can be seen in the reverse axial velocities at injection point. In Figure 9, shows that near the injection
different cross sections as shown in Figs. 8(a) to 8(d). point, the reverse flow velocities are directly related to
Another significant result is that the core axial flow the injection velocities. The higher the injection
velocities at cross sections nearer to the injection point velocities, the faster are the reverse flow velocities. This
increases with injection speeds. But after the distance of is accompanied by the reduction in size of the core
L/D=0.4 the central core axial velocity do not change reverse flow volume. This is understandable since the
significantly. swirl angle is constant (so is the swirl number), such that
This can be seen clearly in the Figs. 8(a) to 8(d). the higher injection velocities would produce higher
The axial flow velocities along the central chamber reverse core flow, thus enhancing mixing of fuel in the
axis were then plotted until 200 mm (L/D=0.71) from the chamber.
Fig. 5(a). Axial Flow Velocity results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with 30 Swirl Angles at different axial distance from the inlet
Fig. 5(b). Axial Flow Velocity results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with 40 Swirl Angles at different axial distance from the inlet
Fig. 5(c). Axial Flow Velocity results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with 50 Swirl Angles at different axial distance from the inlet
246
Fig. 5(d). Axial Flow Velocity results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with 60 Swirl Angles at different axial distance from the inlet
Fig. 6. Axial Flow Velocity results from CFD Analysis for Combustors with 50 Swirl Angles, experiment with 50 m/s air inlet velocity
Fig. 7. Transient flow at 25 s with the injection of various velocities
247
Fig. 8(a). Axial flow across chamber diameter for injection velocity 30 m/s
at different cross section distances from the injection point
Fig. 8(b). Axial flow across chamber diameter for injection velocity 40 m/s
Fig. 8(c). Axial flow across chamber diameter for injection velocity 50 m/s
248
Fig. 8(d). Axial flow across chamber diameter for injection velocity 60 m/s
Fig. 9. Axial flow along the velocities for different
IV. Conclusion If the chamber is used for combustion, the long and
narrow recirculation zone would be able to return
This paper presented results of CFD study on the axial unburnt fuel towards the injection point and it will also
flow in a circular chamber with different swirl numbers bring back the hot species, thus helping in the
affected by different swirlers of different angles. combustion.
The initial results were compared with actual The velocity variation analysis shows results of CFD
measurements to validate the CFD model. The validated study on the axial flow in a circular chamber with
model was then used to study further variations of the different inlet velocity vary from 30 m/s to 60 m/s
flow in the chamber. (equivalent to Reynolds Number from 0.6 to 1.2 × 106)
The study indicated that the central core of the flow of 50 degree radial vane angle swirler. The initial results
has low recirculation zone at low swirl numbers, but were compared with actual measurements to validate the
recirculation behavior became significant when the swirl CFD model. The validated model was then used to study
number is more than 0.63 (swirler angle more than 40). further variations of the flow in the chamber. The study
The central recirculation zone length is also very short indicated that at all injection velocity, similar flow
but it occurs over a wide cross section. As the swirl pattern was found, but as the injection velocities
number increases, the central recirculation zone increased the reverse flow velocities in the core increases
lengthens but narrows such that the central axial flow is but the core size does not change.
faster.
249
The differences are mainly due to higher injection Authors’ information

velocities, where the core reverse flow velocities also 1
Lecturer, School of Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Malaysia
increases. Another significant result is that the core axial Perlis, PO Box 77, Pejabat Pos Besar, 01000 Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia.
flow velocities at cross sections nearer to the injection Presently continuing PhD in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
point increases with injection speeds. But after the E-mail: mshaiful@unimap.edu.my
distance of L/D=0.4 the central core axial velocity do not 2
Professor, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Faculty of
change significantly. Mechanical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81313 UTM
From the results of various injection velocities, it Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
shows that the differences are mainly due to higher E-mail: nazri@fkm.utm.my
injection velocities, where the core reverse flow
velocities also increases.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of
Higher Education of Malaysia (project number: MTUN-
COE 9016-00003) for awarding a research grant to
undertake this project. The authors would also like to
thank Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia for providing the research facilities
and space to undertake this work.
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250
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Special section on International Conference on Mechanical Engineering Research 2013 (ICMER 2013)
MILD Combustion: the Future for Lean

and Clean Combustion Technology
M. M. Noor1, 2, Andrew P. Wandel1, Talal Yusaf2, 3
Abstract – The future of today's society is greatly depending on the energy development. Due to
the depletion of fossil fuel and the gradual development of energy generation from renewable
sources, energy security becomes an important intergovernmental issue. This paper discusses the
energy needs and the new combustion technology that will aid in achieving lean and clean
combustion. In 2001, British Petroleum estimated the total natural gas reserves to be 187.5 trillion
cubic meters, which can supply up to 7×1015 MJ of energy. The total petroleum reserves can
supply up to 1,383 billion barrels which amounts to 8.4×1015 MJ of energy. Due to the increasing
population and economic development, these fuel reserves will not last long. Energy efficiency and
greenhouse gas emissions are two important and critical issues. The new combustion technology,
moderate and intense low oxygen dilution (MILD) combustion provides a feasible solution. MILD,
also known as flameless oxidation (FLOX) and high temperature air combustion (HiTAC) was
discovered by Wünning in 1989. The thermal efficiency of combustion can be increased by about
30% and NOx emission reduced by 50%. MILD also can be achieved using different types of fuel
such as gas fuel, liquid fuel and industrial waste fuel (saw dust). MILD combustion will be an
important future combustion technology due to it producing higher efficiency and very low
emissions. Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Energy Security, MILD Combustion, Biogas, World Energy Policy
I. Introduction emissions with combustion accounting for 27%, making

it a major contributor to global climate change.
The current society will continue to greatly depend on Table I compares the pollutants from natural gas, oil
energy and its development. The demand for energy is and coal. The use of natural gas will reduce the impact of
dramatically increasing due to the world’s population fossil fuel combustion on climate change. In order to
growth and substantial global economic development. further reduce NOx and other harmful pollutants, lean
The world energy demand is highly dependent on the mixtures will reduce the combustion temperature and
combustion of fossil fuel: projected to fulfill about 80% decrease the formation of NOx.
of the energy requirements [1]-[2]. With the current Pollutant emissions are reduced because flame
consumption rate, the fossil fuel will have been depleted temperatures are typically low, reducing thermal NOx
by 2042 [3]. formation.
Environmental issues and concerns are also
motivating factors for innovation in combustion
technology employed in transportation and stationary
power-generation applications. Among the fossil fuels,
natural gas combustion is the most attractive as it
produces less harm to the environment because it releases
less carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide,
particulate and mercury per unit energy compared to oil
and coal [4]. Some of the major challenges are to provide
efficient energy and limit greenhouse-gas (GHG)
emissions [5]-[6]. In US energy generation, combustion
of fossil fuel is projected to fulfil about 64% of this
energy needs (Fig. 1).
The more efficient use of fuel with low GHG
emissions as well as carbon capture and storage (CCS)
might be effective ways to gradually reduce the overall
GHG emission [7]-[8]. IEA/OECD [9] and Jonathan [10]
reported that CO2 contributed 77% of the greenhouse gas Fig. 1. US electrical energy generation [11]
251
M. M. Noor, Andrew P. Wandel, Talal Yusaf
Beside fuel NOx and prompt NOx, thermal NOx is the To increase the reactant temperature, the exhaust gas
key NOx formation that will increase rapidly after the recirculation concept and input air preheat was normally
combustion temperature reaches 1573 K [12] and 1810 K implemented. The hot exhaust gases will be utilised to
[13]. Figs. 2 illustrate the GHG emissions by type of gas heat up the temperature and dilute the oxygen in the
and source. Fig. 2(a) clearly indicates that carbon dioxide injected fresh air.
from fossil fuel combustion accounts for 57%, the This paper will discuss the future of MILD
majority of the GHG emissions. Fig. 2(b) shows that combustion and its ability to provide lean and clean
26% of GHG emissions originated from energy combustion. The continual significant demand for cheap
production. and clean energy coupled with the unclear fossil fuel
Fig. 3 plots the formation of NOx. In order to achieve reserves and limitations on other source of energy
low NOx emissions, the flame temperature of the provides increasing pressure for the combustion
combustion must be below 1425oC (1698 K). Above that community to improve the overall combustion efficiency
temperature, the NOx formation will be very high. with minimum pollution emission.
II. Lean Combustion

and Clean Combustion
Lean combustion is defined as achieving the
combustion stability process with a minimum amount of
fuel. Whereas clean combustion is to achieve the lean
combustion process with zero or minimum unwanted
(a) (b) pollutants. Lean combustion is applicable and used in all
combustion equipment at both laboratory and industrial
Figs. 2. Global greenhouse gas emissions a) by type of gases
b) by type of sources [14] scale including internal combustion engines, burners, gas
turbines, furnaces, boilers and kiln. This is to take
TABLE I advantage of the combustion processes that operates with
POLLUTANTS FROM FOSSIL FUEL [4] minimum or lean conditions with very low pollutant
Gas Oil Coal emissions and very high efficiency.
Pollutant
(kg of pollutant per 109 kJ of energy input)
Carbon dioxide 273,780 383,760 486,720
In the hazard of combustion study, like explosive,
Carbon monoxide 94 77 487 hazard and flammability limit, lean combustion are very
Nitrogen oxide 215 1,048 1,069 important for the setting of any fuel’s limit of
Sulphur dioxide 2.34 2,625 6,063 inflammability.
Particulate 16.4 197 6,420
Mercury 0.00 0.016 0.037
Davy [26] studied lean combustion to prevent
explosions of methane gas in coal mines. Davy [26]
reported that the limits of inflammability were between
6.2 and 6.7%, which is same as an equivalence ratio
range for methane between 0.68 and 0.74. The
challenging behaviours of lean flames include sensitivity
to fuel composition and relatively weak reaction fronts in
highly dynamic fluid flows [27].
Lately beside the combustion process, fuel studies also
get attention for lean and clean research. A Maryland-
based independent power provider (IPP) has developed
an innovative patented technology for Lean, Premixed,
Prevaporised (LPP) combustion of fuels, hence, these
fuels burn cleanly in gas-fired power turbines and other
combustion devices [28]. Biofuel is also part of the fuel
Fig. 3. The rate of NOx formation for flame temperature [13]
study for better performance with lower exhaust emission
[29]-[32].
One of the techniques for improving thermal
efficiency and reducing NOx is moderate and intense low
oxygen dilution (MILD) combustion [15]-[18]. III. Mild Combustion Regime
This technique is also known as flameless oxidation MILD combustion is a revolutionary mode of burning
(FLOX) [19]-[21] high-temperature air combustion that dramatically improves the efficiency of a furnace
(HiTAC) [22]-[23] and colourless distributed combustion while substantially reducing the pollutants that are
(CDC) [24]-[25]. produced [16], [23], [33]-[36]. While most research has
The main characteristic of MILD combustion is an focussed on “closed furnaces”, which have a simpler
elevated temperature of reactants and low temperature configuration at a substantially increased cost of
increase in the combustion process. construction, USQ is developing an “open furnace”
252
system, which is similar to many furnaces currently in achieving MILD combustion; strong entrainments of
use [32], [37]. high-temperature exhaust gases, which dilute fuel and air
Retrofitting an open furnace system to operate under jets, are the key technology for maintaining MILD
MILD conditions is relatively straightforward: it merely combustion; important environmental conditions for the
requires the addition of recirculation pipes (Exhaust Gas establishment of MILD combustion: local oxygen
Recirculation, EGR) [38] making this an appealing concentration is less than 5%-10% while local
option. The low oxygen concentration and mixture temperature is greater than that for fuel self-ignition in
temperature higher than the fuel auto ignition are two the reaction zone.
important points for MILD combustion. The combustion These must be achieved through strong dilution of
regime (Fig. 4) indicates that oxygen content in reaction reactants with the flue gas (N2 and CO2-rich exhaust gas)
is about 3-13% and after 13%, the region becomes lifted and when using the EGR or regenerator to recycle the
flame, hot flame and above 21% it is normal heat from exhaust gases, the thermal efficiency of MILD
conventional oxygen rich combustion. combustion can be increased by 30%, while reducing
The original Fig. from Rao [39], updated by Chen et NOx emissions by 50% [22].
al. [40], shows that Medwell [34] from Adelaide
University was able to achieve MILD combustion in the
area of 700 to 900 K and oxygen dilution below 9% (Fig. IV. Biogas and Energy Balance
4). Biogas is a clean and renewable energy which is a low
The oxygen dilution plays the most important role in heating value gas, also known as low calorific value
achieving MILD combustion as shown in a step by step (LCV) gas. Biogas consists of a mixture of 55 to 65% of
illustration of oxygen dilution in Figs. 5. Recent methane, 35 to 45% of carbon dioxide and 1-3% of
applications of MILD combustion have been in research hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and
and development of gas turbines [24]-[25], [41] and ammonia [46]. Biogases are commonly produced from
gasification systems [42]-[43]. This combustion mode waste treatment, mainly agricultural waste (manure),
can be very interesting in gas turbine applications due to industrial organic waste streams and sewage sludge [47].
low maximum temperatures (very close to the ones at the Fig. 6 shows the CO2 cycle for biogas. Carbon dioxide
inlet of a gas turbine), noiseless characteristics, good produced from combustion will be used back by the
flame stability and effectiveness in reducing pollution crops and some of these crops are fed to animals. These
emissions. crops and animal manure will be used to produce biogas.
Table II shows the typical combustion properties of
biogas. The average biogas ignition point is 700oC but
this depends on the percentage of methane. The higher
the methane the lower will be the ignition temperature.
Table III shows a comparison of energy balance for
natural gas with 97% methane. The summary was made
for the furnace which operates in the flameless mode and
conventional mode with natural gas. The supply of
thermal energy was constant at about 21 kW for both
conditions.
TABLE II
COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF BIOGAS [46]
Ignition temperature 700oC
Density (dry basis) 1.2 kg/m3
Ignition concentration gas content 6 -12%
Heat value 5.0 - 7.5 kWh/m3
Fig. 4. Schematic regime diagram for methane-air JHC flames [39]-[40]
Figs. 5. Step by step of MILD combustion (a) combustion started, (b) to

(d) progressively more dilute oxygen (e) fully MILD combustion [45].
MILD combustion characteristics based on the study

and compilation by Li et al. [44], can be summarised as
high temperature pre-heat of air and high-speed
injections of air and fuel are the main requirements of Fig. 6. Carbon dioxide closed cycle for biogas [48]
253
TABLE III
NATURAL GAS ENERGY BALANCE [49]
Flameless Conventional
Combustion mode
mode mode
Energy input (including fuel + 21.31 21.02
combustion air + cooling air) (kW)
Energy losses through the wall 3.07 3.20
(kW)
Energy removed by the cooling 14.99 8.71
tubes (kW)
Energy output through the chimney 1.39 8.25
(kW)
Energy of the combustion products 1.36 0
after the regenerative system (kW)
Efficiency (%) 70.0 41.4
Fig. 8. Efficiency of the heating system with EGR [51]
The efficiency for the combustion with conventional
mode is only 41.4% whereas for MILD mode it is 70%. EGR will increase the intake air temperature and
The comparison for the efficiency of flameless mode dilute the oxygen level in the combustion chamber.
and conventional mode for natural gas is 28.6%. The recirculation volume flow into the combustion
chamber depends on the level of air pre-heating and
oxygen dilution needed. EGR will reduce NOx emissions
V. Exhaust Gas Recirculation of the oxygenated fuels by more than 55% since it
reduces both the pressure [52] and the maximum
Using conventional combustion the heat loss is very combustion temperature. Figs. 9 and 10 show the
high. As presented in Fig. 7, during the combustion industrial furnace with the heat exchanger system and
process, about 62% of the energy input will be lost internal gas recirculation to utilize the flue gas.
through exhaust gas. Part of these heat losses can be
recovered by the concept of Exhaust Gas Recirculation
(EGR). EGR works by recirculating a portion of the flue
gas back to the combustion chamber through EGR pipe.
Weinberg [50] demonstrates this in his famous Swiss-roll
burner by transferring the heat from burned products to
the unburned fresh mixture.
The comparison between combustion with and
combustion without EGR are presented in Figures 7 and
8. Kraus and Barraclough [51] reported that the burner
can gain high energy saving by applying preheat using
exhaust gas. The furnace in Fig. 7 is running without a
regenerator (EGR) and 654 BTU of heat is lost through
flue gas.
The difference for Fig. 8 is the furnace running with
the regenerator (EGR) and from 654 BTU of heat in the
flue gas; only 133 BTU is lost through flue gas to the
atmosphere. Some of the 521 BTU of heat is returned
back to the system via the regenerator. The efficiency is
37.4% for the system without EGR and 72.4% for the
system with EGR and the system with EGR is 35% Fig. 9. Industrial furnaces with heat exchanger system [53]
higher.
Fig. 7. Efficiency of the heating system without EGR [51] Fig. 10. Industrial closed furnaces with internal EGR system [54]
254
VI. Mild Combustion Furnace This is the first to be declared as a MILD combustion
open furnace since the opening at the top allows
MILD combustion technology is new to the furnace substantial exhaust gas to flow out. Fig. 11(b) is the
industry and it is not fully commercialized and well closed furnace of MILD combustion at University of
adopted in furnace industry. In the Jan 2012 edition of Adelaide, Australia. The furnace is also successful in
Industrial heating magazine, it is written that new using saw dust as a fuel as an alternative to normal
configurations (utilisation of EGR) may make it harder to gaseous fuels [67].
say no to thermal [51]. Fig. 11(c) is the MILD setup at Politecnico di Milano,
To further improve the combustion process, it is very Italy [68]. This MILD burner is using a double nozzle for
important to conduct substantial fundamental and applied jet fuel. USQ burner was designed and developed using
research [18], [31], [44], [55]-[61]. To achieve MILD Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) which was built
combustion, the fuel and oxidant mixing is very after obtaining stable results from the CFD [69].
important. The mixing process is coupled between The results for the CFD on open furnace are as Figs.
turbulence and chemistry [62] occurring at similar 12. The temperature distribution in the combustion
timescales [63]-[64], thus, the turbulence-chemistry chamber is homogeneous.
interactions should be treated with finite-rate approaches. The design of the burner can be used for various
The level of homogeneity of the mixing field [65] and purposes. For the USQ combustion group, the
slower reaction rates make the accurate modelling of this experimental setup is not only for MILD combustion but
combustion regime challenging [66]. This is especially is also applicable for future studies on combustion and
the case for the heat release rate, NOx and soot formation, ignition including testing the characteristics of alternative
thus, a fundamental study on the mixing quality is fuels under combustion, for example natural gas, biogas
required. and coal seam gas. Biogas and LCV fuels are difficult to
The furnaces for MILD combustion are greatly burn in a conventional combustor, but are readily burned
invested at a laboratory scale and at industrial scale; in MILD mode [4], [67], so the potential exists to lead
gradual adaptations are taking place for this new the world in both open furnace MILD systems and the
technology. Worldwide there are many research labs and usage of alternative fuels [32], [38]. This also has great
universities are conducting further research, an example potential for consulting work with local industries to
of this is shown below in Figs. 11. Fig. 11(a) is MILD improve their green characteristics, and therefore, could
combustion in an open furnace at University of Southern lead to substantial future research and development
Queensland (USQ), Australia [31]. opportunities.
(a) (b) (a) (b)
Figs. 12.Temperature distribution for MILD combustion

(a) 3D view (b) 2D view
VII. Conclusion
The need for low cost energy is very important since
there is an increase in demand for energy. Lean and clean
combustion is a necessity in today’s energy production in
order to cater the critical energy.
The other critical issue is the demand for a greener
world leads to the reduction of greenhouse gases and
(c) more environmental friendly energy production. MILD
combustion technology and its characteristics are very
Figs. 11. MILD combustion furnace, (a) University of Southern impressive and it has the potential to be the real future of
Queensland, Australia [32] (b) University of Adelaide, Australia
[44], [67], [70] (c) Politecnico di Milano, Italy [68]
combustion for lean and clean energy.
255
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257
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Implementation of LQR Controller on Electromagnetic

Suspension System for Passenger’s Car
Noor Hafizah Amer1, Rahizar Ramli 2, Wan Nor Liza Wan Mahadi3,
Mohd Azman Zainul Abidin4, Hazril Md Isa5, Soong Ming Foong6
Abstract – In the past few decades, researchers have been focusing on improving control
strategy for automotive active suspension system. There are few configurations used in active
suspension mechanism and one of them is Electromagnetic Suspension (EMS) System. In this
study, the implementation of a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) controller in an EMS System for
vehicle Active Suspension System (ASS) was investigated. This provides an optimal control
solution for the active suspension system. Quarter vehicle model of an electromagnetic suspension
was derived and employed to study the implementation of the LQR controller. Detailed parametric
analysis for the proposed controller and implementation results will be presented in this paper.
This is done by investigating the effect of weighting parameters in the performance index of the
optimal control strategy in stabilising the vehicle response. The controller’s performance was
compared against a passive suspension system based on a commercial passenger’s car.
Parametric analyses revealed the importance of weighting parameters in the optimal control
formulation. Finally, it was proven that LQR controller strategy provides a satisfactory
improvement for the EMS system compared to passive suspension performance. Copyright © 2014
Keywords: LQR Controller, Electromagnetic Suspension, Active Suspension
Nomenclature To produce a controllable force in the suspension

system, few solutions has been proposed in the past,
EMS Electromagnetic Suspension notably magneto-rheological (MR) damper [2], [3] and
LQR Linear Quadratic Regulator electro-rheological (ER) damper [4]-[6]. These solutions
xb Vehicle Body Displacement focus on semi-active strategy which can only vary the
xw Vehicle Wheel Displacement damping force supplied by the suspension. An active
xb Vehicle Body Velocity suspension mechanism can be offered by EMS which can
xw Vehicle Wheel Displacement produce external force and in turn vary both damping and
xb Vehicle Body Acceleration stiffness characteristic of the suspension. EMS system
has been reviewed [7] and its application can be seen in
xw Vehicle Wheel Acceleration studies such as [8]-[10].
Zg Road input (disturbance) Various control strategies has been reviewed
A, B, C, D, Matrices representing space model of previously in several studies [11]-[15]. One of the most
E, U system common optimal control methods is the LQR.
Q, N, R Matrices in LQR controller performance The general concept is to optimize a set of
index performance parameters (which usually are body
q1, q2, q3, q4 Parameters in Q matrix acceleration, suspension travel and wheel-road
interactions) modelled as linear quadratic performance
index [16], [17]. Different performance index were
I. Introduction introduced with different kind of optimisation algorithm
Generally, a good suspension system will isolate as to solve the optimal problem. Also, different approaches
much vibration as possible between wheels and upper have been utilized for the purpose of optimizing these
body of the vehicles subjected to excitation caused by performance indexes. Notable studies on this type of
road irregularities. controller can be seen in [18]-[23].
With the increasing availability for supercomputers LQR controller can be seen in many notable
and fast processors, more researchers are focusing on researches. Most of the studies were employing LQR to
developing controllable suspension systems to enhance optimize the control input in a controllable suspension
ride and handling performance as reviewed [1]. [18], [20], [23].
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N. H. Amer et al.
All of these researches investigate the applicability of Numerical values for parameters in the 1/4 car model
LQR controller in the common active suspension system are based on a commercial, locally manufactured
which concluded that LQR controller is able to improve lightweight passengers’ car listed as in Table I.
ride performance. Also, most of LQR controller studies
TABLE I
on vehicle suspension previously [18], [20], [23], [24]
PARAMETERS FOR QUARTER CAR VEHICLE
focused on optimising optimal gain parameter, K. BASED ON COMMERCIAL PASSENGERS’ CAR
This study, instead, focus on a parametric analysis of Parameter Symbol Values
the weighting parameters in the performance index and Sprung mass (vehicle-quarter) mb 280 kg
how it is affecting the ride performance of the vehicle Unsprung mass (wheel) mw 26 kg
Spring Stiffness Ks 19 000 N/m
suspension. The LQR controller will be employed in the
Tire Stiffness Kt 260 000 N/m
EMS system instead of the more common active Damping Coefficient Cs 1700 Ns/m
suspension setup and its development will be carried out
from basic two degree-of-freedom (2DOF) model of the An EMS suspension is proposed in this study.
system. The suspension unit consists of a spring and an EMS
actuator passive suspension system. The EM actuator
was treated as a “black box” that has the ability to
II. LQR Controller for EMS Suspension produce any amount of force the control system told it to
LQR controller, as summarized in, employs the produce. The control strategy will calculate the required
optimal control theory which deals with ways to find the force to stabilize the vehicle and feed it to the EM
optimum solution of any given cost (objective) function. actuator which will supply the required force into vehicle
system. For performance comparison, a passive
suspension system, consisting a passive spring and
damper will be used. Figs. 2 show 2DOF models
representing the passive suspension setup (a) and EMS
suspension setup (b) based on [25]. Here, Fmag is the
controllable force from EMS actuator.
Fig. 1. Summary of control structure in LQR
Here, the system is represented by state space

representation as shown in Eq. (1), which define the
relationships between system control input U, system
outputs Y and state variables X  . In LQR, the main
strategy is to minimise a quadratic cost function defined
by a canonical form as shown in Eq. (2) where Q, N, and
R are the coupling matrices calculated using system Figs. 2. 2DOF Representation of: (a) Passive Suspension;
matrices A, B, C and D. According to optimal control (b) EMS Suspension
theory, the solution of the objective function from Eq. (2)
is an optimised value of system input, U given by U = -
KX where X is the system state feedback and K is the
IV. System and Controller Modelling
feedback gain: Mathematical modelling of the 2DOF passive and
EMS suspension was carried out to represent both setups
 = AX + BU ; Y = CX + DU
X (1) respectively by deriving the equations of motions. This is
important as the first step before modelling both models
in MATLAB/SIMULINK. The derivation has yielded
 
J   XT QX + 2XT NU + U T RU dt  two equations applicable to passive and EMS suspension
 (2)
respectively as pictured in Figs. 2. Eq. (1) governs the
 0 
passive suspension system from Fig. 2(a) and eq. (2)
governs the EMS suspension system from Fig. 2(b).
III. Vehicle and Suspension Modelling Passive suspension modeled in Eq. (3) will be used as
benchmark to validate the performance of proposed
This study employs a 2DOF quarter car vehicle model controller. Eq. (4) will be further used in the controller
usually used in vehicle dynamics studies. This is the development. The EMS system formulated in Eq. (4)
most common model employed in studies evaluating ride needs to be transformed into a state-space system as
comfort which emulates one wheel set in an automotive given in Eq. (1). For this, one should decide on the state
vehicle which includes the mass of a wheel, mass for a variables to be included in the state vector, X.
1/4 of the car and the suspension set for the particular Several approaches have been proposed by many
wheel set. researches in the past [18], [22], [24]. In this study, it has
259
N. H. Amer et al.
been decided to include a limited state feedback of Also, performance index from Eq. (6) can be
relative body-wheel displacement ( xb  xw ), body transformed into canonical form in Eq. (8):
velocity ( xb ), wheel-road displacement ( xw  z g ) and
 
wheel velocity ( xw ) to be observed as state variables as J   XT QX  2XT NFmag  Fmag T RFmag dt 

 0 
shown in Eq. (5):
 ks 2   ks 
1  2  q1 0 0 0  2 

xb    K s  xb  xw   Cs  xb  xw    mb   mb 
mb  Q 
0 q2 0 0 N 0  (8)
(3)    

xw  
 
1  Kt z g  xw  K s  xb  xw   
  0 0 q3 0  0 
mw  Cs  xb  xw      0 
  0 0 0 q4   
 1 
1 R 2

xb   Fmag  ks  xb  xw    mb 
mb 
(4)

xw  
 
1   kt xw  z g  k s  xb  xw   

The optimization is solved in MATLAB using Ricatti
approach as laid out by [16]. The solution will yield the
mw   Fmag  value of K and thus, the optimum input signal Fmag can

be obtained by the optimal control law, Fmag=-KX. The
Fmag value is the unique solution to optimize the
 x1   xb  xw 
 x   x  performance index in Eq. (8). A MATLAB/SIMULINK
X   2  
b  (5) model was built and as shown in Fig. 3.
 x3   xw  z g 
   
 x4   xw 
A performance index was chosen next. It consists of

the objective functions to be minimized by the LQR
controller. In this study, an established index from [16] is
used as shown in Eq. (6) where q1, q2, q3, and q4 are the
weighted coefficients of each performance parameters:
2
  
 q1  xb  xw   q2 xb 2  
xb2
  dt
J 
  q x  z 2  q x 2 
(6)
0
 3 w g  
4 w 
with the chosen state variables and performance index,

further derivations will yield the state space model for Fig. 3. LQR controller for EMS system
EMS as shown in Eq. (7). Here, system input, U is Fmag
(force to be generated by the EMS actuator), and Zg is the There are several conditions for a system to be
disturbance signal from road input: successfully controlled by LQR strategy. Therefore, a
system check should be carried out to ensure the
 = AX + BF + LZ
X proposed EMS system fulfilled the conditions as listed
mag g
below.
Y = CX + DFmag
 x1   xb  xw   x1   xb  xw  System should be controllable
 x2   xb 
   x2    
   xb  Standard controllability checked procedure as covered
X   ;X  in any control theory text book is to check the rank of
x  z
 x3   w g 
x  z
 x3   w g  matrix consists of system parameters, [B AB A2B A3B].
 x4   xw   x4   xw  (7) Analysis yields that the matrix has a full rank where all 4
 0 1 0 1  0  columns are independent to each other. Therefore, the
 ks   1  system is controllable.
 0 0 0   0
A b
m  B   mb  L   0 
 0   Q & R should be symmetrical, positive-definite or semi
0 0 1  0 
 1
 k   1  positive-definite
k  0 
 s 0  t 0   It is apparent from Eq. (8) that matrices Q and R in
 mw mw   mw  the derived controller have positive-definite elements and
260
N. H. Amer et al.
symmetrical along its diagonals. The results will be presented in the following graphs
(Figs. 5, 6) in comparison to passive suspension
U is unconstrained – able to produce any input values performance in bold line.
from the controller
As explained before, the EM actuator was treated as a Varying q1
“black box” that has the ability to produce any amount of q1 is related to the relative displacement between body
force, Fmag, the control system told it to produce. and wheel, (xb-xw). The response for body displacement
Therefore, it can be concluded that the system is is better by increasing q1 with better rising time and
controllable by LQR. steady state error. Body acceleration and wheel responses
did not change that much. They only vary in amplitude of
oscillations.
V. Simulation and Parametric Analysis
This study was carried out within Varying q2
MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation tools. 2 types of road q2 is related to the body velocity, xb . Increasing q2
inputs were used, step and random road input. Step input will cause more delay in the body displacement response.
will be modeling a curb of 0.03m height whereby the Similarly as before, only varying oscillation
random input models a realistic approach of a road amplitudes can be seen in body acceleration and wheel
surface. In this study, the road surface is generated based responses.
on employing the roughest road surface profile (Class E)
from ISO standard ([26]). Both road models are shown in Varying q3
Fig. 4. Differently, varying q3 which related to the relative
0.1
displacement between wheel and road, (xw-zg) does not
Step Input really affecting both body and wheel responses.
ISO Class E
0.05
Therefore, the value 10 derived before should be
maintained.
R o a d S u r fa c e (m )
0
Varying q4
Related to wheel velocity feedback, varying q4
-0.05
demonstrate more significant effect on all body and
wheel responses. Fig. 5 contains 2 different graphs
-0.1
showing the effect of varying q4 to body and wheel
responses compared to passive system response.
-0.15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Increasing q4 will increase the maximum overshoot
Time (s) which is unfavourable in terms of passenger’s comfort. It
will deteriorate its transient response for body
Fig. 4. Step and static random input from ISO 8608 – Class E displacement with a very high overshoot and longer
settling time. Wheel responses – both displacement and
A set of values were assigned to the weighting
acceleration – were improved greatly by increasing q4.
parameters in the matrix Q. In this study, the values are:
Increasing q4 will further improve the responses by
q1  1, q2  0, q3  10 and q4  0 which were derived
reducing oscillations and settling time despite increasing
based on guidelines from [16], [22]. The initial values maximum overshoot during initial response. Less
and its subsequent K values calculated are shown in Eq. oscillation can avoid severe road damage and suspension
(9). These values give deteriorating body responses and wear caused by the tire loading.
oscillatory wheel responses. To overcome this, a These effects can be summarised as tabled in Table II.
parametric analysis was carried out to give better It can be concluded that q3 variation will not affect the
understanding on the effect of these values: controller performance and q4 should not be zero for
stabilized wheel response.
q1  1, q2  0 , q3  10 , q4  0
(9) TABLE II
K1  18,720 , K 2  396 , K3  265, K 4  9
SUMMARY OF EFFECT IN VARYING Q PARAMETERS
Action Body Disp. Body Acc
Effects of varying each parameter were investigated Varying q1 ↑ ↑=
by carrying out a parametric analysis to the LQR Varying q2 ↓ =
Varying q3 = =
controller responses. This was done by using the step Varying q4 ↓ ↓
input to excite the system and observe its transient
behaviour.
A new set of parameters is introduced as shown in Eq.
It should be noted that the values of K from Eq. (9)
(10):
will be changing as Q changes. In each analysis, one
parameter will be varied from 1 to 10 while the other 3
q1  1, q2  0, q3  10 and q4  2 (10)
parameters are assigned to the initial values.
261
N. H. Amer et al.
Here, the new value for q4 was chosen randomly in the improvements were recorded for body acceleration and
range 0 < q4 < 10 based on the parametric analysis results body displacement respectively. However, there was
in Fig. 5. With these new parameters, a new set of results 2.64% reduction in wheel displacement RMS values
showing the transient response of the vehicle can be which cause further reductions in wheel related readings.
shown in Figs. 6. These are reductions in suspension working space, SWS
Fig. 6(a) shows body acceleration responses when the (Xb – Xw) and Dynamic Tire Loading DTL (Xw – Zg) by
system is subjected to the step input. From the graph, the 102% and 40% respectively. These reductions can be
response from EMS system shows a very good rectified by increasing q4 values in the performance
magnitude reduction compared to passive system. This index. However, this will in turn deteriorating body
shows the ability of LQR controller to manage the EMS responses. Therefore, an optimisation approach should be
system in improving the comfort level of the vehicle carried out to achieve a better balance.
system. Wheel displacement responses in Fig. 6(b)
showed comparably inferior response where significantly TABLE III
RMS VALUES FOR RANDOM INPUT ANALYSIS
larger amplitude can be observed. 25% difference in the
RMS PASSIVE LQR %
initial overshoot is strictly significant in wheel responses
Bacc 3.5717 1.6346 54.23
since this will determine the quality of road holding SWS 0.0174 0.0353 -102.87
property for the suspension (DTL) However, this can be DTL 0.0085 0.0119 -40
concluded as a result of the absence of damper in the Xb 0.0453 0.0287 36.64
Xw 0.0416 0.0427 -2.64
EMS model.
Fmag 801.2933
Random road input results can be analyzed with RMS
values as tabulated in Table III. 54.2% and 36.7%
Fig. 5. Effect of varying q4 compared to passive data for wheel displacement
(a) (b)
Figs. 6. (a)Body acceleration and (b)wheel displacement for LQR Controller
262
N. H. Amer et al.
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Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia (MOHE) for Method and Applying in the Active Suspension System,"
the full support received throughout the course of this presented at the International Conference on Intelligent Systems
and Knowledge Engineering, China, 2007.
study. Also, highest appreciation to PROTON research [19] Y. Y. Zuo, C. B. Yan, and N. Yang, "Vehicle Active Suspension
department for cooperation and expertise throughout this with Four-Degrees of Freedom of Optimizing the Value of K
study. Based on Genetic Algorithm," Advanced Materials Research, vol.
Advanced Design Technology (Volumes 308 - 310), pp. 1673-
1678, 2011.
[20] M. E. M. B. Gaid, A. C. ela, and R. e. Kocik, "Distributed control
References of a car suspension system," in 5th EUROSIM Congress on
[1] D. Hrovat, "Survey of Advanced Suspension Developments and Modeling and Simulation (Eurosim’04), Paris, France, 2004.
Related Optimal Control Applications," Automatica, vol. 33, pp. [21] A. G. Thompson, "Optimal and Suboptimal Linear Active
1781-1817, 1997. Suspensions for Road Vehicles," Vehicle System Dynamics:
[2] M. Ahmadian, F. D. Goncalves, and C. Sandu, "An experimental International Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, vol. 13,
analysis of suitability of various semiactive control methods for pp. 61 - 72, 1984.
magneto-rheological vehicle suspensions," Smart Structures and [22] A. G. Thompson, "An Active Suspension with Optimal Linear
Materials: Damping and Isolation, vol. 5760, pp. 208-216, 2005. State Feedback," Vehicle System Dynamics: International Journal
[3] D. Batterbee and N. Sims, "Hardware-in-the-loop simulation of of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, vol. 5, pp. 187 - 203, 1976.
magnetorheological dampers for vehicle suspension systems," [23] Y. Zhang, M.-m. Xia, J.-y. Qin, and H. Zhang, "Research on co-
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part I: simulation using ADAMS and MATLAB for automobile active
Journal of Systems and Control Engineering, vol. 221, pp. 265- suspension system," in International Conference on Computer
278, 2007. Application and System Modeling (ICCASM), 2010, pp. 366-370.
[4] S. Hare, "Electro-Rheological Shock Absorber," US Patent [24] D. A. Wilson, R. S. Sharp, and S. A. Hassan, "The Application of
5161653, 10th November 1992, 1992. Linear Optimal Control Theory to the Design of Active
[5] N. K. Petek, "Shock Absorber Uses Electrorheological Fluid," Automotive Suspensions," Vehicle System Dynamics:
Automotive Engineering, 1992. International Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, vol. 15,
[6] Z. Kesy, A. Kesy, M. R. Jackson, R. M. Parkin, Investigation of pp. 105 - 118, 1986.
Viscotic Clutch with Electrorheological Fluid, (2008) [25] I. Martins, J. Esteves, G. D. Marques, and F. Pina da Silva,
International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 2 (5), "Permanent-magnets linear actuators applicability in automobile
pp. 792 - 796. active suspensions," Vehicular Technology, IEEE Transactions
[7] H. M. Isa, W. N. L. Mahadi, R. Ramli, and M. A. Z. Abidin, "A on, vol. 55, pp. 86-94, 2006.
review on electromagnetic suspension systems for passenger [26] ISO8608, "Mechanical vibration - Road surface profiles -
vehicle," in Electrical, Control and Computer Engineering Reporting of measured data," vol. ISO 8608, ed: International
(INECCE), 2011 International Conference on, 2011, pp. 399-403. Organization for Standardization, 1995.
263
N. H. Amer et al.
Authors’ information Hazril Md. Isa is currently a researcher in

Syarikat Prasarana Negara Berhad, Malaysia.
1 Mr. Isa obtained his first degree (BEng) in
National Defense University of Malaysia, Malaysia.
Telecommunication Engineering from
2, 3, 5, 6 University of Malaya, Malaysia in 2010. He is
University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
now pursuing his Master’s degree (MEngSc) in
4 University of Malaya under supervision of Dr.
PROTON Research Department, Shah Alam, Malaysia.
Ramli and Dr. Wan Mahadi. Mr. Isa current
Noor Hafizah Amer is currently a lecturer in research interest is the design of electromagnetic suspension in
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty automotive suspension.
of Engineering, National Defense University of
Malaysia. Ms. Amer obtained her first degree Soong Ming Foong obtained his first degree in
(MEng) in Mechanical Engineering BEng of Mechanical Engineering from
(Automotive) from The University of University of Malaya, Malaysia. He is currently
Nottingham, UK in 2009. She then continued pursuing his PhD under supervision of Dr.
her education in University Malaya, Malaysia Rahizar Ramli. Mr. Soong current research
and obtained MEngSc degree in 2013. Her current interests include focuses on automotive application of inerter in
multi-objective optimizations, semi-active and active automotive vehicle suspension.
suspensions and control system. Ms Amer currently is a member of
Board of Engineers Malaysia.
Dr. Rahizar Ramli is currently a senior lecturer

in Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University Malaya,
Malaysia. Dr. Ramli obtained BSc (MECH)
degree from University of Hartford, Western
Hardford, Connecticut, USA in 1991. He then
continued his studies in University Malaya for
his MEngSc degree and obtained Doctor of
Philosophy from University of Leeds, UK in 2004. Focusing on
vehicle dynamics and automotive control, Dr Ramli is also an active
researcher in Vibration And Noise Control , Condition Monitoring,
Structural Dynamics And Structural Optimization. Dr. Ramli currently
is an editorial member of PROTON BHD (Journal of Engineering)
since 2011and also a member of Board of Engineers Malaysia.
Dr. Wan Nor Liza Wan Mahadi is currently a

senior lecturer in Department of Electrical
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University
Malaya, Malaysia. Dr. Wan Mahadi obtained
her BSc (Hons) in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering from University Of Wales, Cardiff,
UK in 1988 . She then continued her education
in the same institution and obtained Doctor of
Philosophy in 1996. Dr. Wan Mahadi main focus includes Magnetic
Materials And Its Industrial Applications, Electromagnetic Field
Exposure Evaluation and also antenna and propagation. Dr. Wan
Mahadi currently is a member of Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE) and Magnetic Society.
Dr. Mohd Azman Zainul Abidin is currently

an Associate Professor in University
Technology of Malaysia and also a visiting
professor in Professor Office of PROTON
Research Department in PROTON
Headquarters, Malaysia. Dr. Zainul Abidin
obtained Bachelor Engineering from University
Science Malaysia in 1994, Master Degree
Automotive Engineering Design & Manufacture from Coventry
University, Coventry, UK in 1997 and PhD in vehicle dynamics from
Loughborough University, UK. His main research focus area is vehicle.
His international experiences include the vehicle dynamics/CAE
Technical specialist in Jaguar/Land Rover Technical Centre, Gaydon,
UK (2005-2007) and researcher in MINOLTA, Osaka, Japan (1995-
1996). Dr. Zainul Abidin is an active member of Society of Automobile
Engineering, SAE International, Malaysia Section and held a
committee member post as treasurer.
264
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Indentation Fracture Behaviour of Fibre Metal Laminates

Based on Kenaf/Epoxy
M. R. Abdullah, C. L. Pang, N. A. Husain, B. Abdi
Abstract – This paper deals with experimental investigations of fibre metal laminates (FMLs)
based on kenaf/epoxy under static indentation loading. Tests were conducted on 2/1 lay-up and 3/2
lay-up of FMLs that fabricated by using vacuum infusion process and hydraulic pressing technique.
Indentation tests of FMLs were conducted with loading rate of 10 mm/min. The front and rear
surfaces of indentation-loaded FMLs were examined to identify the failure mechanisms at different
configurations. It was found that, the failure was happened on the surface of pure kenaf by
increasing the indentation depth. However, debonding between the aluminium sheet and
kenaf/epoxy is occurred only for 3/2 lay-up of FMLs. The contact force-displacement curves and
energy absorption-displacement curves were analysed. The resistance to deform and damage was
increase by increasing the number of layers and thickness of aluminium alloy sheet. Copyright ©
Keywords: Failure, Fibre Metal Laminates, Indentation, Kenaf, Vacuum Infusion
I. Introduction Reyes [5] also investigated the mechanical behaviour

of thermoplastic FML-reinforced sandwich panels using
Nowadays, composite materials are finding an aluminium foam core. He conducted four-point bend
widespread use in a wide variety of primary and testing and revealed that the sandwich structures offer
secondary load-bearing applications. excellent residual flexural strength with relative values
This is because of excellent formability, high specific remaining close to 80% of the original strength after a 32
strength and stiffness, and corrosion resistance of J impact. In addition, research on static indentation and
composites. However, the major disadvantage of these impact tests on reformed bamboo/aluminium laminated
lightweight materials is their poor resistance to localized composite salso has been conducted [6]. The results
impact loading. In many situations, composite structures indicated that the impact resistance of FMLs was
are subjected to collisions or impacts whose intensity significantly greater than values offered by pure
produces damages and perforations [1].Previous work composite fibre in both high and low velocity impact.
has shown that even low-velocity impacts are capable of Besides, Tsamasphyros et. al.[7] also conducted
generating extensive damage, which can in turn lead to analytical and numerical analysis rather than
significant reductions in the load-bearing capacity of the experimental on FMLs which is analytical and finite
component [2]. element modelling of circular glare plates under
This situation has lead researchers to investigate the indentation loading and unloading. Kuan et. al.[8] also
potential offered by fibre metal laminates (FMLs) based found that by adding aluminium layers to the outer
on thin layers of metal and a fibre-reinforced composite surfaces of various natural fibre composites, there were
material. FMLs acts like a simple metal yet holds unique significant enhancements in the tensile and impact
group properties, advantageous over metal in terms of properties of the laminates.
strength, resistance to fatigue, damage, impact, blast, fire However, there are still lack of research on FMLs
and corrosion; and also weight reductions. Tan et. al.[3] based on natural composite and metal.
used FMLs to skin polypropylene honeycomb core to Paul et. al. [9] investigate the response of natural fibre
form a sandwich structure and conducted a series of low- and hybrid composites to localised blast loading and
velocity impact test. found that the dominant failure mode was fibre fracture,
Other than that, FMLs composites such as glass delamination and bulging. Akilet. al. [10] presented an
fibre/aluminium, aramid fibre/aluminium, and carbon overview of developments made in area of kenaf fibre
fibre/aluminium are attracting interest from a wide range reinforced composites, in terms of their marketability,
of engineering sectors. The mechanical properties of manufacturing methods, and overall properties. Kenaf
epoxy-based FMLs have been investigated in a number (Hibiscus connabinus, L. family Malvaceae) is seen as an
of studies by various type of loading. Abdullah and herbaceous annual plant that can be grown under a wide
Cantwell [4] conducted a series of high velocity impact range of weather condition; for example, it grows to
test on thermoplastic-matrix FML structures. more than 3 m within 3 months even in moderate
265
The advantage of kenaf fibres compared with A hemispherical indenter with diameter of 12.7mm and
conventional and traditional fibre reinforced composites is a thick square tube with dimension of
biodegradable. The conventional and traditional fibre 100mm×100mm×50mm and thickness of 12.5mm have
reinforced composites like carbon fibres, glass fibres, been used as support fixture for indentation test.
which are incorporated into unsaturated polyester or The indentation tests were conducted on a Model 5982
epoxy resin cause environmental problems in disposal by Instron Universal Testing Machine with a maximum load
incineration. Thus, in order to overcome these problems, capacity of 100kN. The indenter applied the compressive
environmentally friendly composites are today keenly load at a constant cross-head speed of 10 mm/min at room
required by utilizing natural fibres as reinforcements temperature. Fig. 1 shows the experimental setup of the
combined with biodegradable polymer matrices. indentation test.
According to research by Takashi et. al.[12], an In the indentation test, the indentation depth was
environmentally friendly composite made of kenaf fibre increased until the specimen failed. The test is repeated
and PLLA resin composite possesses superior mechanical three times in order to minimise experimental error due to
and thermal properties based on the strong interaction human error and random error. The results average were
between kenaf fibre and the PLLA resin. The research has calculated and plotted.
shown that kenaf fibre can be a good reinforcement The failure mechanisms in the FMLs were investigated
candidate for high performance biodegradable polymer visually by examined the front and rear surfaces of
composites. In this study, kenaf fibre-reinforced epoxy indented FMLs. Compressive load-indentation depth
FMLs was investigated under static indentation loading to curves were plotted to analyze their relationship. Also,
study the indentation response and failure modes of the maximum compressive load for each specimens were
structures. Here, attention will centre on investigating the identified. The amount of energy absorbed is taken as the
influence of varying the stacking sequence of such FMLs area under the load-displacement curve.
based kenaf/epoxy on the indentation fracture behaviour
of the multi-layered system.
II. Material and Manufacturing Process

In this experimental study, aluminium alloy (1000
series) with 30µm iodized surface, chopped strand mat
(CSM), kenaf fiber and epoxy resin have been used to
fabricate several types of FMLs with different number and
thickness of aluminum alloy sheets and kenaf/epoxy
layers. Air bubble free resin vacuum infusion process and
hydraulic press are used to fabricate FMLs plates. In resin
vacuum infusion technique, resin drive into a dry laminate
by using a vacuum pressure.
Dry kenaf fibres and aluminium sheets are laid up and
the vacuum pressure is applied over the layers. After
achieving a complete vacuum over the laminate with no
leaking, the bubbles free resin is sucked into the laminate
by using tubing systems and after achieving full infusion,
a pressure (9000 Psi) are applied over the laminate to Fig. 1. Experimental setup of indentation test
remove the excess resin from the laminate. The curing
time for epoxy resin is around 24 hours at room
temperature. Several samples of 2/1 lay-up and 3/2 lay-up IV. Results and Discussion
of FMLs with dimension of 100mm×100mm and different
IV.1. Indentation Failure Mechanisms
thickness of aluminium sheets (0.3 mm and 0.6 mm) are
prepared for indentation tests. The failure processes in the indented FMLs were
characterized by examining the front and rear surfaces of
all of the samples after testing (Figs. 2).
III. Experimental Setup During indentation test of pure kenaf fibre plate,
In this research, two parameters which were thickness compressive load was applied at the centre of the plate.
and lay-up of FMLs were investigated. Indentation tests When the indentation depth was increased, the
were carried out on pure kenaf fibre plate, 2/1 lay-up of specimen start to bent and crack was occurred at
FMLs with 0.3mm and 0.6mm thickness of aluminium indentation depth of 3.5 mm on the indented surface.
alloy sheet (2/1-0.3 FMLs, 2/1-0.6 FMLs), and 3/2 lay-up There are three cracks were propagated from the
of FMLs with 0.6mm thickness of aluminium alloy sheet indented surface toward the edges of the plate as shown in
(3/2-0.6 FMLs) to characterise the resistance to Fig. 2(a).
indentation and the failure mechanisms.
266
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Indented surface Rear surface
Figs. 2. Photographs of the indented (a) pure kenaf fibre plate, (b) 2/1-0.3 FMLs, (c) 2/1-0.6 FMLs, (d) 3/2-0.6 FMLs
The cracks are longer at the rear surface of the structural deformation because of the specimen centre was
specimen compared to indented surface. This is because unsupported. When the laminate was pushed through the
the elongation on rear surface deformed more than the open window, the structure was deformed due to
indented surface. The behaviour of cracking propagation significant bending. The passage of the indenter produce a
of pure kenaffibre will reduce the load-bearing capacity of hole with diameter similar to that of the indenter (12.7
their application. For the FMLs specimens, the shape of mm) on the specimen of 2/1 lay-up of FMLs with 0.3mm
deformation is different from pure kenaf plate. thickness of aluminium alloy sheet (2/1-0.3 FMLs) as
The indented point on the indented surface for all the shown in Fig. 2(b).
three types of laminate was always circular which reflects There were presence of a number of petals at the rear
the shape of the indenter. surface of the specimen 2/1-0.3 FMLs. During
The movement of the indenter caused two different indentation, the petalling cracks propagate away from the
types of deformation in the laminate: local indentation and centre point under the pressure of the penetrating indenter.
267
The passage of the indenter enlarges the circumference

of the hole and extending the radial cracks. Compared to
2/1-0.3 FMLs, 2/1 lay-up of FMLs with 0.6mm thickness
of aluminium alloy sheet (2/1-0.6 FMLs) did not produce
a hole but a circular crack is clearly evident around the
indented point. As the compressive load increases, the
uppermost aluminium and kenaf plies are pushed through
the rear surface opening (Fig. 2(c)). For 3/2 lay-up of
FMLs with 0.6mm thickness of aluminium alloy sheet
(3/2-0.6 FMLs), initial failure took the form of dent on the
indented surface and a small crack extending along the
rolling direction in the rearmost aluminium layer are
evident. By increasing compressive load, the size of the
indented surface dent and the length of the rear surface
crack increased, and a second crack started to propagate
perpendicular to the initial crack. However, due to the
thickness of aluminium alloy sheet the 3/2-0.6 FMLs,
debonding occurred between the interface of aluminium
layer and kenaf fibre.
In summary, by investigating the indentation failure Fig. 4. Maximum compressive load for each specimen
mechanism of indented and rear surface, the laminate
specimen produced a dent before cracking whereby there Initially, compressive load was used to deform a
was no dent on pure kenaf plate because lack of protection smallarea of the front aluminium alloy sheet and the upper
given by aluminium alloy layers. By comparing among kenaf fibre layer, which was followed by further
the 2/1 laminates specimen, the thicker aluminium alloy deformation into the next layers.
sheet has better resistance to deform. After that, 3/2 Since 3/2-0.6 FMLs have additional a layer of
laminates specimen has less deformation compared with aluminium alloy sheet, so it required more compressive
2/1 laminates specimen but delamination failure was load to deform the layers. However, when indentation
presence between the kenaf fibre and middle layer of depth around 1.8 mm, the compressive load of 3/2-0.6
aluminium alloy sheet. FMLs shown a sudden drop because of structural
deformation was started by laminate failure due to
IV.2. Indentation Resistance significant delamination. The laminates initially tended to
fail by delamination among the kenaf fibre. During
The resulting plot shown in Fig. 3 was observed from indentation depth of 4.5 mm, the debonding between
indentation test done by using universal testing machine. kenaf fibre and the middle aluminium alloy sheet was
Each specimen exhibits different maximum compressive occurred and the cracking sound was clearly heard while
load (Fig. 4) but the same curve pattern except for 3/2-0.6 delamination took place. So, 3/2-0.6 FMLs failed after
FMLs due to delamination failure. It can be seen from indentation depth of 4.5 mm and maximum compressive
each plot in Fig. 3 that compressive load is increased by load of 5.42kN.
increasing the indentation depth, but the relation was By comparing the 2/1-0.6 FMLs and 2/1-0.3 FMLs, the
non-linear. At the same indentation depth 3/2-0.6 FMLs FMLs with thicker aluminium alloy sheet require higher
has the highest compressive load and t pure kenaf fibre compressive load. The compressive load increased
plate has the lowest compressive load. non-linearly to make a dent on the indented point,
followed by a circular crack and then to push the
uppermost aluminium and kenaf plies through the rear
surface opening. When a hole was produced the
compressive load drop rapidly and the specimen was
failed after achieved their maximum compressive load
which are 3.38kN for 2/1-0.6 FMLs and 2.46kN for
2/1-0.3 FMLs.
The pure kenaf fibre plate only achieved 0.71kN of
maximum compressive load without protection of
aluminium alloy sheet. The compressive load was used to
formed and propagate the cracking on the plate. The plate
fractured when indentation depth of 9 mm.By comparing
the result of pure kenaf plate with FMLs, the weakness of
kenaf fibre composite can be improved by forming a
Fig. 3. Compressive load versus indentation depth curves
sandwich composite with thin layers of metal. In addition,
for the indentation test the indentation resistance for FMLs was also better than
268
pure kenaf fibre sheet by Takashi et. al.[12] but when fracture of the aluminium plies as well and delamination,
compared to bamboo/aluminium laminated composites matrix deformation, and fibre fracture in the composite
developed by Zhang et. al. [6], the FMLs based on layers. The compressive load-indentation depth curves of
kenaf/epoxy is weaker. the specimens are non-linear and the results shown an
increase of compressive load to deform the structure when
the thickness of aluminium alloy sheet was increase and
IV.3. Energy Absorption
increase the number of layers from 2/1 FMLs to 3/2
The energy absorption properties of specimens were FMLs. Also, it has shown that debonding between the
compared in Fig. 5. The amount of energy was taken as aluminium alloy sheet and kenaf fibre layers was occurred
area under the compressive load-indentation depth curve. for 3/2 FMLs but there is no any bonding failure for 2/1
For all of the specimens, the energy increased almost FMLs under indentation loading.
linearly when the indentation depth was increased. When This is because of the increase in the thickness and
the FMLs just achieved their maximum energy, the numbers of lay-up in FMLs, the structural deformation
amount of energy decrease rapidly due to the failure, but will arise from significant bending of the laminate. Lastly,
in pure kenaf fibre plate, the energy remain almost by comparing to previous studies, FMLs based on
constant before fracture. kenaf/epoxy is weaker than bamboo/aluminium laminated
This is because the FMLs failed when the hole was composites but is better than pure kenaf fibre sheet due to
created whereby pure kenaf fibre plate did not created a types ofaluminium alloy, fibre matrix, FMLs thickness
hole but failed by fracture failure. Same as the indentation and bonding material.
resistance, during the same indentation depth, 3/2-0.6
FMLs has the highest value of energy and then followed
by 2/1-0.6 FMLs, 2/1-0.3 FMLs and pure kenaf plate. Acknowledgements
It is interesting to note that before failure of the The authors acknowledge the UniversitiTeknologi
specimens, the maximum energy absorption of 2/1-0.6 Malaysia (UTM), (Research University Grant:
FMLs was 30.82 J (at indentation depth of 9.3 mm) which Q.J130000.2624.03J67) and UTM Zamalah Scholarship
made it become the highest among the specimens. This is for funding and giving financial assistance during the
because of debonding failure that occurred in 3/2-0.6 research work.
FMLs at the indentation depth of 4.3 mm and it only can
achieved the maximum energy absorption of 22.86 J but
still higher than 2/1-0.3 FMLs which only 20.14 J at 8.5 References
mm indentation depth. [1] Rehailia, H., A study of a stratified plate subject to an impact -the
law of penetration-, (2010) International Review of Mechanical
[2] Richardson, M. O. W., Wisheart, M. J., Review of Low-velocity
Impact Properties of Composite Materials, Composites Part A:
Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 27, n. 12, pp. 1123-1131,
1996.
[3] Tan, C. Y., Akil, H. M., Impact Response of Fiber Metal Laminate
Sandwich Composite Structure with Polypropylene Honeycomb
Core, Composites: Part B, Vol. 43, n. 3, pp. 1433-1438, 2012.
[4] Abdullah, M. R., Cantwell, W.J., The High-velocity Impact
Response of Thermoplastic-matrix Fibre-metal Laminates,Journal
of Strain Analysis, Vol. 47, n. 7, pp. 432-443, 2012.
[5] Reyes, G., Mechanical Behavior of Thermoplastic
FML-Reinforced Sandwich Panels Using an Aluminum Foam
Core: Experiments and Modelling,Journal of Sandwich Structures
and Materials, Vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 81-96, 2009.
[6] Zhang, J.Y., Yu, T. X., Kim, J.K., Sui, G. X., Static Indentation and
Impact Behaviour of Reformed Bamboo/Aluminium Laminated
Composites,Composite Structures,Vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 207-216,
2000.
[7] Tsamasphyros, G. J.,Bikakis, G. S., Analytical and Finite Element
Modelling of Circular Glare Plates Under Indentation Loading and
Unloading,Advanced Composites Letters, Vol. 20, no. 4, pp.
101-108, 2011.
[8] Kuan, H.T.N., Cantwell, W.J., Akil, H. M., Santulli, C., The
Fig. 5. Energy absorbed of each specimen in indentation test Fracture Properties of Environmental-friendly Fiber Metal
Laminates,Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Vol.
30, no. 6, pp. 499-508, 2011.
V. Conclusion [9] Wambua, P.M., Anandjiwala, R., Failure of natural Fibre and
hybrid composites under localised explosive blast, (2009)
The indentation fracture behaviour of a range of FMLs, International Review of Mechanical Engineering (IREME), 3 (4),
based on an aluminium and kenaf fibre has been studied. pp. 456-460.
[10] Akil, H.M., Omar, M.F., Mazuki, A.A.M., Safiee, S., Ishak,
An examination of the failed specimens indicated that Z.A.M., Abu Bakar, A.,KenafFiber Reinforced Composites: A
energy was absorbed through plastic deformation and Review,Materials and Design, Vol. 32, no. 8-9, pp. 4107-4121,
269
2011.
[11] Sellers, T., Reichert, N. A., Kenaf Properties, Processing and
Products (Mississippi State University Mississippi, 1999)
[12] Takashi, N., Koichi, H., Masaru, K., Katsuhiko, N. and Hiroshi,
I.,KenafReinforced Biodegradable Composite,Composites Science
and Technology,Vol. 63, no. 9, pp. 1281-1286, 2003.
Mohamed Ruslan Abdullah was born in
Kelantan, Malaysia in 1964. He graduated from
UniversitiTeknologi Malaysia (UTM) with a
Bachelor Degree in Mechanical Engineering in
1987 and acquired Masters of Science in
Manufacturing Systems Engineering from
University of Warwick UK in 1991. He
completed his PhD at University of Liverpool,
UK in 2006 in the field of Composites Material. He is is currently an
Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Mechanics and
Design, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, UTM. His current research
interests include manufacturing and impact properties of composites
material.
Pang Chi Loog was born in Kelantan, Malaysia

in 1988. He received his Bachelor degree of
Engineering (Mechanical-Automotive) from
UniversitiTeknologi Malaysia (UTM) in 2012.
He is currently working towards a PhD in
Mechanical Engineering and pursuing a research
in performance of fibre metal laminates (FMLs)
composites in automotive substructure at the
same university since 2012
Nurulakmar Abu Husain graduated from

UniversitiTeknologi Malaysia in 2001 with a
BEng (Mechanical-Automotive), followed byan
MSc in Automotive Engineering from the
University of Bath, UK in 2003.She then
acquired her PhD at the University of Liverpool,
UK in the field of Mechanical
Engineering(2010). Hercurrent research
interests include Automotive Structures, Finite Element analysis and
model updating, and Modal Analysis.
Behzad Abdi graduated from Urmia University

(Urmia, Iran), with a Bachelor degree in
Mechanical Engineering (Fluid Mechanics) in
2005 and acquired Masters of Science in
mechanical Engineering (Applied Designing)
from Bou Ali Sina University (Hamedan, Iran) in
2009. He completed his PhD at
UniversitiTecknologiMalayisa (UTM), Malaysia
in 2013 in the field of Mechanical Engineering (Composites Material).
His current research interests are, composite structures, optimization
(Genetic algorithm, imperialist competitive algorithm and artificial
neural networks) - finite element analysis, natural fiber composites, fiber
metal laminates (FMLs), stitched foam core sandwich panels and
polymer Z-pins coreless composite sandwich panels.
270
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Influence of N2 and H2O on UV Irradiated Bio Polymer Composite
Anika Zafiah M. Rus, Siti Rahmah M., Shaiqah M. Rus
Abstract – This study reports on the effect of UV-light on the FTIR spectra of bio polymer doped
with 10 % TiO2 (BPF1.0) in a gas cell full with nitrogen gas (N2) and a droplet of water (H2O). The
film samples were put in the 10 cm NaCl gas cell with 99.99 % N2 with H2O at different exposure
time of 40 °C. An unexposed gas cell fill with N2 and H2O is used for the purposed of comparison.
The chemical structural changes in the UV irradiated gas cell were monitored by Fourier-
transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy methods. The changes in hydroxyl, (OH) and carbon
nitrogen double bond, (C=N) of bio polymer doped with TiO2 under UV exposures were discussed.
OH and C=N intensities decreases of exposed to UV light under N2 with H2O in gas cell. The UV-
radiation shows FTIR spectrum changes on BPF1.0 of exposed to nitrogen gas and water.
Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bio Polymer, Nitrogen (N2), Water (H2O), Gas Cell, UV Light, FTIR Spectra
Nomenclature Since some years photocatalytically active building

materials, e.g., paints, roof tiles, and building materials
TiO2 Titanium dioxide available on the market contain TiO2 powder as the
N2 Nitrogen photocatalyst [10].
H2O Water In the past two decades, TiO2 heterogeneous
FTIR Fourier Transform Infra Red photocatalyst has been extensively investigated [11].
OH Hydroxyl TiO2 meets these criteria and is one of the best
C=N Carbon nitrogen double bond semiconductors for photocatalytic reactions. Moreover,
BPF1.0 Bio polymer thin film doped with 10 % TiO2 by using UV and titanium dioxide thin film coated on a
UV Ultra violet glass or metal surface can to eliminate hazardous indoor
air pollutants, for example benzene, toluene and
formaldehyde, photocatalytic oxidation [12]. However,
I. Introduction
technical difficulties with coating affect the consistency
Nowadays, renewable materials such as plant oils or and quality of the film, leading to variable removal
vegetable oils are oils derived from plant sources. efficiencies and loss of catalyst during the reaction
Several arguments can be found to believe in the great process [13]. In general, vinyl polymers are particularly
potential of plant oils as an alternative resource for the susceptible to thermal degradation, particularly at
production of polymeric materials [1], [2]. elevated temperature or during exposure to ultraviolet
The necessity of releasing the polymer industry from light [14].
its dependence on depleting resources represents a major It should be indicated that irradiated polymeric
concern, pushing the search for industrially applicable materials undergo a series of oxidative reactions that lead
renewable alternatives [3]. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a to photochemical degradation [15]-[17] and with
semiconductor and the most important and most widely consequences like brittleness, loss of brightness, and
used inorganic pigments applied in many branches of color changes. Besides the cross-linking of the polymeric
industry. processes, a number of other changes may take place in
The effect of TiO2 on material properties for polymeric chains during photodegradation [18], [19].
renewable material was studied [4]-[7]. The most Photocatalytic is a decomposition reaction formed
desirable features of TiO2 from the point of view of thin when TiO2, as a catalyst, absorbs UV radiation from
film as coating applications include the ability of sunlight, that accelerates the oxidation process in the
whitening, covering power, brightness, and resistance to atmosphere and decomposes any air borne toxic organic
environmental factors, chemical neutrality and non- matters as refer to Fig. 1. One approach to reduce the
toxicity [8]. concentration of air pollutants is the light-induced
Different method was identified to make this catalyst oxidation in the presence of a photocatalytically active
more efficient and more applicable, different forms of material and molecular oxygen [20]. The similar result
TiO2, such as thin and thick film coatings powders, and was found in the IR spectra of water polyaggregates in a
membranes have been utilized [9]. nitrogen cryomatrix [21].
271
As well, it is aimed to determine the functional group

of the OH and C=N intensities in the gas cell according
to the absorption spectra and the degradation of the
BPF1.0 after exposed to UV light.
II. Methodology
II.1. Materials
Bio polymer thin film (BPF) was prepared from
renewable resources of waste cooking oil. Waste cooking
oil was obtained from Small and Medium Industries
(SMIs) and chemically manipulated at laboratory scale
Fig. 1. Photocatalytic reaction [22]
using less tan 1L of waste cooking oil [24]. The
monomer conversion begins with the catalyst preparation
to generate the epoxies from the unsaturated fatty
compound, and second reaction is the acid-catalyst ring
opening of the epoxies to form polyols or bio monomer
[2], [4].
II.2. Preparation of BPF1.0

Bio monomer was mixed with Methylene Diphenyl
Diisocyanate (MDI) and 10 % TiO2 (wt by wt ratio of bio
monomer) using mechanical stirrer and cast into a
Fig. 2. Mechanism of photocatalysis [23]
container. The BPF1.0 was leave to cure at ambient
Activation of TiO2 is achieved through the absorption temperature for at least 6 hours, as to ensure complete
of a photon (hν) with ultra-band energy from UV removal of solvent traces. Micrometer was used to
irradiation source. This results in the promotion of an measure the thickness of the sample at particular point
electron (e−) from the valence band to the conduction ranging from 110 µm to 250 µm.
band, with the generation of highly reactive positive
holes (h+) in the valence band. This stage is referred as II.3. Irradiation of BPF1.0
the semiconductor's 'photo-excitation' state as referred to
Fig. 2. The energy difference between the valence band The film samples of 130 x 25 mm were cut and put in
and the conduction band is known as the 'Band Gap'. the 10 cm NaCl gas cell with 99.99 % N2 and one drop of
Wavelength of the light necessary for photo-excitation is: H2O for different exposure time at 40 °C in the UV
accelerated weathering tester (Haida International
1240 (Planck's constant, h) / Equipment Ltd.). The UV-irradiation of the gas cell was
(1) carried out using an array of UV fluorescent lamps
3.2 ev (band gap energy) = 388 nm
emitting light in the region from 280 to 320 nm with a
This causes aggressive oxidation of the surface tail extending to 400 nm.
adsorbed toxic organic pollutants and converts them into
CO2 and water: II.4. Measurements of FTIR Spectra
TiO2 +hν→ TiO2 (ecb − + holevb +) (2) The UV absorption spectra of chemical structural
changes for BPF1.0 were recorded before and
H2O → OH− + H+ (3) immediately after UV irradiation with a FT-IR
Spectrometer according to ASTM D6348 [25]. The
Oxidative reaction: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy system that was
employed in this work was Perkin Elmer spectrometer
holevb + OHads − → •OH (4) (Spectrum 100) Universal ATR Sampling Accessory.
The working wavenumber range of the spectrometer
•OH+VOCs/Dye+O2 → CO2 + H2O (5) was from 4000 to 700 cm-1, with a resolution of 32 cm-1.
Therefore, this research work concentrate irradiated

gas cell to the UV light with bio polymer composite as
renewable material. The effects of UV-light irradiation on the efficiency of
The present paper emphasizes the absorption spectra photochemical processes in BPF doped with 10 % TiO2
in the gas cell before and after UV light exposure. (BPF1.0) were studied by their absorption spectra.
272
The absorption spectra of unexposed and exposed UV In the mechanical process, the high energy could
light gas cell filled with BPF1.0 at different exposure time produce the active surface on TiO2, which would react
is shown in Fig. 3. with nitrogenous substance directly to form chemical
As seen in Figure 3, chemical changes were assessed adsorb unstable intermediate, and this intermediate could
by FT-IR spectra for photo-irradiated gas cell of BPF1.0 form nitrogen doping in the subsequent thermal
(exposed 60 minutes). The changes show typical treatment.
functional group in the hydroxyl 3800-3000 cm-1 and The surface of bio polymer/TiO2 results the formation
alkenes 1700-1600 regions. The hydroxyl stretching of the doped nitrogen may demonstrate chemical
vibration region showed the growth of a broad band adsorption occurring between Ti atom and N atom.
between 3700 and 3100 cm-1 centered at 3435 cm-1, Nitrogen atom has unpaired electrons which may be
corresponding to hydroxyl groups associated with easily adsorbed on Ti. The most probably existing bond
carboxylic acids. Aliphatic hydroperoxide, absorbed in in this system is O2Ti-N-C and this indicated the
the 3300-3500 cm-1 region, are also responsible for the chemical adsorption occuring between Ti atom and N
formation of this broad band. atom as refer to Fig. 4. of the mechanism of nitrogen and
Unexposed gas cell of 60 minutes shows the large titanium dioxide.
increases in the absorption intensity at 1640 cm-1 It has been reported that the nitrogen doped TiO2
indicates that there is an increase in the number of C=N could improve visible light adsorption efficiency with
that resulted during chains-scission process. It may be characterization of catalyst [27].
due to the cross linking on the soft segment of OH group.
C=N also gives rise to infrared features. However, the
C=N bond is somewhat reactive, and compounds
containing it are rare.
The positive feature at 2090 cm-1 can be assigned to
the C-N stretching vibration of adsorbed cyanide.
The positive character of CN band reflects the surface
reaction of cyanide to produce other species. The other
species generated at 1640 indicate that it corresponds to a
water-nitrogen mixture [26]. New bands appeared at
2090 cm-1 with very broad absorption due to water in the
matrix and the interaction of polymer.
When the sample is exposed to UV light for 60
minutes, the curve was shifted at 2290 cm-1 as the
nitrogen evaporates and the structural elements
“condense” on the substrate. The quotation marks signify
that it is difficult to call the deposition of water from the
matrix onto the substrate condensation, but it is even
more difficult to give a new and precise definition of this
process. In any case, the IR spectrum of the substrate
after the nitrogen has evaporated can be interpreted in a
manner so that water in the solid state is present on the
Fig. 4. Doping mechanism of nitrogen on titanium dioxide [27]
substrate, but it is difficult to compare this solid water
with the amorphous and crystalline forms of water. The degradation mechanism shows that the major
The similar result was found in the IR spectra of water photo-products resulting from oxidation processes are
polyaggregates in a nitrogen cryomatrix [21]. carbonyl, hydroxyl, hydroperoxide, and conjugated
alkenes. In addition to these photo-products, the benzyl
radicals generated by UV-irradiation can combine with
each others resulting in cross-linking of polymeric chains
[28]. Fig. 5. shows OH and C=N intensity of BPF1.0 for
unexposed at 60 minutes and exposed to UV light at 60
minutes.
The OH intensities is higher than C=N intensities for
unexposed and exposed to UV light. The effect of the
irradiation on the absorption spectra of BPF1.0 in gas cell
resulted in a gradual decrease in the intensity of the
absorption spectra with the increase in exposure time.
The highest percentage decrease of OH and C=N is 48 %
and 64 % respectively.
Fig. 3. Overlay spectras of FTIR gas cell of BPF1.0 of unexposed The infrared spectra of photodegraded BPF1.0 after
60 minutes and exposed to UV light at 60 minutes
several hours of irradiation are shown in Fig. 6.
273
(a) Radical initiation of soft segment
Fig. 5. OH and C=N intensity of BPF1.0 of exposed at 60 minutes

and unexposed to UV light at 60 minutes
(b) Crosslinking of the soft segment radical
(c) Propagation and chain scission of the soft segment radical
(d) Chain scission
Figs. 7. Thermal degradation of BPF1.0 after exposed to UV light

at 60 minutes [1]
Fig. 6. Overlay spectra of FTIR for BPF1.0 before and after exposed
to UV light at 60 minutes IV. Conclusion
The absorption band of the carbonyl groups near 1705 The BPF1.0 was prepared in gas cell filled with N2 and
cm-1 was broader with higher intensity on 60 minutes of one drop of H2O. Based on the obtained values of FTIR
UV exposure. This type of effect is due to the formation spectra for the unexposed and exposed BPF1.0 the
of several types of carbonyl group, and thus suggested presence of N2 and H2O led to significant modification to
that for this renewable polymer for the formation of UV absorption spectra of the exposed sample.
aliphatic esters was responsible [2], [4]. Photo-oxidation processes of polymeric chains
The prominent peak at 1174 cm-1 becomes more provoked a marked increase in the absorption and change
intense after UV irradiation for 60 minutes for BPF1.0 in the shape of absorption spectra. It was found that the
which can be assigned to crosslinking of the soft segment OH and C=N intensities of unexposed gas cell with
as shown in Figs. 7. BPF1.0 tend to increase as increasing exposure time while
This shows that after the UV irradiation the more it decreases when exposed to UV light.
crosslinking of the soft segment is evidence. This can be The absorption spectrum intensity for BPF1.0 is
attributed to stabilization of the thin films’ chain radical, decrease after exposed to UV light at 60 minutes. This
hence increasing the radical lifetime, thereby increasing BPF1.0 might play an important role as a “green”
the probability for combination of chain radicals [1]. An inexpensive material for the photocatalytic reaction.
increase in the quantity of hydroxyl groups can be
observed at 3440 cm-1, which is also broadened by the
Aknowledgements
NH groups present in the 3320 cm-1.
A more detailed discussion on the processes involved The author would like to thank the Malaysian
in the oxidative degradation in a polymer film has been Government and University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
reported [18]. Photo-oxidative degradation is a free (UTHM), Johor for supporting this research under
radical chain mechanism which occurs when the polymer Malaysian Technical University Centre of Excellence
is exposed to UV-radiation in presence of oxygen. (MTUN CoE) research grant Vot C014 and Vot C015
Chemical modifications have been attributed to scission and Postgraduate Incentive Research Grant, PIRG Vot
of the polymer chains, and to the cross- linkages. 1026.
274
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Dioxide, Trans Tech Publication, 2013.
[8] D.K. Chattopadhyay and K.V. S.N. Raju, Structural engineering Anika Zafiah Mohd Rus is an Associate
of polyurethane coatings for high performance applications, Professor in the Faculty of Mechanical and
Progress Polymer Sciences, Vol. 32, 2007. Manufacturing Engineering at the University of
[9] J. Arana, TiO2 - photocatalysis as a tertiary treatment of naturally Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). She
treated wastewater, Catalysis Today, Vol. 76, 2002. obtained her PhD in March 2007 from
[10] R. Dillert, J. Stötznera, A. Engela and D. W. Bahnemanna, University of Warwick, United Kingdom in
Influence of inlet concentration and light intensity on the Polymer Chemistry and Engineering, BSc
photocatalytic oxidation of Nitrogen(II) oxide at the surface of (Hons) in Mechanical Engineering
Aeroxide® TiO2 P25, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. (Manufacturing) in 1998 and MSc in Technical and Vocational in 1999
211– 212, pp. 240– 246, 2012. from University of Technology Malaysia (UTM), and her Diploma in
[11] A. Fujishima, Titanium dioxide photocatalysis, Journal of Rubber and Plastics Technology from University of Technology
Photochemical Photobiology C: Photochemical Reviews, Vol. 1, MARA (UiTM) in 1993. She started her career as a lecturer at the
n.1, pp. 1-21, 2000. Polytechnic Seberang Prai (PSP) in 1999 and was transferred to UTHM
[12] S. Hager, Photocatalytic oxidation of gaseous chlorinated in 2000 (formerly known as PLSP). She successfully published high
organics over titanium dioxide, Chemosphere, Vol. 4, pp. 1219– impact journals entitled Effect of Titanium Dioxide on Material
1225, 2000. Properties for Renewable Rapeseed and Sunflower Polyurethane,
[13] L.M. Hitchman and F. Tian, Studies of TiO2 thin films prepared International Journal of Integrated Engineering (Issues on Mechanical,
by chemical vapour deposition for photocatalytic and Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Volume 1, No 1, April
photoelectrocatalytic degradation of 4-chlorophenol, Journal of 2009), Degradation Studies of Polyurethanes Based On Vegetable Oils,
Electroanal Chemosphere, Vol. 538-539, pp. 165–172, 2002. Part 2; Thermal Degradation And Materials Properties, (Program in
[14] K. W. Tham, and Willem, H. C. Room air temperature affects Reaction Kinetic and Mechanism, Volume 34, pp 1-43 2009), and
occupants’ physiology, perceptions and mental alertness, Building Degradation Studies of Polyurethanes Based On Vegetables Oils. (part
and Environment, Vol. 45, pp. 40–44, 2010. I), Photodegradation, Program in Reaction Kinetic And Mechanism,
[15] Z. Zhang, X. Hu and Z. Luo, Wavelength sensitivity of photo- Volume 33, Pp 363-391 2008.At the present, Assoc. Professor Dr
oxidation of polypropylene, Polymer Degradation and Stability, Anika is the Principle Researcher in the Advanced Manufacturing and
Vol. 51, n.1, pp. 93-97, 1999. Materials Center (AMMC), Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing
[16] H. Kaczmarek, and A. Podgorski, Photochemical and thermal Engineering. She had more than 10 years experience of teaching in
behaviors of poly (Vinyl alcohol) graphite oxide composite. higher education in Polytechnic and UTHM, which involved teaching
Polymer Degradation and Stability, Vol. 92, n. 6, pp. 939-946, in Electrical Technology, Engineering Sciences, Micro Teaching,
2007. Mechanical Engineering Skills, Materials Science, Engineering
[17] K. R. White, and A. V. Shyichuk, Effect of stabilization on Materials Selection, Mechanical Engineering Design, Engineering
scission and cross-linking rate changes during photo-oxidation of Polymer and Advanced Polymer.
polypropylene, Polymer Degradation and Stability, Vol. 92, n.11, Tel.: +607-453 7823 or via
pp. 2095-2101, 2007. E-mails: zafiah@uthm.edu.my
[18] J. F. Rabek, Polymer Photodegradation, Mechanisms and anika63@hotmail.com
Experimental Methods, Chapman and Hall, London, 1995.
[19] G. M. Fechine, M. S. Rabello, and R. M. Souto-Maior, The Effect Siti Rahmah Mohid was born in November 1,
of ultraviolet stabilizers on photodegradation of poly (Ethylene 1987, in Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia. She
Terephthalate), Polymer Degradation and Stability, Vol. 75, n. 1, pursued her diploma and degree at the Universiti
pp. 153-159, 2002. Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. She graduated with
[20] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Unintentional non the Diploma in Mechanical Engineering with
fire related carbon monoxide exposures, United States, 2004– Technology in 2008 and Bachelor Degree
2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, August 22, (Hons) in Mechanical Engineering and
57(33):896-899, 2008. Manufacturing in 2011. In year 2012, she
[21] A. Drobyshev, K. Abdykalykov, A. Aldiyarov, N.Kurnosov, and continues her studies in masters in Mechanical Engineering a fulltime
D. Zhumagaliuly, IR spectra of water polyaggregates in a research based on bio polymer in Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
nitrogen cryomatrix, Journal of Low Temperature Physics, Vol. Malaysia. Throughout the timeline, she published journals as co-author
33, n. 8, 2007. for Acoustic Study based on Sustainable Green Polymer Treated with
275
H2O, in 2013 and in Advances in Materials Science and Engineering,

Hindawi Publishing Corporation entitle Biopolymer Doped with
Titanium Dioxide Superhydrophobic Photocatalysis as Self-Clean
Coating for Lightweight Composite, Vol. 2013 (2013).
Shaiqah Mohd Rus was born on May 28, 1989,

in Sitiawan, Perak, Malaysia. She pursued her
degree at the Universiti Teknologi Mara
Malaysia (UiTM). She graduated with the
Bachelor Degree (Hons) in Chemical
Engineering in 2012. In year 2013, she
continues her studies in masters in Mechanical
Engineering as a full time research student based
on bio polymer in Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). Her
previous research projects entitled Overview on the Potential of Khaya
Senegalansis (African mahogany) Dried Leaves in Treating Cadmium-
based Waste Water and design project entitled Production of 70,000
metric tonne per year of Oxalic acid.
276
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Detection and Analysis of Defect in Steel Tube

Using Vibration Impact Acoustic Emission (VIAE) Method
A. H. Zakiah, N. Jamaludin, J. Syarif, S. Y. S. Yahya
Abstract – Currently the tube inspection technologies are normally invasive and time consuming,
and therefore, an effective and non-invasive tube inspection method is required. This paper
presents the research works on the development of non-invasive and non-destructive defect
detection system and analysis for the ASTM A179 seamless steel tubes. Vibration excitation using
impact hammer method is used to generate transient stress waves in steel tubes. Specifically, three
steel tubes were used including a good steel tube and two steel tubes with through-hole artificial
defect at different locations. An acoustic emission technique is utilised to detect and capture the
stress waves propagation in the steel tubes. The variations of the stress waves propagated in the
different condition of the steel tubes were successfully characterized and differentiated using three
conventional statistical features namely root mean square (r.m.s), crest factor and kurtosis. The
acquired experimental results show that the newly proposed Vibration Impact Acoustic Emission
(VIAE) method is capable of detecting the presence of defect in the steel tubes. Copyright © 2014
Keywords: Defect Detection, Non-Invasive Inspection, Impact Excitation, Stress Wave
I. Introduction The existing tubes inspection is also time consuming,

as it requires physical traversal of the sensor along the
Many inspection techniques have been developed and tube length. The defect is locally detected as the sensor
widely used to detect the presence of defect in the tubes traverse along the tube.
on periodic shut down after operating for sometimes. The speed of the sensor pulling also plays important
The most commonly used technologies to inspect role. If the pulling speed is too fast, the probability to
tubes are Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL), Eddy Current miss the defect is high. The recommended pulling speed
Test (ECT), Remote Field Electromagnetic Test (RFET), of inspection for MFL, ECT, RFET, and IRIS are 1.8m/s,
and Internal Rotating Inspection System (IRIS) [1], [2]. 0.9m/s, 0.25m/s and 0.075m/s, respectively. Therefore,
These methods are capable to detect and characterize the tube inspection of entire tube bundles becomes a
the defect’s type, size and location, which is useful to laborious process. Normally, only sampling inspection is
support the future decision in determining the structural carried out. Additionally, the methods are material
integrity of the tubes. These existing technologies are dependent and have limitation on the type of materials
invasive, which requires a sensor to be inserted into the that can be inspected. MFL and RFET for instances, can
tube. Selection of the sensor is critical because adequate only be used to inspect ferromagnetic materials whereas
reference standard tube is required. The reference ECT has high detectability for non-ferromagnetic
standard tube must be of similar in size and materials of materials. IRIS on the other hand, could be used for all
the tube being inspected. types of materials, but has slower speed of inspection.
Additionally, various sensor sizes are necessary to In this present work, a new non-invasive tube
cater for various tube sizes and tube bundle inspection is developed known as Vibration Impact
configurations. The sensor fill factor must be more than Acoustic Emission (VIAE) method. The vibration impact
80% for a reliable inspection. Fill factor is the ratio of the method is used in this research to generate stress waves
cross sectional area of the tube and area of the sensor propagation in the tube structure. The impact generates
section. Greater signal response could be achieve when both low and high frequency stress waves that propagate
the fill factor as near as possible to tube internal away from the point of the vibration impact.
diameter, hence increasing the potential to detect defects The high frequency stress wave will be captured by
when higher fill factor is achieved. Acoustic Emission (AE) method. Previously, vibration
Moreover, very extensive cleaning of the internal impact method has been implemented for defect
tubes surfaces is required for effective sensor insertion detection of engineering structures [3]–[6]. In the
because rust or blockage in the internal tubes surfaces vibration impact method, low frequency stress waves are
will affect the inspection process and interpretation of the utilized to diagnose the defect experienced by the
signals. engineering structures.
277
The high frequency stress wave propagation in the

tube structure has not been utilized to inspect, detect and
analyze the presence of defect in the tube structures.
Therefore, high frequency stress wave propagation due to
vibration impact method will be utilized for non-invasive
inspection. The newly developed method does not
require tube cleaning as the existing inspection methods.
Mean, variance, standard deviation, root mean square
(r.m.s.), crest factor, skewness and kurtosis are the
conventional statistical features employed to statistical (a) Reference Tube
characterization of continuous AE signals in the time
domain. Variation in statistical features pattern is
associated with the presence of defects or loss of
integrity. In this research, the variation in statistical
parameter of the stress wave generated in the tubes is
analyzed. Statistical parameters employed in this work
are r.m.s., crest factor and kurtosis.
The r.m.s. is usually used as statistical parameter in
detecting engineering faults, such as corrosion in steel
pipes and lubrication conditions in bearings [7]–[9].
The crest factor is very sensitive to the existence of (b) Tube 1
sharp peaks in the signal because the peaks have short
time and contain less energy, whereas the r.m.s. has a
proportional value to the amount of energy of the signal.
Hence, signal with higher peak will attribute to higher
crest factor and very effective for detection of wear and
imbalance problems [9]–[11]. Kurtosis of a signal is used
to characterize the shape of a distribution when it is
compared with the normal distribution. The normal
distribution has a kurtosis of 3. A relatively large kurtosis
value indicates a sharp distribution characteristic over a
small area. Among these statistical features, kurtosis was
found to be most effective in detecting the bearing failure (c) Tube 2
[10]. Figs. 1. Transverse view of the tubes
II. Experimental Methodology

Seamless cold drawn steel ASTM A179 tubes were
used throughout the experiments. This type of steel is
often used as heat exchanger tubes in power plant
industries due to its high strength and hardness. The
dimensions of the tube samples are 19.05mm of outer
diameter, 2.11mm of tube thickness and 1m of length. Fig. 2. Cross section view for Tube 1
One reference tube in good condition and 2 tubes
containing artificial defect were prepared. The reference In order to achieve a non-invasive inspection, it
tube without defect is the calibration step to determine requires access at both of the tube ends. In this study, the
the original stress wave signal in the absence of defect. external hammer impact is introduced into the tube
Each defective tube has an artificial defect at different structure to produce transient stress wave. External
location along the tube length. A through hole of 1mm impact excitation was introduced into the tube structure
diameter was milled on the tubes with different distance using 2kN instrumented impact hammer BK 8206-002 at
to replicate a pitting defect. A through hole introduced in one of the tube ends.
the tube is a static geometrical form of artificial defect at The impact force load was measured by a
certain distance from the point of impact to represent the piezoelectric accelerometer Model BK4508B with
worst case scenario. frequency response of 0-8kHz. The acquisition of
Tube 1 and Tube 2 has an artificial defect located at vibration impact data was sampled at 800Hz for a total of
100mm and 200mm from one ends of the tube, 4096 data points.
respectively. The transverse view of the tubes and the The accelerometer and impact hammer were
cross section of the tube with defect are shown in Figs. 1 connected to the analog-to-digital converter front-end
and Fig. 2, respectively. BK Type 3560.
278
The front-end was connected to a host computer for Specifically, Figs. 4(a)-6(a) clearly shown that the
data analysis using BK PULSE Labshop software. typical applied impact hammer force load for all the
The high frequency stress wave was obtained using tubes has a time delay of 18ms and features an initial
AE method. A small aperture wide band AE sensor sharp peak up to 37N. Furthermore, the figures also
model SE1000-H with frequency range of 100kHz- indicate that the sharp peak of the signals is followed by
2000kHz was mounted at the other tube ends. The decaying oscillation for 7ms. The decaying oscillation is
signals were preamplified by a preamplifier AEP4 of often referred to as ringing. The propagation speed of
40dB and transferred to a different host computer for transient stress waves in the tubes depends largely on the
post-processing data in VisualAE software by employing consistency of the applied impact hammer force load.
Vallen AMSY-5 multi-channel analyzer. A 524288 data Hence, the coherence plot from the ten repeated
points were recorded per acquisition (data file) with impact is used to validate the quality and consistency of
acquisition sampling rate of 10MHz. the applied impact hammer force load introduced into the
The tube was gently tapped with the impact hammer tubes. The coherence plot represents the linear
against the tube surface to generate the stress wave. The relationship between the impact force load and dynamic
short duration mechanical impact from the impact response signals. A value near 1 indicates the good
hammer caused rapid release of high potential energy at quality data. The coherence plots verify that the dynamic
the point of impact and radiated on the surface and response measured by the accelerometer due to the
within the tube material. The transient stress wave impact force load maintains a linear relationship and thus
generated propagates on the surface and within the wall is consistence for all the impacts. The representative
thickness of the tube was captured by the AE sensor at a coherence plots are provided in Figs. 4(b)-6(b).
fixed distance from the impact location. The
Time(Force) - Input (Magnitude) \ Modal FFT Analyzer
Coherence(Response
1 1, Force) (Real) \ Modal FFT Analyzer 1
accelerometer captured the applied impact hammer force [N] []
40 1
load and the dynamic response of the tube material. The 32 0.8
AE sensor captured the high frequency stress wave 24 0.6
propagation in the tubes. The effective distance between 16 0.4
the AE sensor to the point of impact is 965mm. 8 0.2
The location of defect is closer to the point of impact. 0
The experiment set-up is shown in Fig. 3. The impact 10m 30m 50m 70m 90m
[s]
0 400 800
[Hz]
1.2k 1.6k
was repeated 10 times for every tube. The data collected (a) Impact force load (b) Coherence plot
from PULSE Labshop are input force load and coherence
plot. In VisualAE software, the acquired stress wave Figs. 4. Vibration impact data of Reference tube
signal is in time domain data for every impact. Ten (10) Time(Force) - Input (Magnitude) \ Modal FFTCoherence(Response
Analyzer 1 1, Force) (Real) \ Modal FFT Analyzer 1
stress wave data files were recorded for each tube [N]
40
[]
1
condition. 32 0.8
The stress wave data from reference tube is labeled as 24 0.6
R1 to R10. The stress wave data from defective Tube 1 16 0.4
were labeled as T11 to T20 and the stress wave data from 8 0.2
defective Tube 2 were labeled as T21 to T30. The 0 0
10m 30m 50m 70m 90m 0 400 800 1.2k 1.6k
statistical parameters selected in this study are r.m.s., [s] [Hz]
crest factor and kurtosis. (a) Impact force load (b) Coherence plot
Figs. 5. Vibration impact data of Tube 1

III. Experimental Results and Discussion Time(Force) - Input (Magnitude) \ Modal FFT
Coherence(Response
Analyzer 1 1, Force) (Real) Modal FFT Analyzer 1
[N] []
40 1
A typical time history measurement of the applied 32 0.8
impact hammer for all the tubes are shown in Figs. 4-6. 24 0.6
16 0.4
8 0.2
0 0
10m 30m 50m 70m 90m 0 400 800 1.2k 1.6k
[s] [Hz]
(a) Impact force load (b) Coherence plot
Figs. 6. Vibration impact data of Tube 2
The typical resultant stress wave signals captured by

the AE sensor for different type of tubes are depicted in
Figs. 7-9. It is clear that all the stress wave signals
exhibited a periodical burst type, started at low amplitude
until it reached the peak amplitude and followed by
repetitive burst signal at gradually lower amplitude
Fig. 3. Experimental set-up before it attenuated.
279
parameters including the location of the defect and the

strength of the impact. The consistency of the impact
force load from the coherence plots proved that the
repeatability of the impact force load and reliability of
the consistent impact was applied to the tube structure.
Among these parameters, the dimension of the tube
structure varies as defect is presence and consequently
affects the stress propagation in tube structure.
The repetitive of stress wave signals is due to energy
loss mechanisms, from reflection, diffraction and
dispersion of the stress wave in the thin wall thickness
[12]. Reflections may come from any discontinuity in the
tube geometry. The sources of reflection can be from the
Fig. 7. Typical resultant stress wave for Reference tube tube ends and wall thickness of the tube, as well as the
presence of defect.
This is primarily attributed to the new surface defect
which increases reflection of stress wave. The results
demonstrated that higher peak amplitude was dependent
on the presence of defect in the tube structure. Defective
tubes have higher peak amplitude than the reference tube.
The results also showed that the presence of defect also
causes the stress waves diffraction. The longer
attenuation of stress wave in the defective tubes is
associated with the stress waves bends around the defect
as it encounters discontinuity from the defect’s surfaces
and spread out the stress waves [13].
Fig. 8. Typical resultant stress wave for Tube 1
The diffraction increases the stress wave scattering
and dispersion, and slower down the speed of stress wave
propagation. This was primarily attributed to the distance
of the defect from the point of impact. Tube 2 with
longer defect distance from the point of impact provided
the longest attenuation. Calculation of statistical
parameters would be necessary to validate the presence
of defect. In this study, the statistical parameters used to
analyze the stress wave signal in the tube behavior are
r.m.s., crest factor and kurtosis. The statistical parameters
from the time domain of stress wave signal data is
tabulated in Table I. It is clearly seen that all the values
Fig. 9. Typical resultant stress wave for Tube 2 for statistical parameters increased with the presence of
defect. A typical reference tube has r.m.s. of 0.9063,
The significant information contains on the first whereas the defective tubes have higher r.m.s. with 1.25
150000 data point (equivalent to 0.015s) where the stress and 1.26 for Tube 1 and Tube 2, respectively. Higher
wave completely attenuated. The peak amplitude for the r.m.s. is associated with the amount of energy in stress
stress wave signal of the reference tube is 15.69mV and wave signal in time series [14]. This was attributed to the
reached complete attenuation at 5635µs. Similar trend newly created surface defect caused multiple reflection
was observed for the defective tubes. Specifically, stress of propagated stress wave. Higher multiple reflections
wave for Tube 1 has peak amplitude of 20.11mV and increase the peak amplitude, and thus created more
completed the attenuation at 7148µs. The stress wave for energy content of the stress wave propagated for longer
Tube 2 has peak amplitude of 21.11mV and completed attenuation in the defective tube structure. In the
the attenuation at 7257µs. As can be seen in Fig. 7-9, the meantime, higher crest factor describes the extreme
peak amplitude of the defective tubes is higher compared values in the amplitude distribution. A reference tube has
to the reference tube. The duration of the detected stress crest factor of 17.93. The crest factor decreases to 16.57
wave for reference tube was exceptionally shorter than and 15.61 for Tube 1 and Tube 2, respectively.
the defective tubes. The attenuation of the stress waves is
higher in the reference tube. It also appeared that the TABLE I
STATISTICAL PARAMETERS VALUE
defective tubes have stress wave delay in repetitive
Tube r.m.s. Crest factor kurtosis
signals at t ~ 0.0023s. Reference 0.91 17.93 57
The propagation and attenuation of the stress wave Tube 1 1.25 16.57 59
signals from the point of impact correlates with various Tube 2 1.26 15.61 60
280
The existence of higher sharp peaks in the stress wave to thanks Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM)
signal when defect is presence makes the crest factor to and Ministry of Higher Education for her PhD
be sensitive over the stress wave energy. Higher crest sponsorship in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM).
factor implies that disturbance in stress wave propagation
is occurring in the defective tubes. Since all the stress
wave signals for all the tube condition consist of almost References
similar maximum peaks prior to the stress wave [1] A. S. Birring, Selection of NDT techniques for inspection of heat
attenuation, the difference in the energy of the stress exchanger tubing, J. Nondestruct. Test. Ultrason., vol. 6, no. 8,
wave signals become significant. Hence, the Reference pp. 1–12, 2001.
[2] B. Yang and X. Li, Pulsed remote field technique used for
tube that has lowest energy signal of r.m.s. gave higher
nondestructive inspection of ferromagnetic tube, NDT E Int., vol.
crest factor compared to other defective tubes.The 53, pp. 47–52, 2013.
kurtosis values also increases when defect is present. A [3] W. Dallas, O. Polupan, and S. Ostapenko, Resonance ultrasonic
typical normal Gaussian signal distribution has kurtosis vibrations for crack detection in photovoltaic silicon wafers,
value of 3. The kurtosis of the reference tube has a value Meas. Sci. Technol., vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 852–858, 2007.
of 57, indicating the spikiness in the stress wave signal [4] J. J. da Silva, A. M. N. Lima, F. H. Neff, J. S. da Rocha Neto,
Fouling Detection based on Vibration Analysis with the Hammer
comes from the impact force load. However, with similar Impact Test, Proc. of Instr. And Measurement Tech. Conf.,
impact force load on the defective tubes, the kurtosis Poland, 2007, pp. 1–3.
value increases to 59 and 60, for Tube 1 and 2, [5] Y. J. J. Yan, L. Cheng, Z. Y. Y. Wu, and L. H. H. Yam,
respectively. Higher kurtosis is responsible to higher Development in vibration-based structural damage detection
spikiness in the signals in shorter duration of time. This technique, Mech. Syst. Signal Process., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 2198–
2211, 2007.
was associated with multiple reflection of propagated [6] Jan Trnka, Radek Kolman, Pavla Dvořáková, Eduard Veselý, A
stress wave with the newly created defect. The multiple Study of Stress Wave Propagation in Thin Plate Loaded by an
reflections translate more energy being diffracted at the Oblique Impact, (2009) International Review of Mechanical
defect surfaces that caused spikiness in the signals [13]. Engineering (IREME), 3. (3), pp. 322-331.
From the results, it clearly shown the presence of defect [7] A. M. Al-Ghamd and D. Mba, A comparative experimental study
on the use of acoustic emission and vibration analysis for bearing
in the tube resulted in increase in statistical parameter of
defect identification and estimation of defect size, Mech. Syst.
r.m.s., crest factor and kurtosis value. These statistical Signal Process., vol. 20, no. 7, pp. 1537–1571, 2006.
features are very sensitive to local changes in the [8] C. K. Tan, P. Irving, and D. Mba, A comparative experimental
presence of defect and become a good indicator to detect study on the diagnostic and prognostic capabilities of acoustics
static structural defect in the small tube structures. The emission, vibration and spectrometric oil analysis for spur gears,
findings have shown that the statistical analysis of high Mech. Syst. Signal Process., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 208–233, 2007.
[9] Mohd, S.M.A., Nuawi, M.Z., Ariffin, A., Mohd, T.M.F.,
frequency stress wave from VIAE method has a good Abdullah, S., Study of correlation between strain and structural-
potential for defect detection in steel tubes. borne ultrasonic signals on automobile engine, (2012)
pp. 607-610.
IV. Conclusion [10] B. Eftekharnejad, M. R. Carrasco, B. Charnley, and D. Mba, The
application of spectral kurtosis on Acoustic Emission and
In the present paper, a new non-invasive inspection vibrations from a defective bearing, Mech. Syst. Signal Process.,
procedure for defect detection based on Vibration Impact vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 266–284, 2011.
Acoustic Emission (VIAE) method has been proposed. [11] J. Lim, T. Kaewkongka, and L. Jirapong, Leakage Evaluation of
heating coil tube in thermal oil boiler by using Acoustic Emission
Vibration impact using impact hammer is able to
and data classification technique, Proc. of Instrum. Meas.
generate high frequency stress wave in tube structure. Technol. Conf., Canada, 2008, pp. 1659–1662.
Statistical parameters of r.m.s., crest factor and kurtosis [12] E. Çam, S. Orhan, and M. Lüy, An analysis of cracked beam
studied successfully characterized the variation of high structure using impact echo method, NDT E Int., vol. 38, no. 5,
frequency stress waves in different condition of steel pp. 368–373, 2005.
tubes. It is observed that r.m.s, crest factor and kurtosis [13] A. Salazar, L. Vergara, J. Igual, and J. Gosalbez, Blind source
separation for classification and detection of flaws in impact-echo
increases in the presence of defect. The trends is testing, Mech. Syst. Signal Process., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 1312–
consistent with the data available from previous 1325, 2005.
researches. From this study, the results showed that the [14] Y. He, X. Zhang, and M. I. Friswell, Defect Diagnosis for Rolling
statistical approach is very sensitive to local changes in Element Bearings Using Acoustic Emission, J. Vib. Acoust., vol.
stress wave signals in the presence of defect. This 131, no. 6, p. 61012-1-61012-10, 2009.
approach is proved to be effective in detection of defect
in the tube. Therefore, it can be concluded that VIAE
method is able to detect and analyze defect in steel tube
structure. A. H. Zakiah, M.EngSc., studied mechanical
engineering at the University of New South
Wales, Australia in 2006 and started her career
at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM)
Acknowledgements as a lecturer in the field of non-destructive
testing and fracture mechanics. She is currently
Sponsor of tube materials from Tenaga Tiub Sdn. pursuing her PhD study in Universiti
Bhd. is gratefully acknowledged. A.H. Zakiah would like Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). Her current
281
research interest are in the area of structural integrity, non-destructive

testing method such as Acoustic Emission and evaluation of defect
behavior from signal processing analysis.
Mrs. Zakiah is a member of Malaysian Society of Non Destructive
Testing (MSNT) and has Malaysian Skills Certificate as Ultrasonic
Tester Level 2.
N. Jamaluddin is currently the program

coordinator for Industrial Training (Mechanical)
Program in Faculty of Engineering and Built
Environment. After earning his PhD. Degree in
2000 in the area of condition monitoring at
Cranfield University, he continued his career as
lecturer in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
(UKM) until promoted to his current position.
He has more than 13 years of experience in the condition monitoring
field. Area of research are investigations on material damage
mechanism in structural and machinery components using Acoustic
Emission and Metal Magnetic Memory Technology as part of integrity
monitoring analysis and assessment. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Jamaludin is a
fellow in Welding Institue of Malaysia, Chairman of Malaysian
Acoustic Emission Working Group as well as member of Malaysian
Society of Non Destructive Testing (MSNT).
J. Syarif is an associate professor at Faculty of

Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). He earned his
PhD. Degree from Kyushu University, Japan in
2003. He is the receipient of Monbukagakusho
Scholarship from 1998-2000 and 2000-2003 for
his Master and PhD degrees. He has more than
10 years experience in structural material
engineering and properties, physical metalurgy as well as alloy design
and has published approximately 47 papers in the respective field.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Syarif is a member of Iron and Steel Institute of Japan,
Institute of Materials, Malaysia and Malaysian Powder Metallurgy and
Particulate Materials Association.
S. Y. S. Yahya is a senior lecturer at Faculty of

Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA
and is teaching about Material Technology. He
obtained his PhD degree in advance materials
from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) in
2005. His research expertise are in materials
physics and advanced materials. Dr. Yahya is a
member of Malaysia Society of Non Destructive
Testing (MSNT) and American Society of Non Destructive Testing
(ASNT).
282
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Potential of Microalgae Tetraselmis Chuii as Feedstock

for Biodiesel Application
Kumaran P., Saifuddin N., Janarthanan S.
Abstract – Biodiesel production from microalgae has attracted major interest recently as a
renewable energy which is capable of reducing the effect of global warming at same time provide
sustainable energy source. This study determines the potential of microalgae species, Tetraselmiss
chuii lipid as a biodiesel feedstock. Fatty acid profiling of the biodiesel, obtained from T.chuii
lipid showed higher content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) 50.1% than monounsaturated fatty
acids (MUFA) 31.6% and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) 17.5%. The biodiesel produced was
also characterized in terms of kinematic viscosity, cetane number, iodine value, degree of
unsaturation and higher heating value. The quality of the biodiesel produced from T.chuii lipid
were a kinematic viscosity of 3.2 mm2/s, a cetane number of 63.7, an iodine value of 59.3 g I2/
100g-1, a degree of unsaturation of 66.6% and a higher heating value of 41.3 MJ/kg. The result
obtained from this study indicated that the biodiesel produced from T.chuii lipid complies with the
US Standard (ASTM 6751) and European Standard (EN14214). Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy
Keywords: Global Warming, Renewable Energy, Biodiesel, Microalgae
Nomenclature As for the coming years, when the production rate is

consistent at around 700 thousand barrels per day, it is
CN Cetane number expected that the Malaysia’s oil reserves will be
SV Saponification vakue exhausted in next 21 years (Ong et al., 2010) [2]. Besides
IV Iodine value the high demand, environmental issues such as global
M Molecular mass warming are arising due to the combustion of fossil fuel
N Percentage of each fatty acid component which releases green house gases (Obed et al., 2012) [3].
D Number of double bond With the depleting supplies and adverse impact to
HHV Higher heating value natural environment, fossil fuel is regarded as
DU Degree of unsaturation unsustainable energy source (Musharaff et al., 2012) [4].
MUFA Monounsaturated fatty acid Therefore, renewable energy source which can
PUFA Polyubsaturated fatty acid complement the current demand of fossil fuel with less
SFA Saturated fatty acid environmental effect is needed. One of such renewable
FAME Fatty acid methyl ester energy source is biodiesel which is currently being
CO2 Carbon dioxide produced from plant oil such as palm, sun flower, soya
GC/FID Gas chromatography/ flame ionization bean, corn and coconut. Biodiesel or fatty acid methyl
detector ester (FAME) is a non-toxic and biodegradable fuel
sources which can be blended with petroleum diesel in
any required ratio and can be used in existing diesel
I. Introduction
engines without modification (Sivaramakrishnan and
Fossil fuel is the most important energy driver to a Ravikumar, 2012; Shakeel et al., 2009) [5], [6].
country which ensures the continuous development and Biodiesel with higher methyl ester content may
economic growth. The demand for energy is produce better engine performance and quality (Watit et
continuously increasing in developing countries like al., 2013) [7]. However the current biodiesel feedstock
Malaysia where high economic growth is expected such as palm, corn, sunflower and soya bean requires
(Mohamed and Lee, 2006) [1]. large area for plantation, exposed pesticides
As indicated by National Energy Balance, 2008, contamination and often compete as a human food
Malaysia has proven oil reserves of 5.64 billion barrels source, were some of the impeding factors which limits
with 68% of the oil reserves were located in east the application of those feedstock for biodiesel
Malaysia Sabah and Sarawak (NEB, 2008). The average production. Due to this problem, researchers have
oil production by Malaysia in 2008 was 690 thousand identified microalgae as one of the most promising
barrels per day. feedstock for continuous production of biodiesel.
283
Microalgae are photosynthetic microorganism with decrease (approximately after 17 days of cultivation).
the ability to synthesis triglycerides. Microalgae belong The cell density was determined using Millscience
in the bottom of food chain whereby it is a food source Neubauer Haemocytometer.
for many marine and freshwater organisms (Chisti, 2007; The matured T.chuii cell was transferred to a conned
Shakeel et al., 2009) [8], [6]. Ability of rapid growth rate, shaped separation tank and harvested using flocculation
high biomass productivity and low land requirement for method, 80 - 250 mg/L of aluminium sulphate was added
cultivation compared to terrestrial plant, is several to the cultivation medium (Becker, 1994). The T.chuii
criteria which make the microalgae as one of the lipid was extracted using Supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2)
sustainable feedstock for biodiesel application (Guan et extraction unit which available at Forest Research
al., 2009; Chisti, 2007; Miao and Wu, 2006) [9], [8], Institute Malaysia (FRIM).
[10]. Tetraselmis chuii is a green microalgae classified as The SC-CO2 stainless steel extraction column was
Prasinophyceae with average cell size of 5 – 14 µm and loaded with approximately 200g of dried T.chuii biomass
lives in marine environment (Ghezelbash et al., 2008; and remaining space in the column was filled with glass
Rauquiro et al., 2004) [11], [12]. T. chuii as beads to ensure better distribution of gas around the
phytoplankton normally used in feeding of mussels, sample and to prevent gravity from clogging the inlet
oysters, clams, scallops and corals. It is a fast growing pipe with microalgae prior to pressurization (Grierson et
and valuable marine microalgae species due to its higher al., 2012) [13]. Pressurized CO2 was delivered to the
proteins, lipids, essential fatty acids and sterols (Grierson extraction vessel through a heating coil after the CO2
et al., 2012; Eirik et al., 1998; Ghezelbash et al., 2008) pump is cooled around 4ºC. The flow rate of CO2 was set
[13], [14], [11]. The potential of T.chuii as a biodiesel at 2 mL/min and the extraction was conducted at
feedstock particularly the biodiesel properties produced temperature of 50ºC and a pressure of 300 bar (Mendes
from T.chuii lipid was not reported clearly. Therefore, et al., 2006; Grierson 2011) [17], [13].
the objective of this study is to determine the potential of
T.chuii as biodiesel feedstock through fatty acid profiling
and biodiesel properties (kinematic viscosity, iodine II.3. Determination of Tetraselmis Chuii Fatty
Acid Composition by GC/FID
value, cetane number, higher heating value and degree of
unsaturation) analysis. The extracted T.chuii lipid was placed on a hot plate
and heated up to 100ºC to remove any excess of
moisture. After heating 350 mg of T.chuii lipid was
II. Materials and Methods weighted and inserted in 2ml vial. 0.95 ml hexane
II.1. Microalgae Cultivation (C6H14) added into the 2ml vial (containing microalgae
lipid) and the vial was vortex for 3-5 minutes. 50 µl of
Microalgae Tetraselmis chuii was cultivated in closed 0.1 N of sodium methoxide (CH3ONa) solution was
system photobioreactor (total volumetric content of 25 added into the vial and vortex for 6 -10 minutes. The
litres) illuminated with Sera, Diazoblue bulb with mixture was left to settle, whereby two layers were
luminance of 4000 - 4500 Lux (the bulb is placed in the formed. The upper layer formed was separated using 100
middle of photobioreactor). T.chuii was cultivated in µl micropipette for fatty acid analysis test. GC/FID (gas
artificial sea water enriched with f/2 medium nutrients chromatography/flame ionization detector) was used to
(Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa) with slight analyse the fatty acid composition of T.chuii lipid. For
modification (without trace vitamins stock solution) this analysis, GC/FID Agilent Technologies 7890 GC
(Jorge et al., 2003). The photoperiod of the medium was system was employed with DB-WAX (30m × 0.25 mm
maintain at 12 hour in light condition and 12 hour in dark id × 0.25µm film thickness) column.
condition (Jorge et al., 2003) [37] using automatic timer The GC temperature was started at 50ºC for 1 min,
controller. Aeration and mixing was provided by increased at rate of 25ºC/min up to 200ºC for 5 min and
bubbling air which was placed downward facing the then increased at a rate of 3ºC up to 250ºC and held for
bottom of the photobioreactor to prevent sedimentation 18 min. Helium as the carrier gas was set at flow rate of
of T.chuii biomass. Salinity and pH of the culture 1.5 ml/min and the total analysis time was approximately
medium prepared for T.chuii were 22g l-1 and 8.30, 40 min. Split ratio used was (100:1) with injector and
respectively (Moazami et al., 2011) [35]. The flame ionization detector temperature of 250ºC, 280ºC.
temperature of the culture medium was maintained Fatty acid profiling of T.chuii FAME was conducted by
around 25°C (Semesi et al., 2011) [15] using constant comparison with standard, Supelco FAME mix 37. The
flow rate and controller, as appropriate temperature fatty acid profile data expressed in this research was the
control is essential for microalgae cell production average value of triplicates T.chuii FAME sample
(Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2006) [16]. injected into the GC/FID system.
II.2. Tetraselmis Chuii Lipid Extraction II.4. Tetraselmis Chuii Biodiesel Properties Analysis
T.chuii biomass was harvested when the cell enters The biodiesel produced using transesterification
end of stationary phase where by the cell density starts to process which described in the research conducted by El-
284
Moneim et al., (2010) with slight modification whereby III. Results and Discussion
the catalyst (0.08g of 0.1% NaOH) and methanol (the
molar ratio for methanol/lipid is 6:1) was mixed with The T.chuii biomass was harvested after 17 days of
microalgae lipid (before mixing the microalgae lipid was cultivation and lipid from the microalgae biomass was
heated at 100ºC). The mixture was stirred continuously extracted using supercritical CO2 extraction unit.
for around 2 - 3hrs using magnetic stirrer. The mixer was Extracted T.chuii lipid fatty acid composition was
left for settling for 16 hours to ensure a complete determined using GC/FID.
separation between biodiesel and glycerol layer. The An important characteristic for any biodiesel
separate biodiesel was washed with 5% of distilled water feedstock is the suitability of the fatty acid profile for
from the total amount of biodiesel to remove excess of biodiesel production. Table I shows T.chuii lipids were
methanol, catalyst and soap in the biodiesel. mainly consist of saturated fatty acids C16:0, palmitic
As for this experiment the T.chuii biodiesel quality acid (23.1%) and C20:0 arachidic (26.2%), followed by
was analysed in terms of kinematic viscosity (mm2/s), monounsaturated fatty acids such as C15:1 cis-10-
cetane number, iodine value, higher heating value pentadecenoic (7.7%), C18:1 octadecenoic (13.0%) and
(MJ/kg) abd degree of unsaturation. The kinematic C22:1 erucic (4.0%). Presence of polyunsaturated fatty
viscosity test was conducted by Chemical and acids was detected with C22:2, lignoceric (12.6%),
Environmental Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, C18:2 linoleic (2.7%), C18:3, α-linoleic (2.3%). Other
Universiti Putra Malaysia. Other biodiesel properties fatty acids (as shown in Table I) were identified with
such as cetane number, iodine value, higher heating very less amount of percentages.
value and degree of unsaturation were determined using
empirical equations. The data obtained was compared TABLE I
PROPORTION OF FATTY ACID COMPOSITION
with literatures. OF T. CHUII LIPID DETERMINED USING GC/FID
In this experiment the cetane number (CN) was Fatty Acids Composition (%)
estimated using the below empirical formula (Equation Capric (C10:0) 0.1
(1)-(3)) proposed by Krisnangkura (1986) [18] which is Lauric (C12:0) 0.2
also latest applied by Erika et al., (2009) [19]: Tridecenoic (C13:0) 0.2
Myristic (C14:0) 0.1
Myristoleic (14:1) 0.5
 5358  cis-10-Pentadecenoic (C15:1) 7.7
 CN  46.3    0.225  IV   (1) Palmitic (C16:0) 23.1
 SV  Palmitoleic (C16:1) 6.1
Heptadecanoic (C17:0) 0.2
cis-10-Heptadecenoic (C17:1) 0.2
The saponification value (SV) and iodine value (IV) Octadecenoic (C18:1) 13.0
was calculated using Eq. (2) - (3): Linoleic (C18:2) 2.7
α – Linoleic (C18:3) 2.3
  560  N   Arachidic (C20:0) 26.2
 SV    (2) Erucic (C22:1) 4.0
 M  Docosadienoic (C22:2) 12.6
  254  D  N   Based on Table I, the dominant concentration of fatty

 IV    (3) acids in T.chuii were SFA and MUFA which in total of
 M 
81.67%. Bondioli et al., (2012) [20], has reported in the
research on oil production from two marine microalgae
whereby M is molecular mass, N is percentage of each
species Nannochloropsis and Tetraselmis suieca, that the
fatty acid component and D is the number of double
microalgae species T.suecica (similar species to T.chuii)
bonds. As for higher heating value (HHV), it was
cultivated under nitrogen and phosphate starvation was
determined using the Equation (4) proposed by
Demirbas, (1998) which was also used by Musharraf et mainly consist of MUFA (46.98%) followed by SFA
(32.76%) and PUFA (18.94%).
al., (2012) [4]:
It can be noticed that even though the microalgae
belongs to same genus but the fatty acid composition
 HHV  49.43   0.015  IV    0.041 SV   (4)
may vary due to different cultivation condition (Anne
and Jean, 1993; El-Moneim et al., 2010) [21], [22].
Finally, the degree of unsaturation (DU) was Fatty acid profile of microalgae is an important
calculated accordingly to the below mathematical model characteristic which have to be determined in order to
(Eq. (5)) proposed by Erika et al., (2009) [19]: ensure the suitability of microalgae species as biodiesel
feedstock since fatty acid composition affects the
 DU  MUFA   2  PUFA  (5) biodiesel quality (Gouveia and Oliveira, 2009; Ramos et
al., 2009; Knothe, 2005) [23]-[25].
In which MUFA is weight of percentage of Basically, high content of SFA may produce biodiesel
monounsaturated fatty acids (wt%) and PUFA is weight with better oxidation stability and high cetane number.
of percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (wt%).
285
TABLE II A research conducted by Chen et al., (2012) [29] on

COMPOSITION OF TOTAL SFA, MUFA AND PUFA IN T.CHUII LIPID.
fuel properties of Chlorella protothecoides, reported that
Fatty Acids Composition (%)
Saturated (SFA) 50.1
the IV obtained for the microalgae species is 112.2 g I2/
Monounsaturated (MUFA) 31.6 100g-1 which may due to high content of unsaturated
Polyunsaturated (PUFA) 17.5 fatty acids, 90.7%. However, in this research, IV
Total Content 99.2 obtained for T.chuii biodiesel is 59.3 g I2/ 100g-1 which is
lower than IV obtained for C.protothecoides. Thus, it is
However, high content of MUFA is suggested to suggested that higher the IV indicates higher the amount
produce biodiesel which tend to solidify in low of unsaturated fatty acids content in the lipid.
temperatures and as for lipid with high PUFA content Viscosity is an important biodiesel quality for
will have a better cold flow properties but it has low utilization of the fuel during direct injection in diesel
oxidation stability which will eventually affects the engines (Brevard Biodiesel, 2010) [30]. Fuel with low
storage and combustion of the biodiesel (Imahara et al., viscosity may not provide sufficient lubrication for the
2006; Hu et al., 2008) [26], [27]. precision fit of fuel injection pumps, resulting in leakage,
carbon deposition on the injectors and increased wear
TABLE III (Knothe, 2001) [31]. As for viscosity ASTM D 6751
COMPARISON OF MICROALGAE BIODIESEL PROPERTIES
FROM LITERATURES WITH T.CHUII BIODIESEL specify that the biodiesel produced required to have
Biodiesel Value Reference T.chuii viscosity 1.9 – 6.0 mm2/s and for EN 14214 standard the
Property from Biodiesel viscosity is more limited with a range of 3.5 – 5.0 mm2/s.
Literatures The kinematic viscosity obtained for this study is 3.2
Kinematic 2.5 – 5.2 (Han et al., 2006; 3.2 mm2/s which is lower than kinematic viscosity reported
viscosity at Chen et al., 2012; for biodiesel produced from C.protothecoides is 4.43
40ºC (mm2/s) Musharraf et al., mm2/s. High degree of unsaturation in biodiesel will
2012)
Cetane number 39 – 67.5 (Erika et al., 2009; 63.7
cause decrease in the viscosity (Knothe, 2005b) [32].
Stansell et al., 2012 T.chuii biodiesel kinematic viscosity, 3.2 mm2/s obtained
Musharraf et al., in this study meets the ASTM D 6751 standard.
2012) Degree of unsaturation is another fatty acid structural
Iodine Value 36.6 – (Chen et al., 2012; 59.3
(g I2/ 100g-1) 112.2 Erika et al., 2009;
feature besides chain length and branching which can
Musharraf et al., effect the quality of biodiesel such as cetane number,
2012) viscosity and oxidation stability (Knothe, 2005b; Erika et
Higher Heating 39.1 – 41 (Han et al., 2006; 41.3 al., 2009) [32], [19]. As recorded in Table II, the degree
Value (MJ/kg) Musharraf et al.,
2012)
of unsaturation obtained for biodiesel produced for
Degree of 52.7 – 98 (Erika et al., 2009) 66.6 T.chuii lipid is 66.6% with the MUFA of 31.60% and
unsaturation PUFA of 17.5%. Erika et al., (2009) [19] reported that
(wt%) degree of unsaturation obtained for six microalgae
species (Aphanothece, Chlorella, Phaeodactylum,
Ignition delay time and combustion quality of the Phormidium, Scenedesmus and Dunaliella) is between
diesel fuel is often related with cetane number. It is 52.7 – 98%, whereby the highest degree of unsaturation
suggested that higher the cetane number the better the 98% was detected in microalgae Duneliella species
ignition quality (Meher et al., 2006) [28]. European which indicate high content of PUFA in the microalgae.
standard for biodiesel fuel EN 14214 require the Even though the determination of degree of unsaturation
minimum cetane number for the biodiesel is 51 and as is not included in ASTM D 6751 and EN 14214 standard,
for ASTM D-6751 requires minimum cetane number 47. but it will indicate the oxidation stability of biodiesel.
Cetane number for biodiesel produced from T.chuii is High degree of unsaturation will increase the emission of
63.7 which comply with EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751. NOx during the combustion of biodiesel (Erika et al.,
The cetane number for the microalgae species varied 2009) [19].
differently between each species because the fatty acid Higher heating value (HHV) which was also known as
composition for each microalgae species varied gross energy or gross calorific value of a fuel is the
accordingly. amount of heat released by a specified quantity of
Amount of iodine in grams, which taken up by 100 product when it is combusted and the product have
grams of oil, fat or wax is the iodine value. Unsaturated returned to initial temperature before combustion, which
compounds contain molecules with double or triple takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of water
bonds, which are very reactive toward iodine. Iodine in the combustion product (Biomass Energy Data Book,
value was not included in the ASTM D 6751 but it is 2011) [34]. Although HHV does not have direct impact
included in EN 14214 standard which specify the on the atomization and combustion parameter but it is an
maximum IV is 120 g I2/ 100g-1, since heating high important fuel characteristic in term of thermal efficiency
amount of unsaturated fatty acid may contribute to of engine and fuel economy. Higher HHV indicates the
formation of deposits or deterioration of the lubricating possibility of higher energy output from the fuel (Sanliet
oil (Erika et al., 2009) [19]. et al.,2013) [33].
286
Normally, the heating value increases with the length biodiesel property (viscosity).
of carbon chain (Knothe, 2005a) [25]. HHV obtained in Last but not least, we highly appreciated Forest
this study for biodiesel produced from T.chuii is 41.3 Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM), Natural Product
MJ/kg which are almost similar to biodiesel produced Division for assisting in lipid extraction using
from C.protothecoides, 41 MJ/kg (Xu et al., 2006) [36]. supercritical CO2 extraction unit.
The HHV obtained T.chuii biodiesel was within the
range of HHV for diesel fuel, (40 – 45 MJ/kg) (Xu et al.,
2006) [36]. References
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Technology Biotechnology, 85: 395 – 403. mechanical engineer from Purdue University @
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Rodolfi, L. Casini, D. Prussi, M. Chiaramonti, D. and Tredici, M. registered with Board of Engineers Malaysia, a
R. 2012. Oil production by the marine microalgae Member of Institute of Engineers Malaysia,
Nannochloropsis sp. F&M-M24 and Tetraselmis suecica F&M- Green Technology Corporation, and also an
M33. Bioresource Technology, 114: 567 – 572. active committee member of Malaysian Energy
[21] Anne, C. V and Jean, C. M. 1993. Fatty acids from 28 Marine Professional Association. He has 10 years
microalgae species. Phytochemistry. 34(6): 1521- 1533. working experience in electric power generation in a multinational
[22] El-Moneim, A. M. R. A. Emad, A.S. and Sanaa, M.M.S. (2010). electricity utility corporation in Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad. Ir.
Enhancement of Biodiesel Production from Different Species of Kumaran Palanisamy has been also worked as a Project
Microalgae. Grasas Y Aceites, 61(4): 416-422. Engineer/Manager for a multinational Fastenal Company, in United
[23] Gouveia, L. and Oliveira, A. C. 2009. Microalgae as a raw States for 2 years. Currently, he is a senior lecturer at Universiti Tenaga
material for biofuels production. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnology. Nasional (UNITEN) and dedicated to energy related research,
36: 269 – 74. specifically green energy alternative renewable energy, energy
[24] Ramos, M. J. Fernandez C. M. Casas, A. Rodriguez, L. and Perez, efficiency and environment conservation. Recently, he has been
A. 2009. Influence of fatty acid composition of raw materials on appointed as principle researcher at Center for Renewable Energy at
biodiesel properties, Bioresource Technology. 100: 261 – 8. UNITEN and actively pursuing research on harnessing biogas energy
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1059 – 70. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Saifuddin Nomanbhay is a
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cloud point of biodiesel with its fatty acid composition, Fuel, a member of the American Chemical Society
85:1666–1670. (ACS), Malaysian Energy Professional
[27] Hu, Q. Sommerfeld, M. Jarvis, E. Ghirardi, M. Posewitz, M. Association and Malaysian Energy Institute. He
Seibert, M. Darzins, A. 2008. Microalgal Triacylglycerols as has been actively involved in the research the
Feedstocks for Biofuel Production: Perspectives and Advances. field of microwave assisted reactions,
The Plant Journal, 54: 621-639. biocatalyst immobilization and
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aspects of biodiesel production by transesterification - A Review, researcher at the Centre for Renewable Energy Research (CRE) of
Renewable Sustainable Energy Review. 10: 248–268. UNITEN and his research are now mainly focus on renewable
[29] Chen, Y. H. Huang, B. Y. Chiang, T. H. Tang, T. C. 2012. Fuel resources and enabling technologies. He has been appointed to
properties of microalgae (Chlorella protothecoides) oil biodiesel positions on national or international bodies which includes (i)
and its blends with petroleum diesel. Fuel, 94: 270 – 273. appointments as reviewer for high impact academic and professional
[30] Brevard Biodiesel. Stability of Biodiesel and the Iodine Value. journals; (ii) appointment as External Examiner for Masters and PhD
http://www.brevardbiodiesel.org/iv.html. accessed on 28 – 05 – thesis from local and aboard (Examiner for 4 foreign PhD theses); (iii)
2012. appointment as Member/panel for technical evaluation of projects
[31] Knothe, G. (2001). Historical Perspective on Vegetable Oil-Based under E.Sc., Fund under ministry of Science Technology and
Diesel Fuel. Inform 12: 1103 – 1107. Innovation, Malaysia (MOSTI).
[32] Knothe, G. (2005b). Viscosity of Biodiesel, In: The Biodiesel
handbook, Knothe, G. Krahl, J. and Gerpen, J. V. pp. 81 – 82 Janarthanan Supramaniam is graduate in
AOCS Press, Campaign, Illinois, USA. Bachelor of Industrial Biotecnology major in
[33] Sanli, H. Canakci, M. Alptekin, E. 2013. Predicting the higher microbiology from Universiti Industri Selangor
heating values of waste frying oils as potential biodiesel in 2009. He is pursuing Msc at Universiti
feedstock, Fuel. 115: 850 – 854. Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) while working as a
[34] Biomass Energy Data Book. U S. Energy Department. Oak Ridge research assistant at Centre of Renewable
National Library http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb. accessed on 20 – 07 – Energy Research (CRE) from year 2009 to 2011.
2012. Currently he is working in national sewerage
[35] Moazami, N. Ranjbar, R. Ashori, A. Tangestani, M. and Nejad, company, Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd as a Capasity
A.S. 2011. Biomass and lipid productivities of marine microalgae Development Executive. His research are mainly focus on sustainable
isolated from the Persian Gulf and the Qeshm Island, Biomass and energy particularly involving microalgae, bioremediation of carbon
Bioenergy. 35(5) :1935 - 1939. dioxide, biodiesel production, development of photobioreactor and
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in fermenters, Journal of Biotechnology, 126 (4): 499 – 507.
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Centre for Renewable Energy, University Tenaga Nasional, Jalan
Ikram-Uniten, 43000 Kajang Selangor, Malaysia
Tel: +603-8921-2296; Fax: +603-8928-7166
E-mail: kumaran@uniten.edu.my
288
ISSN 1970 - 8734 January 2014
Effect of Solution Treatment Temperature on Microstructure

and Mechanical Properties of A356 Alloy
M. Ishak, A. Amir, A. H. Ahmad
Abstract – Over the years, aluminum content in a vehicle part is increasing due to the needs to
reduce weight as well as increase fuel efficiency. Most of the cast product in a vehicle part is
mostly cast from A356 alloy. It is used because A356 alloy posses’ excellent characteristics over
other type of alloy such as cas ability, high strength to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance and
good weldability. Most of the cast component in vehicle such as cylinder head favors hardness
over tensile strength. Most of the solution treatments studied was done on sample having α-Al with
dendritic structure. The objective of this research is to investigate the effect of solution treatment
temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties of A356 (Al7Si0.3Mg) aluminum alloy.
Heat treatment was done to harness the full potential of cast A356 alloy and T6 heat treatment is
the commonly used treatment for this alloy. In the present study, the specimen was cast using low
pouring temperature method which produces equiaxed α-Al structure. The specimen undergone
solution treatment for two (2) hours at three different temperatures (530 °C, 540 °C, and 550 °C),
quenched in water at room temperature, followed artificial aged for six (6) hours at 170 °C.
Mechanical properties of A356 aluminum alloy were investigated by tensile test and hardness test.
The relation between size, shape, and distribution of Si particle and the alloy’s mechanical
properties were investigated. Si particle size, shape, and dispersion affect the mechanical
properties of cast A356 alloy. Higher solution treatment temperature produce smaller and more
globular Si particle before completing T6 heat treatment. Elongations decrease while ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) increase as solution temperature increased from 530 °C to 550 °C. A356
aluminum alloy specimen solution treated at 530 °C have comparable hardness compared with
specimen solution treatment at 540 °C before and after artificial ageing - complete T6 heat
treatment - with higher elongation and lower energy usage as added benefit. Copyright © 2014
Keywords: Solution Treatment Temperature, Equiaxed Α-Al, Hardness, A356 Aluminum Alloy
I. Introduction Heat treatment is done to harness the full potential of

cast A356 alloy. The distribution, morphology, volume
Over the years, aluminum content in a vehicle part is fraction, degree of Si particle modification, composition
increasing due to the needs to reduce weight as well as of phases of the as-cast microstructure, along with the
increase fuel efficiency. Most of the cast product in a solution treatment parameters (temperature, time)
vehicle part is mostly cast from A356 alloy [1]. It is used chosen, determines the successfulness of solution
because A356 alloy posses’ excellent characteristics over treatment. Solution treatment (ST) was done at a high
other type of alloy such as castability, high strength to temperature, close to the eutectic temperature of the
weight ratio, good corrosion resistance and good weld- alloy; its purpose is to [3]:
ability. • Dissolve soluble phases containing Cu and Mg
Dendritic α-Al structure is produced by casting A356 formed during solidification;
alloy using normal pouring (NP) method, which is • Homogenize the alloying elements;
pouring melted alloy at high temperature. The low • Spheroidize the eutectic Si particles.
pouring temperature (LPT) method, which is pouring Long solution treatment time provides low hardness
melted alloy at a low temperature near its liquidus and short solution treatment provides high hardness
temperature produce α-Al with equiaxed or globular [4].The time required for solution treatment depends on a
structure. Equiaxed structure reduces forming resistance, few factors such as the composition, structure, size and
thus, more complicated component can be cast. In case of distribution of the phases present after solidification, and
permanent mold and die casting, LPT method prolonged solution treatment temperature [2]. Most solution
the mold service life. treatment is carried out between 4 to 6 hours at 540oC
Solidification time could effects the occurrence of and is said to be the most optimum condition [5], [6].
defects in Al casting [2]. Solution treatment of cast Al-Si-Mg alloys in the 400-
Manuscript received and revised December 2013, accepted Jannuary 2014 Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
289
560oC range dissolves the hardening agents (Mg2Si Unsuitable solution treatment regime will waste the
particles) into the α-Al matrix, reduces the micro- effort of producing equiaxed/globular α-Al structure of
segregation of magnesium, copper, manganese, and other sand cast A356 alloy.
addition elements in aluminum dendrites, and If lower solution treatment temperature is used, the
spheroidize the eutectic silicon particles to improve the alloying elements will not have complete dissolution and
ductility [7]. Homogeneous solid solution is formed become unavailable for precipitation hardening and
when atoms leave the coarse particles formed during higher solution treatment temperature increase the cost
solidification and propagate into the Al-Si matrix and due to high energy usage than is necessary.
reduces the concentration gradient [3]. The time required Therefore, in this paper, the effect of solution
to homogenize the casting depends on the morphology of treatment temperature on microstructure and mechanical
the diffusing atoms and the solution treatment properties of sand cast A356 aluminum alloy having α-al
temperature (diffusion rate) as well as by coarseness of equiaxed structure is studied.
the microstructure [3]. The time needed for spheroidize
the eutectic Si particle is strongly depends on the
solution treatment temperature, shape and structure, and II. Experimental Procedure
size of the eutectic Si particles in the as-cast (AC) A356 aluminum alloy was used in the present study.
condition. The desired solution time and temperature, to Table I shows the chemical composition of A356 alloy.
a great extent, depend on the casting method, the extent A356 ingots were melted in a diesel furnace and the
of modification, and desired level of spheroidization and molten metal was poured at a temperature of 620°C.
coarsening of silicon particles. The solution treatment The cast product was then machined to “dog bones”
time can be reduced if the AC microstructure is finer [3]. shape for tensile test specimen with dimension as shown
The maximum temperature for solution treatment of a in Fig. 1.
metal must not exceed, when possible, its solidus
temperature. The effects of variations from T6 standard
treatment on the hardness, ductility, and UTS of A356
alloy cast in a permanent mould with and without
strontium modification was investigated [8]. The main
variables considered in the experiments were solution
treatment time and temperature. The as-cast samples
were solution treated for various times (t=2, 4, 8, 16 and Fig. 1. Dimension for tensile test specimen
32 hours) at 520 oC/540 oC and aged at 160 oC for 6.5.
The highest hardness was obtained at a short solution The ST was done for two (2) hours at three (3)
treatment time (2 hours) for both unmodified and different temperatures as listed in Table II. Notice that
modified A356, while the highest ductility was not the only manipulated parameter made in this study was
achieved until the samples undergone 8 hours of solution the solution treatment temperature while the other
treatment at the same temperature. parameters were kept constant. Tensile specimens for
Most of solution treatment studied was based on each temperature variation were solution treated in an
dendritic α-Al structure like what was done by a number induction furnace. All the specimens were rapidly
of researchers [8]-[10]. The low pouring temperature quenched in water at room temperature after completing
method produced equiaxed α-Al structure, in which the the solution treatment. After quenching, a sample for
alloying element is spread throughout the aluminum in a microstructure observation and hardness test was taken
much higher degree compared to normal pouring which from tensile test specimen of each temperature variation
produces dendritic α-Al structure. This means that low before proceeds with artificial ageing. The specimens
pouring temperature helps in homogenizing the alloying undergo solution treatment and quenching in water, then
element to some extent. Solution treatment will further was artificial aged at 170 °C for 6 hours. Again, a sample
homogenize the alloying element; therefore its priority for microstructure observation and hardness test was
now is to spheroidize the eutectic Si particle. taken from tensile test specimen of each temperature
variation after completing T6 heat treatment.
TABLE I
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF A356 ALLOY (%)
Al Si Mg Cu Fe Mn Ti Zn Other, each Other, total
Remain 6.50 -7.50 0.30 -0.45 ≤0.2 ≤0.15 ≤0.10 ≤0.20 ≤0.10 ≤0.05 ≤0.15
TABLE II
HEAT TREATMENT PARAMETER
T6 heat treatment parameter
ST Temperature 530 °C 540 °C 550 °C
ST Time 2 2 2
Quench Water at room temperature
AA Time 6 hours 6 hours 6 hours
AA Temperature 170 °C 170 °C 170 °C
290
The microstructure was observed using optical The major different observed is with the number of
microscope under magnification of 5× and 50×. Three (3) eutectic Si particle and its size produced by the different
different field-of-views was observed and captured under solution treatment temperature which became the interest
the 5× magnifications. The size of Si particle and of the present study (Figs. 4).
distribution was analyzed using image analysis software Table III shows the statistic of Si particle for different
for every field-of-view with magnification of 50×. condition. Si particle with size ranging up to 100 µm² are
Vickers hardness test was used for hardness testing in further divided into five size ranges. Fig. 5 shows
this study. ASTM E384 was used as the standard for this distributions of Si particle for solution treatment
test. The same specimens were used for microstructure condition while Fig. 6 shows the distribution for
observation. Tensile test was done on sample T6 heat complete T6 condition.
treated with strain rate of 1 mm/min using UTM
machine.
a

Microstructure Observation
Figs. 2 show the AC microstructure which consists of
α-Al, Al-Si eutectics and Si phases. The α-Al shape does
not differ much between the three solution treatment
temperatures even after completing the T6 heat
treatment, which all exhibiting equiaxed shape (Figs. 3).
b
Figs. 2 AC microstructure. (a) Magnification 5× and c

(b) Magnification 50×
d
b
c e
Figs. 3. (a) 530 ST, (b) 540 T6 and (c) 550 ST

Figs. 4 (a) 530 ST, (b) 530 T6, (c) 540 ST, (d) 540 T6 and (e) 550 ST,
291
TABLE III
SI PARTICLE STATISTIC
Average Si particle
No. of Eutectic Si Particle
Size
Specimen
0 ≤ A <20 20 ≤ A < 40 40 ≤ A <60 60 ≤ A < 80 80 ≤ A < 100 Total
µm² µm² µm² µm² µm² 0 ≤ A ≤ 100
AC 4 66 36 18 14 8 142 74.186
530 ST 277 67 32 19 15 410 28.632
540 ST 342 106 54 34 10 546 25.488
550 ST 515 123 40 17 14 709 20.528
530 T6 356 90 42 13 10 511 23.594
540 T6 629 131 46 24 9 839 18.654
550 T6 187 72 35 29 19 342 38.674
600 increased prior to completion of T6 treatment and it is

< 20 µm2
500
20 ≤ A < 40 µm2 expected to be higher for 550 T6 condition but that is not
40 ≤ A < 60 µm2
60 ≤ A < 80 µm2
the case (Fig. 6). There is major different in Si particle
No. of Particle
400 80 ≤ A < 100 µm2 number in the size range of interest for 550 °C solution
300
treated specimen after artificial ageing compared to the
other two specimen. There is not much of a different in
200 eutectic Si particle number before and after completing
100
T6 treatment for the other four ranges.
The purpose of artificial ageing is to obtain a uniform
0 distribution of small precipitates, which gives a high
530 ST 540 ST 550 ST
strength. Solution treatment at 550 °C produce eutectic
Specimen
Si particle with an average size of 20.528 µm² which is
Fig. 5. Si particle distribution (ST condition) smaller than the size produced by solution treatment at
530 °C and 540 °C.
700 < 20 µm2 Different Si particle size went through the same
600 20 ≤ A < 40 µm2 artificial ageing regime, specimen with smaller eutectic
No. of Si particle
500 40 ≤ A < 60 µm2 Si particle size experiencing the same effect as if it went
60 ≤ A < 80 µm2
400 through longer artificial ageing regime at low
80 ≤ A < 100 µm2
300 temperature or, experiencing the same effect as if it went
200
through a short artificial ageing regime at higher
temperature. Due to its smaller eutectic Si particle size,
100
the 550 °C solution treated sample experiencing over
0 aged artificial ageing regime. Over ageing caused the
530 T6 540 T6 550 T6
eutectic Si particle to combine together and coarsen
Specimen
(increase in size as evident in Table IV and Figs. 4) and
Fig. 6. Si particle distribution (T6 condition) become weaker than in the peak aged condition [11].
The number of eutectic Si particle decrease as solution
Number of Si particle with area range of 0 ≤ A< 20 treatment temperature prior to artificial ageing increased
µm² increased as solution treatment temperature more than 540 °C (effect of over ageing) [11]. The same
increased. This particular range (0 ≤ A< 20 µm²) is findings are obtained in the present study (Table III).
chosen to be the interest of this study because of its Over ageing also increase the dispersion of eutectic Si
relatively high number of Si particle exist in the range particle (Figs. 4). The average hardness of 530 °C and
compared to the others. 540 °C solution treated specimen are almost the same for
The range is also chosen because of its strong relation solution treated condition as shown in Table IV.
with micro hardness, which will be discussed in the later
part of this paper. High solution treatment temperature TABLE IV
provide higher diffusion rate, causing the eutectic Si MICRO HARDNESS TEST RESULT
particle to be dissolved and diffuse into the α-Al matrix Condition Micro hardness (HV) Average
1 2 3 4 5
at higher rate compared to lower solution treatment AC 4 52.9 61.1 62.5 62.8 56.2 59.1
temperature. These are the reasons for high existence of 530 ST 79.1 78.3 81.8 86.5 90 83.14
Si particle in the 0 ≤ A< 20 µm² size range for solution 540 ST 83.2 78.1 79.1 76.2 89.5 81.22
treatment temperature of 550 °C. Si particle dissolved in 550 ST 87.8 88.1 91.2 74.3 94.1 87.1
530 T6 131.8 131.4 131.4 141.4 137.1 134.62
a much lower rate for lower ST temperature, resulting in
540 T6 133.6 119.7 127.9 134.6 146.7 132.5
less number in the discussed range. After completing T6 550 T6 112.2 107.5 97.4 105.8 106.4 105.86
heat treatment, eutectic Si particle in the 0 ≤ A< 20 µm²
size range is large in number compared to the other size Micro Hardness Test
range. The number of Si particle in the 0 ≤ A < 20 µm² ST at 550 °C gives highest hardness value of 87.1 HV
range increases as solution treatment temperature for solution treated condition. The size and shape of Si
292
particle plays an important role in affecting the hardness

of the alloy.
It can be seen in Figs. 4, the shape of Si particle for
530 °C and 540 °C solution treated specimen are almost
the same, these explain the small difference in their
hardness. Although their shape does not differ much, Si
particle shape for 530 °C sample is slightly rounded and
short and dispersed wider compared to that of 540 °C
sample (Figs. 4), result in slightly higher hardness.
The more globular shape and small sized Si particle in
the 550 °C sample contribute to its high hardness in
solution treated condition (Figs. 4). The force exerted by
the indenter is distributed evenly between the many and
small Si particles in 550 °C ST sample, which increase Fig. 7. ST temperature versus micro hardness
the difficulty for the indenter to penetrate deeper into the TABLE V
alloy, resulted in small indentation, thus giving high TENSILE TEST RESULT
value of hardness. After completing the T6 heat Name Specimen1 Specimen 2 Average
treatment, again, it can be seen that the difference in UTS (MPa)
hardness between samples solution treated at 530 °C and 530 213.47 206.296 209.883
540 230.819 209.074 219.947
540 °C is small. Although the size of Si particle does not 550 223.423 225.213 224.318
differ much between the two samples, their shape do YS (MPa)
differs with 540 °C sample having more globular Si 530 81.231 145.885 113.558
particle shape (Figs. 4). Sample that solution treated at 540 206.766 184.562 195.664
550 °C resulted in lowest hardness. The shape and size of 550 129.101 207.800 168.451
Elongation (%)
550 °C sample coarsen after completing the treatment 530 3.11429 3.04829 3.08129
and the Si particle are widely dispersed between each 540 3.35579 2.42594 2.89087
other (Figs. 4). In this kind of microstructure, the 550 2.47029 2.61763 2.54396
indenter surface tends to land on the soft Al phase, which
results in low hardness. Due to the wide dispersion of the This could also be one of the reasons for the low yield
Si particle, the area of Si particle available to distribute strength acquired by the 550 T6 sample as can be seen in
the forces exerted by the indenter become less and more Fig. 8. Quenching rate also affect the yield strength of
force land on the soft Al phase, resulting in lower A356 alloy. If the quench rate is high enough, the solute
hardness. As mentioned in the previous subsections, is retained in solid solution and high number of vacancies
unsuitable artificial ageing regime for the prior solution would also be retained [3]. Conversely, too slow cooling
treatment could be the reason for result acquired. rate cause the particle to precipitate heterogeneously at
Specimen that solution treated at 550 °C is experiencing grain boundaries or at the dislocations; resulting in a
over aging, making the Si particle to combine and decrease in the super saturation of solute and in the same
coarsen, thus, lowering its hardness. time, resulting in lower yield strength after completing
the heat treatment.
Tensile Test Weakness with rapid cooling is that the thermal
Table V shows the tensile test findings of A356 stresses are induced in the casting. Specimen solution
Aluminum alloy which went through complete T6 heat treated at 530 °C and 550 °C were experiencing low and
treatment under three different solution treatment high quench rate, respectively.
temperature. The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of This explains for the low yield strength acquired by
A356 alloy increased with increase in solution treatment the sample solution treated at 530 °C and 550 °C.
temperature prior to artificial ageing (Fig. 8). The
240 3.5
elongation of this alloy on the other hand, decreases as
UT S / 0.2%YS (MPa)
solution treatment temperature increase. The yield 220

Elongation (%)
strength (YS) of A356 aluminum alloy increases with 200

3
increase in solution treatment temperature from 530 T6 180
until 540 T6 but decrease for 550 T6 as can be seen in 160
Fig. 7. 0.2% YS 2.5
140
The trend of increase in UTS and decrease in UTS
elongation observed in this study is in good agreement 120
% Elongation
with other researcher [3], [10]. Coarse microstructure 100 2
(having large and elongated Si particle) is the reason for 530 T6 540 T6 550 T6
low elongation to fracture [12], [13] and this is in good Fig. 8. Yield Strength (0.2% YS), Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
agreement with the findings of this study (Table III, Fig. and Elongation for 530 T6, 540 T6 and 550 T6
4(f), and Fig. 8).
293
The observed behavior highly depends on the size [5] Cavaliere, P., Cerri, E., & Leo, P. 2004. Effect of heat treatments
on mechanical properties and fracture behavior of a thixocast
(area) of eutectic Si particle, the presence or formation of
A356 aluminum alloy. Journal of Materials Science, 39: 1653-
β’ (rods/elongated) eutectic Si particle, which decrease 1658.
ductility as stated by [11] and the dispersion of Si [6] Shabestari, S. G. & Shahri, F. 2004. Influence of Modification,
particle. Larger Si particle size increases the tendency of Solidification Conditions and Heat Treatment on the
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of A356 Aluminum
crack formation [14]. The elongation to fracture depends
Alloy. Journal of Materials Science, 39, 2023-2032.
strongly on the ability of Si particles in the Al-Si eutectic [7] Davidson, C. J., Griffiths, J. R. & Machin, A. S. 2002. The effect
to stop the motion of dislocations [10]. Solution of solution heat-treatment time on the fatigue properties of an Al-
treatment makes the Si particles distributed more Si-Mg casting alloy. Engineering Material Structure, 46, 223-230
homogeneously in a fine microstructure and the [8] Möller, H., Govender, G., & Stumpf, W. E. 2008. The T6 Heat
Treatment of Semi-Solid Metal Processed Alloy A356. The Open
dislocations interact with the Si particles individually. Materials Science Journal, 2: 6-10
Consequently the dislocations pass the Si particles and [9] Sjölander, E. & Seifeddine, S. 2008. Optimisation of solution
accumulated at the grain boundaries where the fracture treatment of cast Al–Si–Cu alloys. The Open Materials Science
takes place, resulting in a high elongation to fracture Journal, 2, 6-10
[10] Caceres, C. H., Davidson, C. J., Griffiths, J. R., & Wang, Q. C.
[10]. The low elongation to fracture is caused by the 1999. The effect of Mg on the microstructure and mechanical
coarse Si particles which become an obstacle for the behavior of Al-Si-Mg casting alloys. Metallurgical and Material
dislocations causing it to pile up at the Al–Si eutectic Transaction A, 30: 2611-2618.
(where fracture could occur) [10]. [11] Kuntongkum, S., Wisutmethangoon, S., Plookphol, T. &
Wannasin, J. 2008. Influence of Heat Treatment Processing
Parameters on the Hardness and the Microstructure of Semi-Solid
Aluminum Alloy A356. Journal of Metals, Materials and
IV. Conclusion Minerals, 18, 93-97.
[12] Sjölander, E. & Seifeddine, S. 2011. Artificial ageing of Al-Si-
• Si particle size, shape, and dispersion affect the Cu-Mg casting alloys. Materials Science and Engineering A, 528,
mechanical properties of cast A356 alloy. Higher 7402-7409.
solution treatment temperature produce smaller and [13] Ran, G., Zhou, J. E. & Wang, Q. G. 2008. Precipitates and tensile
fracture mechanism in a sand cast A356 aluminum alloy. Journal
more globular Si particle before completing T6 heat of Materials Processing Technology 207, 46-52.
treatment. Highest hardness before artificial ageing [14] Goulart, P. R., Spinelli, J. E., OsÓrio, W. R. & A.Garcia 2006.
was achieved by solution treating the A356 alloy at Mechanical properties as a function of microstructure and
550 °C due to the small Si particle produced (average solidification thermal variables of Al–Si castings. Materials
Science and Engineering A 421, 245-253.
size of 20.528 µm²).
• Highest hardness was achieved by solution treatment
at 530 °C following T6 heat treatment with average Authors’ information
of Si particle size of 23.594 µm² produced. Lowest
hardness after artificial aging is the result of ST at M. Ishak was graduated with a Phd from
Ibaraki University, Japan in 2010. He is a senior
550 °C (105.86 HV) due to its large (38.674 µm²) and lecturer at Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in
highly dispersed Si particle. Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) and attached
• A356 alloy which were solution treated at 540 °C with Manufacturing Processes focus group. His
followed by T6 heat treatment shows higher tensile master research related to casting of metal
composite and his Phd research related to laser
strength due to its globular Si particle shape and welding on magnesium alloy. His research
small Si particle (average size of 18.652 interests in Manufacturing Processes especially in welding, casting and
µm²).Elongation decreases while UTS increases as laser processing. He published several papers related to manufacturing
solution treatment temperature increased from 530 °C processes. Dr. M.Ishak also a member of Automotive Engineering
Center in the same university and a graduate member of Board of
to 550 °C. Engineers Malaysia (BEM).
• A356 sand cast aluminum alloy having equiaxed α-Al
structure solution treated at 530 °C have comparable Azrul Amir was graduated from Universiti
hardness with sample solution treated at 540 °C Malaysia Pahang (UMP) for Bachelor in
Mechanical Engineering. He is currently
before and after completing T6 heat treatment working as a Maintenance Mechanical Engineer
at Ye Chiu Metal Smelting Sdn Bhd. His current
work involves maintaining and improving
References machinery and equipment related to production
of aluminum ingot.
[1] Campbell, J. 2003. Castings Third Edition, Butterworth-
Heinemann, London. Asnul Hadi Ahmad (BEng., MEng.) graduated
[2] Wisam M. Abu Jadayil, Experimental Investigation of with a B.Eng. degree in Manufacturing
Solidification Time Effects on Surface and Subsurface Aluminum Processes from Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Casting Defects, May 2011 Vol. 5 N. 4 pp. 569-576 Melaka (UTEM) in 2006 and a M.Eng. degree
[3] Sjölander, E. & Seifeddine, S. 2010. The heat treatment of Al–Si– in Manufacturing Systems from Universiti Putra
Cu–Mg casting alloys. Journal of Materials Processing Malaysia (UPM) in 2008. Since December 2011
Technology 210, 1249-1259. to present, he is awarded a PhD studentship to
[4] Möller, H., Govender, G. & Stumpf, W. E. 2008. The T6 Heat undertake research on the area of semi-solid
Treatment of Semi-Solid Metal Processed Alloy A356. The Open metal processing in the School of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Materials Science Journal, 2, 6-10. Engineering, Dublin City University (DCU), Ireland. From 2006 to
2007, he worked at PERODUA Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. (PMSB), a
294
multinational car manufacturer with last position as a Research and

Development Engineer. He was appointed as a tutor in the Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering at Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) in 2007
and as a full time lecturer in the same university since February 2009.
His research work is started since 2009 with several publications
published. Asnul is currently attached with Manufacturing Processes
Focus Group in UMP and member of Advanced Processing
Technology Group in DCU. He is the graduate member of Board of
Engineers Malaysia (BEM) and the Institution of Engineers Malaysia
(IEM).
295
1970-8742(201401)8:1;1-V

Automation in Aluminium Welding

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Automation in Aluminium Welding

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International Review of

Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

Copyright © 2014 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

Syed Ashfaq1, S. A. Khan2, E. Rathakrishnan3

I. Introduction ‘Stings’ and other support mechanism vital for

variations is considered. BASE PRESSURE TAP

The effectiveness of micro jets to control the base NOZZLE BASE c

wall pressure distribution in the duct it was found that the

Rathakrishnan and Sreekanth [23] considered flow in Fig. 2. Experimental setup

III. Experimental Method IV. Results and Discussions

Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that the micro

Fig. 3. Percentage change in base pressure variation with L/D

Since the flow is being exited from a convergent

All these cases, exhibited much reduced noise level

Fig. 7. Base pressure variation with L/D

One of the common problems encountered in suddenly

Fig. 11. Wall pressure distribution

Fig. 14. Wall pressure distribution

Fig. 15. Wall pressure distribution

Fig. 16. Wall pressure distribution

Fig. 17. Wall pressure distribution

Fig. 21 presents the results for L/D = 2 and NPR = V. Conclusion

[12] S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, “Nozzle Expansion Level Authors’ information

Intelligent Parametric Identification of Flexible Manipulator System

Hanim Mohd Yatim, Intan Z. Mat Darus

Abstract – This paper presents an investigation into the development of an intelligence

Keywords: Dynamic Modeling, Finite Difference Method, System Identification, Single-Link

Nomenclature w Inertia weight

A is a constant n × n matrix whose depend on the

Using a first order central difference approximations

error for the first three modes of vibration as the number

algorithm characterizing the dynamic behaviour of the

15 11.65 7.54 35.00 14.28 71.60 15.95

A bang-bang torque input with an amplitude of ±0.3

the manipulator throughout this simulation as shown in

The dynamic response of the flexible manipulator is

0 This basic relation can be expressed as in Fig. 5.

The operating mechanism of a GA can be described

Fig. 5. Optimization approach

These estimated parameters then will be used to

Genetic algorithms consist of a population of

where nj is the number of bits and interval [amax, amin]

2. Evaluate the fitness of each solution and selection of

where binrep is the equivalent real number to the

vid  t  1  wvid  t   C1  rand   Pid  xid  t     

C1 is called cognitive component encourage the

Swarm movements Swarm movements

Figs. 9. Swarm movement where (a) Step 1; (b)-(f) Step 2-4

Figs. 10. End point displacement modelling using GA

(c) Spectral density of output

Figs. 11. End point displacement modelling using PSO

Autocorrelation of the error Crosscorrelation of input-error

Fig. 12. Correlation tests for GA

Autocorrelation of the error Crosscorrelation of input-error

Fig. 13. Correlation tests for PSO

[13] M.O. Tokhi & A.K.M. Azad. (2008). Flexible Robot

Hanim Mohd Yatim was born in Johor,

Intan Z. M. Darus was born in Melaka,

Investigate the Effect of Using Sunflower Oil as a Lubricant

S. A. Adam, M. A. Fairuz, M. S. Hussin, M. R. M. Hafiezal, S. N. Khaironisa

I. Introduction The output is a healthier and cleaner in the work

used in turning operation. III. Results and Discussion

The examples of S/N calculations are shown below. For Factor A, :