ee Ee es cant cia <4 Ff a Pil S Ss 5 cs OUTLINE SERIES THEORY AND PROBLEMS OF BASIC EQUATIONS NGINEERING SCIENCE William F. Hughes Eber W. Gaylord 1,400 Basic Equations . Supplements any class text . Needed by students and engineersBasie Cquations ENGINEERING SCIENCE By WILLIAM F, HUGHES, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Carnegie Institute of Technology and EBER W. GAYLORD, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering Carnegie Institute of Technology SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES McGRAW-HILL, INC. New York St.Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotd Caracas Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal “ew Delhi Paris San Juan Séo Paulo Singapore vA NARA ~_ 30107 902 136 163Gasn 14 FAN 1993 Copyright © 1964 by MeGraw-HIll, Inc, AML Righte Reserved. Printed in the United States of America, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval aystem, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, lectronle, mechanical, photocopying, recording, oF otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher 31100 1415 16 17 18 1920 SH SH9876543210 ‘Cover design by Amy E. Becker.Preface ‘The authors, having been confronted countless times with the need to know a basic equation in some given coordinate system and the ensuing frustration of leafing through texts or tedious derivation, realized that it would be extremely useful to have drawn together in one concise volume a compendium of the more useful forms of the basic equations of continuum mechanics. This book is a result of that idea. We believe that modern engineering and science (with the exception of modern physics) is based primarily on the classical ideas of continuum mechanics. Nearly every graduate curriculum in engineering or science includes one or more courses in fluid mechanics, elasticity, classical mechanics, or electromagnetic theory. We have included fundamental relationships in each of these disciplines. Of course it would bbe a hopeless task to present all the equations which an engineer or scientist uses, and it is the intent here to include those forms of especial use to the research engineer or student. ‘The book is intended as a reference or “think book” for the student or engineer who is already familiar with the basic ideas and laws and who wishes to establish the exact form of an equation in a given coordinate system. The structure of the book also lends itself to use as a supplement to textbooks in the basic engineering sciences. In many instances certain of the more subtle assumptions are recorded in order to make the book as self-contained as possible, For example, the chapter on electro- magnetic theory contains observations on the derivation and applicability of some of the equations which are difficult to find in most textbooks. ‘The student must be cautioned against indiscriminate use of these equations; he should understand their derivation and limitations. Many of the so-called funda- ‘mental equations of engineering and science are approximations which can be used at times only under rather stringent but subtle conditions. A list of references is included at the end of each chapter so that the reader may study the derivation, physical implications, and applications of the various mathematical forms. W. F. HucHes E. W. GayLorp Carnegie Institute of Technology August, 1964Chapter 1 12 13 1 1s 16 w 119 1.20 vat v.22 1.23 124 125 Table of Contents Fluid Mechanics Continuity for a general compressible fluid .....: Continuity for an incompressible fluid . Strain rate relationships Stress-strain rate relationships . . ooo ee Equations of motion in terms of stress Navier-Stokes equations of motion for a compressible fluid (Eulerian coordinates) ... Navier-Stokes equations of motion for a compressible fluid with viscosity constant . . ‘Navier-Stokes equations of motion for an incompressible fluid. uw ‘Navier-Stokes equations of motion for an incompressible fluid with viscosity constant Lagrangian equations of motion . Rotating frames of reference (Eulerian coordinates) ... Boundary layer theory, the Prandt! equations Energy equation . Energy equation in terms of enthalpy and for a perfect gas. . ‘The dissipation function . Energy equation and entropy production . Integral forms of the basic equations (for a control volume). Integral forms of the basic equations for channel flow with uniform properties and velocity over the cross section of the channel 40 Stream function . : 7 al Velocity potential . Potential flow Vorticity and circulation ... Linearized perturbation theory Acoustic wave equations . Slow motion and lubrication theory .1.26 lar 1.28 129 1.30 Chapter 2 aa 22 23 24 28 26 27 219 2.20 221 Chapter 3 31 32 a3 34 CONTENTS ‘Rankine-Hugoniot relationships (normal shock functions) . ‘Turbulence (turbulent Reynolds equations) Similarity and common dimensionless parameters . List of symbols used in Chapter 1... List of references ........ Elasticity .... re Strain relationships . Stress relationships ... Stress-strain relationships, Hooke's law . Equations of equilibrium, homogeneous isotropic media .. Compatibility equations ... Stress functions in two dimensions . Stress functions in three dimensions . ‘Thermal stresses Strain energy ......... Wave propagation Torsion of cylinders . ‘Thick wall cylinders . ‘Thick wall spheres .. ‘Theory of thin plates Simple beam theory . Simple column theory .. Combined stresses in two dimensions and Mohr’s circle. Mohr’s circle for two dimensional strain . List of symbols used in Chapter 2 . List of references ...........04+ Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell's equations . Constitutive equations .. Ohm’s law and currents Potentials . Page38 36 37 38 39 3.10 Bay 312 a3 314 as 3.16 a7 318 319 3.20 321 322 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 Chapter 4 an 42 43 44 4s 46 a7 48 49 410 CONTENTS Wave equations . Boundary conditions ... ‘Maxwell's equations for moving media .. Lorentz transformations .. Lorentz transformations for velocities small compared to that of light Constitutive equations in moving media . ‘Ohm’s law for moving media Lorentz force on a charged particle . Body force in material media (stationary) Maxwell stress tensor (rest frame only) . Force in moving media Force on a control volume or body . Poynting’s theorem . Complex form of Poynting’s theorem . Integral form of Maxwell's equations Covariant (four dimensional) formulation of Maxwell's equations... Energy relationships of the electromagnetic field Magnetohydrodynamics Plasma dynamics ‘The basic equations in various systems of units. . List of symbols used in Chapter 3 List of references . Dynamics . Kinematics Orthogonal transformations of coordinates . Eulerian angles ............ Moving frames of reference Coefficient of restitution ‘The inertia tensor Dynamics of rigid bodi Lagrange’s equations . Hamilton's equations . Hamilton's principle gel 100 101 102 102 108 104 105 106 109 110 110 SEEN i uz 13, 4 7 118 121 122, 128 128 128 129 180 133 188 185 140 141 141CONTENTS Page 4.11 List of symbols used in Chapter 4 . 142 4.12 List of references . 143 Appendix Mathematical Relationships... 144 re ee eee 144 A2 Vector integrals ........ sew eteeneneeens 145 A.3 Vector operations in various coordinate systems ...... 146 A4 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates . 149 AS Trigonometric relationships .... 152 A6 Hyperbolic functions 154 AZ Series expansions seen 155 AB List of references . 157 Index 159Chapter 1 Fluid Mechanics a Ht VOW o or Pet evev = 0 Mw 12 where the operator };, called the material, substantial, or Stokes derivative, is given in Section 1.5 or the Appendix. (b) Cartesian Tensor. 1, is the velocity in the x direction. 8p, A(pwy) e+ Mg = 0 (c) Cartesian. u,v, and w are the velocities in the «,y, and z directions respectively. » 2 a a St aglow) + gyler) + Gzem) = 0 (d) Cylindrical. v, sand v, are the velocities in the r,@, and z directions respectively. tLe) +2 Zeovy + Ziom) = 0 (©) Spherical. 2,0», and ve are the velocities in the r,4, and directions respectively. Ef 1 i 1_ Bi) = + aR) + rae aar™tIOD + Faimpager) = ° 1 rySe 2 FLUID MECHANICS [OHAP.1 (a) Vector. V = Velocity vector vv Ww (©) Cartesian Tensor. 10, is the velocity in the 2: direction. a0 mo 1 (©) Cartesian. 4,9, and w are the velocities in the z,y, and 2 directions respectively. au ao mye, 4 1 (4) Cylindrical. 0s, and v, are the velocities in the r,@, and z directions respectively. 1a 12%, , ave Fry + bee ° 110 (©) Spherical. tn», and ve are the velocities in the 1,6, and 4 directions respectively. 42 () + 1 8 (oesing) + 1% = 9 aw Bar + Fine 30 Faind op ‘The deformation rate tensor is written (in Cartesian tensor notation) as = ‘where 1», is the velocity. ‘The symmetrical part of the deformation rate tensor is the strain rate tensor, and the antisymmetrical part is the rotation tensor, which is further discussed in Sections 1.22 and 2.1. The strain rate tensor is denoted as ¢,, and the rotation tensor as ‘The deformation rate tensor can then be written in terms of ¢, and wy a8 32 ¢, + oy in Cartesian tensor notation. ‘The components of the strain rate tensor and rotation tensor are given in various coordinate systems so that the deformation rate tensor can be found by adding them together. The rotation term can be related to the angular velocity w, of an infinitesimal fluid element as «,=., and is indicated below. ‘The diagonal (normal) components of the strain rate tensor can be identified directly with the true normal strain rate. However, the off-diagonal terms (shear rate components), ¢y i%i, are equal to one-half the true rate of shear strain components, which are denoted a8 yy The one-half factor is necessary in order to make e, a true tensor. We can write then: ¢,= yy and e,=4y, (iA).CHAP. 1} FLUID MECHANICS 8 (a) Cartesian Tensor. (b) Orthogonal Curvilinear. wi, ws, and ws are the velocities in the 21,22, and zs directions respectively. It ha, ‘and hs are defined by the line element (see Appendix). wa ahi ws ahr Teak date * Tiss a 4 1 dws wa dhy ihe em = Tig ate * Taha ay oy ws I 1 aus , wi dhs | 12 dhs ha es = Haas * Toh or ow =e = fan(is) * an (ie)} ow =n = Han) + Rani) ox =n = baa (ie) + Ram ie} “ = Eoin} 1s oS bon} oo Soon} (ce) Cartesian. ‘u,v, and w are the velocities in the x,y, and z directions respectively. te = ty = = 3(#+2) 16 we wenn deee)4 FLUID MECHANICS (cmap. 1 iy (a) Cylindrical. ‘Vr, Vo, and v, are the velocities in the r,@, and z directions respectively. = i on, ) (e) Spherical. ‘1% Ve, and v6 are the velocities in the r, 6, and 4 directions respectively. ov, 1.20 1at 1 fe 2r sind | ag 1fa ee = ome = bbe -CHAP. 1) FLUID MECHANICS 5 (4) Dilatation. - ‘The fluid dilatation ¢ is defined as ¢,: + ese + ess and is exactly equal to the divergence of the velocity. Hence: ¢ = V*V. The components are not written out here but are given by equations 1.7 through 1.11. 1,4 staess-strain rare metationsHips a ‘The stress in a fluid may be related to the strain rate by the stress-strain rate relation- ships. We confine ourselves to linear relationships here, but more general relationships, e.g. viscoelastic and nonlinear, may be useful in some physical situations. Referring to Fig. 1-1, the components of stress have the following physical significance. ‘The first subscript denotes the normal plane on which the stress acts, and the second subscript denotes the direction in which the stress acts. On the negative normal plane the direction is reversed. ‘The stress tensor must be symmetrical in order to satisfy equilibrium requirements. In this book two definitions of the second coefficient of viscosity are used, A and £, both of which are in current usage. For a monatomic gas the second coefficient of viscosity 4 is —du, where » is the ordinary coefficient of viscosity. ¢ is defined as ¢ = A+%u and is zero for a monatomic gas. The kinematic viscosity v is /p, where p is the mass density. In the following, P is pressure, o, is the stress tensor, and oj is defined as o, + P8, and physically is the shear-stress tensor plus any normal component due to the second coefficient of viscosity. 8, is the Kronecker delta defined as: 8,=1, i= 7; 8,=0, 03. Fig. 1-1. The Stress State on an Elemental Cube. ‘A surface is denoted by the axis to which itis perpendicular. The stresses shown in the figure are on the positive surfaces. On the op- Dosite or negative surfaces the atresses are in the opposite directions.6 FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP.1 ‘The stress-strain rate relationships are as follows: (a) Cartesian Tensor. ‘w: is the velocity in the 2, direction. ¢ is dilatation, y-V. wy = Phy tof = Phy + Buen + One 1 : tm , 907) 4 4g = Pay te (GET) + age io ee PH to (SE Get aS) + 2 (6) Orthogonal Curvitinear. ‘Ws, ws, and ws are the velocities in the 2, zs, and zs directions respectively. hs, Ju, and hs are defined by the line element (see Appendix). oy = P+ of, = -P + Qen + agev 1.23 =P 4 ae( 4 ee ah a) fis as * Tisha da * Tah a, + tans aa ean) + 52s) + ashe) ee 1 dws ‘ws dhe ahs = -P + (GS + ioe tase) + meas oho) + 52 (hobo) + az (tahaws mi -P + Ques + AV+V ‘ay * ighi dz, * Ths 2) Chakawos) + Gish) + atishoos} 8 Wi ae we ) Oe = ey = BubyCHAP. 1) FLUID MECHANICS 1 (©) Cartesian. u, », and w are the veloci in the x, y, and z directions respectively. Be 124 = P+ meta a (Me ae) = -P +o, = -P + 2nty + Av-V = Ps i (B44) = -Pto = -P + 2ee + aye = P+ mM + (H “_ = Pate en = Babee oq = 2a (d) Cylindrical. ‘vn, Vp, and v, are the velocities in the 7, 6, and z directions respectively. tp = WP + oh = WP + Qt + ATV 1.25 ae, ft a 18, av, = Peet aiden tre +H —P + Que, + AV-V wr 1a 19%, | ave +8) + afew + +e} -P +o, = -P + Quen + AV'V8 FLUID MECHANICS (©) Spherical. [cHaP. 1 Yr, Uy and v are the velocities in the r, 6, and ¢ directions respectively. on = -P +o, = -P + Quen + ayeV . 1a = WP + mE + aff pete) + Fang aCe, sine) + Ban sn) + iG ah ey = Pte, = -P + Qe, + ayey S 1_ 2% , o , v,coto P + 2u(— at E+ Aa) (0) + 2 Seo, sina) + rains at} a In this section the following symbols are used: P = Pressure p = Mass density F = Body force density Stress tensor (a) Cartesian Tensor. 1, is the velocity in the : direction. oer) Seu oie wg) = rae 137CHAP. 1} FLUID MECHANICS 9 (b) Vector. ‘The term Ve represents the tensor divergence of the stress tensor ¢. DY ° De [4+ w-wv] 128 = [+ 0(F)-vxwxw] = Ftv. (©) Orthogonal Curvitinear. wi, Ws, and ws are the velocities in the 71, 22, and 2s directions respectively. hs, he, and hs are defined by the line element (see Appendix). fu, ws B40 We Bw; ws Bw (Mee 4 eae mete 5G waa 199 ot Ty Ot,” ha daz” Tin Oa ~ [iS Se — aks ae] a a + salsbion) + apg (hibaen)] om Ohy 4a dhs om ~ Rake be, +P Ta 4 p12 toe | ws oon Ta a1 * a azn * hs des ~ (iS SE — aa Se] + (a SE — SE] Tks Liss Chborw) + agen) + apy Chshors)] x Ohe Sip Oka _ %yy ahs ou hy + ahs ors * Tah 1 ~ Tihs 222 ~ Taba ote * F* 24 2000 5, we dros, wa dws Ta Ot Tis 005 a0 dha _ wa dhst (aks x5 Tishs Oz, Tisha da ~ Iiahs ozs, + [ise ro) ihe es + Etre + Zhe] 45 dhs oy, ohy 4 Ohe Tisha ta ~ Toh zs ~ Koha az *10 FLUID MECHANICS [cHAP.1 (a) Cartesian. . 1%, ¥, and w are the velocities in the 2, y, and 2 directions respectively. pr is the Du au, a od + ott 4 wit) = Dv ov ov Ot fe + 5p + wt) = Dw aw, 2) _ ae + 94 wit) = (e) Cylindrical. Ur Ue, and v, are the velocities in the r, 9, and z directions respectively. Dee a ,%a a De = at ae t 735 + ae 5. ote 1.31 () Spherical. ‘Ur, Vs, and ve are the velocities in the r, ¢, and ¢ directions respectively. D @ a ? a Dt = tr Faind 9p ‘Dee 1.32 (bi 7 av, % au, = or + 5 a0 * raind 36 [Zersingeg + Sersinee) + Ztred] ~CHAP. 1) FLUID MECHANICS eR a tee 7 30 * Faind op (stag 1 ya a = F,+ ama [jr (7 in) + Hp(r si a, cot 7 P = Pressure F = Body foree density » Viscosity a Second coefficient of viscosity (A = —% for a monatomic gas). ¢ = Another second coefficient of viscosity defined in terms of A as {= A+ 4», and hence { is zero for a monatomic gas. Both definitions of the second coefficient of viscosity are in current usage. (a) Veetor. V is the velocity vector. ope = oar + Wu] = & [Be + v(g) - Vxtwx] 1.33 UP +F+ VIG — $4)V-V] +204 -VV +¥a x (VX V+ VV + Ve) or for a monatomic gas with £ = 0: WVP + F + §(u0-W) + VV Vu) 1.34 AW + Ve x (0 x W) = (V-VIVE ~ VX CVX BV) DY Dr (®) Cartesian Tensor. ‘w; is the velocity in the 2: direction. [BB+ ae] = Sh + r+ [eG + St S)] + (ea) va or in terms of &: oe ae salt (a det Ft a5 + a(S) 1812 FLUID MECHANICS (©) Orthogonal Curvilinear. (CHAP.1 ‘These equations may be obtained directly from equation 1.29 by substituting for the stress in terms of the strain rate from equation 1.23, 11, wr, and ws are the velocities in the 21, and hs are defined in terms of the line element (see Appendix). 21 COMPONENT: wy, 101 dws , we dor, wa aus Ta ta * Te dae * Ts oes ~ tee) ws ah wi aly Jah 0 Its zs) + ihe Be ( Sat * Wiss * a a an) + hase) |} ult ni Rane} + afte uw fhe a i) fy ahs + wlie{hiaan(te) + hae Ef aes mn fly 0 (wi), ha a ahs : wie he ae) * hide Ta) f Bes Qu [1 dws wa dhe ah, co bs aha, ws ahs) ahs Tig ats * Tali Oxy * hahs Oral "ae Tia ds * Talis dts * Talia 02, 22 COMPONENT: [2 + MEME 4 Mesa, tote (dha wd Ot Ts Ory” Ti de * Ths day ~ *\ Fala Oe o wi (iis & ~ hide =) =p iP la oat he sama a MR a(t) + Bas) a 1 ows ‘ws dhe ws dha [ [Pots (ie Set * tos See * oe } + abu itare(is) + aC) }] in AVY) 2, and zs directions respectively. hi, hay 1.37CHAP. 1} FLUID MECHANICS 18 aha “ars «ae ie Wa dhs) | dhs + fs aa} oat tes ahi, ah Tish; Oars xa 13 COMPONENT: oy Bw 4 we Bes, ws BBs _ hay ws ahs Ber + hia Oz, * ey dts — "Tisha daa haha 3 «(Gist ~ sae) = hee doen nha Cs {oar 2. (42) + + Slhonm (tea) + + fon (h hits NH * (2) + BEC} R * (2) + BGR (da) Cartesian. u,v, and w are the velocities in the z,y, and ¢ directions respectively. In the following section:sly ay Dw De or in terms of A: a °De = (e) Cylindrical, Ys, and vs are following section: FLUID MEOHANIOS (ona. = (Se + ul + oe + wt) 1.38 =~ Fa Sle &-iwy-v] +a + 2) + al G+ 2] = fit uit + 08 wit) = Pat ayl2egy + e-anv-v] ale G+ )] + al G+ 3) = 1 (Mf + Wl + ol + wt) = AZ + [eG + @-tov-v] + al G+ 8)) + al + 3) Fe - B+ BG + av-v] + ole (e +) 139 + al + ®)] Fs Beedle agev] + hfe (2 + MY] + 268+) FB Blas apy] + 2fa(e + 2) + alt (se + )] the velocities in the 7, 4, and 2 directions respectively. In the D_a a % o a B= Atop ths nd le 19%, | ave _ ae | te | 18, | ave ra tae te at tat eeCHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 15 +r = r,-12 + bao ame &) + @-mv-v] +3 (G+ S)] “EGR E- 2] BGR EF =r-2+ E[e% + &-tv-v] +1 fe( + By) GHB) or in terms of a: at %) ag-v] + Sf (b+ 2] “260+ SD) 88S E-F16 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP. 1 (1) Spherical. vs, and v» are the velocities in the r,¢, and directions respectively. In the following section: a . : it raha ap and viv = doe) + to Si, sine) + 1s = ae rains oo lap 29 14a r @ , af, a, P.-E e ae Bey EH a, EFS aac bale (Gite) + @-tov-v] ap (sin (atte) + ratna 3] tered 7 ind arf 4m, 8/2, 2 a0 4 7d (Re + el trans ap tS 7 1 + File{ eae (ata) * ratno ae] "CHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS WW or in terms of A: Do, _ wi +0 Do, _ toy y [BE al — + BRE + aor] BSE) #28 + aimed“ {raima o¢ * Tae CH] (ata) + rao] . rans + | alk( (aot +o + v,cote) + av-v] + alae + CH) + gle {Pt ata) + raino 3] + Lora + rae} : g = OP Sana) + rama et]18 FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP.1 In most physical problems the forms of the equations below are sufficiently accurate. Slight variations in viscosity can still be permitted with a high degree of accuracy. P = Pressure Body force density Viscosity Second coefficient of viscosity (A = —4n for a monatomic gas). Another second coefficient of viscosity defined in terms of A as ¢ = A+4n, and hence ¢ is zero for a monatomic gas. Both definitions of the second coefficient of viscosity are in current usage. (a) Vector. V is the velocity vector. ob = [Se + vv] [e+ vr = -VP + aVV + +4) V(V°V) + F vxivxv)] 146 0 VP ~ nV X(VXV) + (C44) V(V-V) + F or in terms of A: [+ w-vv] = of = -VP + eVV + A+H)V(VIV) + F -vxivxv)] 145 = -VP — nV X(VXV) + AF+200(V-V) + F (b) Cartesian Tensor. 1, is the velocity in the x: direction. twos, yy d10 ap [ar + oe Tae Mees or in terms of A: ow wr aP. Fur a (aw; [Sted] = det rams + Otwan(Gy) + (¢) Orthogonal Curvilinear. 1.48 ‘These equations are not written out here because of their bulky nature. They can be obtained immediately from equation 1.37 by removing the coefficients of viscosity from inside the derivatives. Such an equation will be referred to as equation 1.48.CHAP. 1) (d) Cartesian. u, v, and w are the velocities in the z, y, and 2 directions respectively. following section: = -2+ = -2s Ss FLUID MECHANICS 19 In the Pu Fu aw + eens) ++ Ee (B+ e+ + Ve + crm: vy) Fe Fe + (S44 SB) + erg +z + nV + &+mZiv-w + (8 aw , aw’ Sar + Se 4 Se) + e+ 2 (2 + aVho + c+ Zw) opt = 2 + Fe + aye t Qty Z(y-y) 1.50 om = -£ +A + ave + O+ndiv-y) ope = 2a tev + aro dio-y (e) Cylindrical. Vr, Vo, and v, are the velocities in the r, 6, and z directions respectively. In the following section: Be tat apt viv = therm + 1S 4 Me vs BelbsdgeS (The above Laplacian operator is for operstion on a scalar component only and is used in that manner in the following equations.) ° [at 1st a - 4-35) + e+wde-y20 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP.1 F] + ert dow 182 aP See a a = the tal vie Ba] + Ot Rw) oe, =] 1aP 2 av, le ~pme tt lve, + BSF - Be] + tnt Sow Dos e a ODE = We t Fe + ave + HW EVV) (ft) Spherical. ‘Ur Ve, and v¢ are the velocities in the r, 6, and ¢ directions respectively. In the following section: oe vied at Mar tT a0 t Fain ap oto ie 1_ a, VV = FG lO) + Faing 980) + HeinG age 12/2 io a 1 # nal") + srama 30 (800d) + 9 gt (The above Laplacian is for operation on a scalar component only and is used in that manner in the following equations.) ‘Dv, _ vit vy (or - 2) Es OP. 2v, 2 av, Bv, cote a, = Rt P+ [ve or a ao ++ Z09-y) 2 av, Pet Pt wl vie ta + +m tS-yCHAP. 1} FLUID MECHANICS aL . [Bee tate cote) . 1 @P se, 2a, , Beoss a, ~raind ag + Po + -[v “» — Feint@ * Wainte 06 * Feintd al + C+ WW eaing ap (VY) 1.54 Qu, _ 2 6v, 20, cot ap 2 = it Re + oly — eB +a+oee-w a meee 1aP FO tht ove, + Foo Psintd Psin?d ¥] 1a + O+wEH(TY) ea ears vero Do, , yt, + 24% cote) Di r a = -pme thet a[ ve, - aah + O+oraeaa (OY) ‘These equations are the same as those in section 1.6 except that the term V -V is taken as zero. In the following section the following symbols are used. P Pressure Body force density a = Viscosity (a) Vector. V is the velocity vector. DV Vv Vv ‘vs ope = °[get OV] = ol + ¥(G)-Vx(vxw] 15s = -VP + F- Vx [Vx] (b) Cartesian Tensor. 1; is the velocity in the 2: direction. aus, yy ap ap fam hr alte ®)) 1.5622 FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP.1 (€) Orthogonal Curvilinear. 1357 These equations are not written out explicitly here but can be obtained from equation 1.47 simply by setting the V-V term equal to zero. We will refer to such an equation as equation 1.57. (d) Cartesian. u,v, and w are the velocities in the x, y, and z directions respectively. In the following sectior pee ee Bi Ber sek(8)+ SG E]+sb ea] Bea Bere ab5) + GR) ab Gee] VB = AB rs AXE) AGB) + SEG (e) Cylindrical. ¥, ve, and v, are the velocities in the r, #, and z directions respectively. In the following section: D a a,%a a B= RtMRt 139 aba 2) Qn ae avy », #3 av ae trCHAP. 1) FLUID MECHANICS 23 (1) Spherical. Yr, ve, and vs are the velocities in the r, 0, and ¢ directions respectively. In the following. section: oe ea F a0 * Fsind ag 1.60 + pale fae) + 74] i fot Fain ag" {Fain ap * or 2 apg tee 2 Ste Moe zr og 20, Oke +l 7” Fang oe ~ reoto2.(%) 4 c0td avr + roots (H) +H] Gao Fy + rina ag (Faing apt Sp t+ ezeot#) 1 ay a Faind ag * ar ‘sing 9 /_% nS ( + lef24 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP. 1 NAVIER-STOKES: EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR AN INCOMPRES! ee FLUID. WITH VISCOSITY CONSTANT ‘These equations may be used with a high degree of accuracy for problems involving viscosity variations if the viscosity gradient is not too large. In most physical problems this assumption is adequate and the Navier-Stokes equations may be used in most incom- pressible flow problems. The following symbols are used: P = Pressure F Body force density n= Viscosity dy = Material derivative (not the same on a component as on a vector). (a) Vector. V is the velocity vector. DV hr = ola + w-v)y] -vP + F + vv 1.61 ‘The term (V-V)V is actually a pseudo-vector expression and care must be used in its expansion in other than Cartesian coordinates. It is convenient to express this acceleration term in true vector form, and the equation of motion may be written in the alternative form: [+ 9 ()-vecwxw] = -wP er tev 162 Care must be taken in expanding VV, since the operation on a vector is not the same as the operation on a scalar component. The following vector identity is useful: vv = (VV) - ¥x(VxV) (b) Cartesian Tensor. ‘w; is the velocity in the a; direction. ow owe Fw o [et + St] + Ft ae (¢) Orthogonal Curvilinear, 1.64 These equations are not a out explicitly here but can be obtained from equation 1.47 by setting the 3 a term equal to zero and removing the viscosity from the derivatives. We will reter to such an equation as 1.64. (d) Cartesian. %, v, and w are the velocities in the z, y, and z directions respectively. In the following section: D oo a B= at et 1.63 gy sy sieCHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 25 Written out in full, these become: ou au ou au) _ _aP tu au, aw 0 (Se + wie + oft + wt) = Pere (+ B+ SH) vee ov ov av av) _ _@ ‘ay, ty | ay ole + Ge + 5p + wae) = apt to Set +B) fo, 2m, aw ap Fw, tw, aw (Get uit + os = Fars (Gee Se + Se) (e) Cylindrical. vy Ye and vs are the velocities in the 7, 6, and z directions respectively. In the following section: 1.67 Dae ap a Written out in full, these become: ek ge 4 Ba dtr 4g Boe Ste 4 Pe We yy, Be _ 1 ofS + oS + oe + 2 -26 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP. 1 (f) Spherical. ‘2, Vs, and vg are the velocities in the r, #, and ¢ directions respectively. In the following section: Do a a Bi nt ae * Faima 34 2 a iB ia Me aa" i ) + rainté ag? : 169 ecole _ 2 ary) eee aan ae ? 2Zeose ay ans | ’ ty — 2 2 av, , 2eose [v Fai Ta + wane + ae ae Written out in full, these become: % ay, _ Utet 170 : sind 36 r avy on) t ee ae ‘ * Faind a * 18/40, 137 Sot [ar Se) + amine an (sin? Zev _% _ _ Beosd ay Po Psin™O~ rsin?d opCHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 27 Faind ap tr + we 1 a7 49%, 1 a/. ary ag * [pe ar(* ae) + sind ina a0 (81003) + at Fe _ Me 5 2 ate 5 Beas av, Paints ag — Fanta * Pain?d ag * Fsintd 36. cote) |“ LAGRANGIAN EQUATIONS OF MOTION ‘The equations in Lagrangian coordinates differ from those in Eulerian coordinates only in the acceleration term. ‘These equations are not completely written out here because the acceleration terms are identical to those of a particle in Newtonian mechanics, and may be found in detail in the chapter on dynamics in this book. In Cartesian tensor notation the equations in Lagrangian coordinates may be written: ex We wish to write the equations of motion in terms of a rotating coordinate system. Consider a coordinate system with a fixed origin at O. Let the coordinate system rotate with angular velocity 0. (See Fig. 1-2) The rotating coordinate system is denoted as xyz. The absolute velocity V has components u, v, and w, and the velocity relative to the rotating frame V’ has components w’, v’, and w’. The angular velocity @ has components 9,,0,, and 2, and is assumed constant in this discussion. ‘The triad 2yz rotates about the fixed point O with angular velocity @, Fig.1-2, The rotating Coordinate System.28 FLUID MECHANICS (cHAP.1 ‘The absolute velocity in terms of the relative velocity is: v= Wt+oxr where r is the position vector in the rotating frame. The absolute acceleration A can be written in terms of the relative acceleration A’ as: A AY + 20x + ax (Axx) In Eulerian coordinates, that is, including the convective terms, this expression becomes: a= a wey + taxw + oxioxs) which may also be written: A Ve weywtaxy By using the vector identities, remembering we are working now with Eulerian coordinates: : Peeve 5 Wey = (Wweyweeaxv, FM Faxn=0 w= w- mn, +20, Ww v =v ~ m0, + 20, w = w’ — 20, + yo, ‘The acceleration terms are in Cartesian coordinates: Lr ee er tt Mae toy + Ogg M+ 100, 173 Oo tebe tM Get Gp + wae wn, + ua, 20, yO 0 ow SE tM ae t Gy tw Ge ~ MM, + 00, For the special case of rotation about the z axis only, the equations take the simplified form: ee eee oe tw Se + oH + wk — avo, - aot 174 ee eee BteG tea t+ ws + wo, — yor I gy MO yy" yy DU” vat toe tay tae ‘The forces, including the viscous stresses, take the same form as in the stationary frame analysis. (That is, the viscous stresses and pressure gradients are written in terms of 1, y,2 and the velocities w’, 0’, w’,) ‘The continuity equation in the rotating frame is the same as for a stationary frame, i.e., 2 Quy 4 2 2 Gywr 3+ Liou) + Flow) + Ztw) = 0 17sCHAP. 1) FLUID MECHANICS 29 1,12 sounpary taver tHeory, THE PRANDTL EQUATIONS The boundary layer equations are written below in various coordinate systems and for various types of flow. In the following section: P = Pressure n = Viscosity p = Mass density (a) Cartesian Coordinates. In Cartesian coordinates for a general compressible fluid the boundary layer ‘equations can be written as follows. The free stream flow is in the x direction and the plane of the plate is the xz plane. u and v are the velocities in the z and y directions respectively. ‘The equations referring to Fig. 1-8 below are: a ay aw F412 176 oan (*59) Fig. 1-8. The Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate. For an incompressible fluid with constant viscosity, the equations become (v is the kinematic viscosity n/p) ee oe aR at A ee ee, pee a id we Feo me Lg30 FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP.1 (b) Rotating Frames of Reference. The general case can be deduced from section 1.11. We write here the explicit ‘equations for rotation about the z axis. The free stream flow is along a flat surface in the zy plane. ‘The Cartesian triad xyz rotates with constant angular velocity 0, about the z axis. Velocities are measured with respect to the rotating frame of reference and are denoted as w’, x’, and w’ in the z, y, and 2 directions respectively. » is the kinematic viscosity, ry 1 e it+ oe we eae eee ee a = pay ae ap. Feo Be 4 How!) 5 Alor’) , pw’) _ ie ore a oy as y (€) Boundary Layer Equations in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates. In the following section, the surface over which flow occurs is given by the equation Stz,y,2) = 0. This surface defines the surface zs(z,y,2) = constant. There exist two other sets of surfaces, zi(z,¥,2) = constant and z2(z,y,2) = constant. All three of these surfaces are mutually orthogonal. , y, and z are the cartesian co- ordinates, and 21, zs, and 1s are the orthogonal curvilinear coordinates with zs a constant on the surface over which the flow takes place. We let fs, he, and hs be defined by the line element as dst hydaz + hpday + hydzy 179 ‘The velocity components along 11, 72, and zs are taken as u, v, and w respectively. K, is the principal curvature of the surface z:=constant, in the direction of the parameter z+; and K; is the curvature of the surface 2:=constant, in the direction of the parameter 2. Written out, then 1 ah Taha Ba 1_aky Ko= - = -p ie ‘The boundary layer equations are: au vu, au fe at a; * Tada, * az, ~ Kew + Kat = a ow, 8 . _ 1 Pw e+ + na + Man + Ket - Ku = ae + vos @P a ay Laou) , Lar) , dow) _ gy — Ss at thy an * hy oe: * “ox, ~ But — Kyev = 0 UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL, LANCASHIRE LIBRARYCHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 31 (4) Boundary Layer Over a Curved Wall. Consider two dimensional flow over a curved wall. A curvilinear coordinate system is used. The z axis is taken positive in the direction along the wall, and the y axis is taken perpendicular to it. The radius of curvature R(z) of the wall is measured positive when the wall is convex outwards. (See Fig. 1-4.) It may be noted that if there are no sharp changes in curvature such as occur at sharp edges, the following equations are actually unnecessary and the equations of section a may be applied. This is the situation of flow over a cylinder or airfoil where the flat plate ‘equations are used with the appropriate pressure gradient. u and v are the velocities in the x and y directions, and v is the kinematic viscosity. aoe ee a + Reyer * Yay * Rae ee dea ee R+yp or (R+yy ax? * af * Rey ay” (Rey Bee - wepite + ge BY) * Raa oe” re de” * (Rey de a we, Rwy iy ow at * Rey “az + Pay ~ Rey - le -[Ze- aR mu, 1 wv, RB ww 2 ey pe (R+ yy ar Reyay * (+ yy ax® ~— (R+yP + gh ih y (R+yp dz de 4 R aup) , avy) , vp : at R+y az * oy + R+y Fig. 1-4. The Boundary Layer over a Curved Wall. (e) Integral Forms of the Boundary Layer Equations. ‘The boundary layer equations can be integrated over the boundary layer thickness to give integral equations. For flow over a flat plate with a pressure gradient and free stream velocity U,., the equation becomes: io ae 1 oe : ma Stas 20-49%) + Fag (aa") 1.82 where 8*, the displacement thickness, is defined as: me £- and 8, the momentum thickness, is defined as: ° Lae 1.8432 FLUID MECHANICS [cHaP.1 Here 8 is the boundary layer thickness which is usually defined as the thickness of the layer between the wall and the position in the free stream where the 2 component of velocity reaches 0.99 U.. Us is the free stream velocity, and +, is the wall shear. ‘The free stream is in the x direction along the wall, and wand v are the velocities in the z and y directions respectively. In the following section @ is used to represent internal heat generation density such as that due to Joule heating, chemical or nuclear reactions, ete., but not by viscous dissipa- tion which is work accounted for by the mechanical dissipation term ¢. The following symbols are used in this section: ¢ = Specific internal energy (per unit mass), P = Pressure. Internal heat generation. qr = Radiation heat flux veetor. ‘Temperature, ‘Thermal conductivity. p= Mass density. ‘Mechanical or viscous dissipati description of ©, function. See Section 1.15 for a complete (a) Vector. : 'V iis the velocity vector. 75; is the material derivative. 2 ob : De , pD (1 BPO+ VV — Vea = ppt PYV = olbe + Pax(2)] 1.95 For constant « equation 1.85 becomes: 2Q a ee wos te eel — Vea = ppp + PV = For an incompressible fluid: ag _ De Bt e+ VGVT) — Vea = A Be 1.87 For an incompressible fluid with constant «: 2a MT — gq = Be te tv — vw = ope 1.88 (b) Cartesian Tensor. D 1w1 is the velocity vector in the 2: direction. jy is the material derivative which is written out below. ates asa) = Let ei G)] = eBe+ gt uw = [4 22) 4 pm = 0 [Se + weSh] + PoetCHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 33 For constant x, equation 1.89 becomes: 3Q #7 _ aan at + seam oe For an incompressible fluid: 2Q a/ at aan Ste + alin) ~ ae For an incompressible fluid with constant «: 29 eT _ on i rT (c) Cartesian. u, v, and w are the velocities in the x, y, and z directions respectively. In the following section: > a ‘The general equation is: Bros Z() + EF) + 28) - 0-0 193 = [B+ eR Q)) = Biv rey For constant «, equation 1.93 becom: Diovan oe = per e2()] us o = ppp t Pv For an incompressible fluid: aQ a(t), af aT), af er : De Do 2(eiB) + 268) 4 (2) — yg = PE ss For an incompressible fluid with constant «: 2 7 : te tet — Vea 1.96 (d) Cylindrical. v» ve, and v, are the velocities in the r, 0, and z directions respectively. In the following section:84 FLUID MECHANICS [cHAP.1 ‘The general equation is: 2Q la ar’ ee sr +Py-v = »[pe+ PPC? opt Puy = [De + Ppe( For constant x, equation 1.97 becomes: 2 2 : De, : Ht e tev vw = Blt PY 198 De Dif [e+ Px (G)] For an incompressible fluid: aQ Te / or) 18 0T\o FC wa a) + aay For an incompressible fluid with constant «: aQ : be Prerer—va = Be 1.100 (e) Spherical. , Us, and ve are the velocities in the r,#, and ¢ directions respectively. In the following section: DG ae). % 8 Dt at * "ar + F 36 + Feind 5 ao 1 ' 1% VV = FRO) + raina ap 90D) + Satna Ge [ayo Heo) ve = Hl" y) + arama (80 a9) + arate iF ‘The general equation is: 8Q a aT 1 a aT Bo A2(rB) + AGS (esine®) vot vee = Brgy = 9s e2B()] For constant x, equation 1.101 becomes: 2Q Spt et eV — Vw 3 'e ep t PVeV 1.102 [Bi + Pa()] "CHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 85 For an incompressible fluid: 2Q 1 a/,. aT eee (ea or Bos ARE) + ama an («sine wae De °Dt For an incompressible fluid with constant «: 2 a mo ete tev — Vea = 1.104 ‘The energy equation can, generally, be expressed in terms of enthalpy instead of internal ‘energy. The specific enthalpy (per unit mass) is denoted by h. The material derivative D/Dt has been written out in the previous section for various coordinate systems and is not repeated here. The symbols are all the same as in the previous section. (a) Vector. Dh DP , #Q PDE = Bet et 8 + VV ~ Vea 1.108 For constant « (b) Cartesian Tensor. Dh Dt = 1.107 For constant «: Dh _ DP, 9 an oD = Det ae a 1.108 (©) Cartesian. Dh _ DP op = B+ Bie 1.109 For constant «: Dh _ DP, a 2 ee ne36 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP. 1 (d) Cylindrical. Dh _ DP, 3Q Bh = BP, Way an Lay. ar - rs) Forcomtants an ag ax 7 . pr = Det Ste tet — ve waa (e) Spherical. Dh _ DP, 1 a/.aP 1 or od Det ete + RAE) + wag B(esine F) uns a at + aire a (+ap) For constant «: D D 7 Pt ett vw 1a ee De” & (1) Perfect Gas. For a perfect gas the material derivative of enthalpy or internal energy that : : | Da DT, De _ DT occurs in the previous sections can be written as; 7% pf and By = cope It should be emphasized that the specific heats can be removed from the derivative regardless of whether or not they are functions of temperature. The only require- ment for removal from the derivative is that the fluid be a perfect gas. ¢, and ¢y are the specific heats at constant volume and constant pressure respectively. ‘The mechanical or viscous dissipation function © is defined in generalized orthogonal coordinates as © = pl2(el, + ef, + 6%) + (2e,,)? + (2e,,)? + (2e, ] + Mey + ee + ey)? (In some texts, the definition of @ differs by a factor of » from the one defined here.) (a) Cartesian Tensor. + awe os ins «7, can be written in terms of velocity from section 1.4.CHAP. 1) FLUID MECHANICS 37 (b) Cartesian. += af) + GY + CY HG i HEE) Og (e) Cylindrical. += Lal 7 In terms of specific entropy s, the energy equation can be written in the following manner. We write the equations only in vector and Cartesian tensor form, but the extension to other coordinate systems is obvious from the work of the previous three sections and is not carried out here. ‘The general energy equation can be written: De ® hm = FT ang or in vector form: De ® hm = TF 1.42038 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP.1 ‘The entropy production rate per unit volume, #, may be introduced: ERG) vm or in vector form: ol. : 1aQ 7d o = pt pVN-(VT + FG + wv (F) vaaa In the above equations, © is the mechanical dissipation function, aQ/at is the rate of internal dissipation such as Joule heat, « is the thermal conductivity, and q, is the radiation heat flux vector. A detailed discussion of these terms has been given in the previous few sections. es 17 'NTESRAL Forms oF THE Basic EQUATIONS : (FOR A CONTROL VOLUME). A control volume is shown in Fig. 1-5 below. The velocity vector V is positive out of the control volume, as is the vector dA. In the following equations the element of volume is denoted as d:, and + indicates integration throughout the volume. aa Fig.1-5. The Control Volume. (a) Continuity. p is the mass density and V the velocity vector. Nie feo or in Cartesian tensor notation (1 is the velocity): 1.123, AS od + S oma = 0 124CHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 39 (6) Momentum. Here F is the sum of the external forces including pressure forces and body forces, and also any shear forces on the surface of the control volume. P= Bf vas fan us or in Cartesian tensor notation: Fe = ES pide +S prnan aa, 1.126 (c) Energy Equation. Here, Q is the rate of heat transfer into the control volume, including conduction and radiation. Wz is the shaft work which is counted as positive out of the control volume. That is, positive work is done by the material in the control volume on the surroundings. ¢ is the specific internal energy (per unit mass). g is the acceleration due to gravity so that the gz term is the potential energy per unit mass. z is the elevation above an arbitrary datum level. If other forms of internal energy are present they must also be included, such as electromagnetic energy, ete. (The energy equation for electrical conductors in the presence of an electromagnetic field is dis- cussed in the chapter on electromagnetic theory.) am. = ES (er Becelete + fo(e4 ti ronr®) van var or in Cartesian tensor notation: O~m. = BS (e+ +08) ode +S o(er ut P +on+ Pda, (4) Second Law of Thermodynamics. # is the specific entropy (per unit mass), and p is the mass density. F< ES pae + f veda 1.129 oF in Cartesian tensor notation: F< GS mae + Ff pawaa, 1.130 (e) Entropy Production. We introduce the entropy production rate per unit volume, e. « is the thermal conductivity, T is the temperature, and p is the mass density. Soar + SFP aa or in Cartesian tensor notation: Soar Sp Zan = {Lorde +f pnoaas 1.132 Gas Laveen um i40 FLUID MECHANICS [oHAP.1 BS INTEGRAL FORMS OF THE BASIC EQUATIONS FOR CHANNEL FLOW —LdI8 WITH UNIFORM PROPERTIES AND VELOCITY OVER THE oe ne CROSS SECTION OF THE CHANNEL ‘The equations of Section 1.17 can be integrated for channel flow with uniform condi tions across the channel or pipe. Such an approximation is valid in a rather wide class of flows. In turbulent flow, the velocity is essentially uniform over the cross section. Fig. 1-6 below shows a channel between the cross sectional planes of integration denoted 8 land 2. The velocity is assumed from 1 to 2, that is, the flow is in the 1 to 2 direction. a Fig. 1-6. Channel of Pipe Flow. (a) Bernoulli Equation, Compressible Unsteady Flow. ‘The Bernoulli equation is obtained from the equations of motion as a first integral along a stream line. This equation is valid only for frictionless flow. ‘The Bernoulli equation is sometimes written for steady incompressible flow and the compressible equation is then called the Euler equation. The equation holds along a streamline for frictionless flow, but if the flow is irrotational the equation holds between any two points in the flow. This statement applies to the following special cases of the Bernoulli equation. For the general equation: ee S + gas) = -S° eas 1.133 (6) Bernoulli Equation for Steady Compressible Flow, the Euler Equation. For steady flow the equation above can be written as follows: S2- which is sometimes referred to as the Euler equation, (©) Bernoutti Equation for Steady Incompressible Flow. P: vi-v? Pag ETE gee) 0 1.135CHAP. 1} FLUID MECHANICS a1 (d) Head Loss. (e) For incompressible, steady flow, when friction is present the energy equation can be written with the heat transfer term and the change in internal energy term lumped together in what is known as head loss. w, is the shaft work done by the fluid per unit mass of fluid flowing. Hu1-2 is the head loss from point 1 to 2. The equation can be written: a Peek, Ths gtama) + Hue 1.136 ‘The head loss term is often represented in terms of a dimensionless friction factor / as: ~we ft = var where L is the length between points 1 and 2 and D is the diameter of the pipe. V is the average velocity. Sometimes the friction factor is defined differently by a factor of four, so that: Lv Hua = fap Energy. Here, q is the heat transfer rate into the channel per unit mass of fluid flowing, ‘w, is the work rate done on the surroundings by the fluid per unit mass of flowing fluid. ¢ is the specific internal energy (per unit mass). See Fig. 1-6. ein Ps _ Bi 1 + g(zr—z) + e — & 1.138 In two dimensional flow a stream function ¥ may be introduced and defined as below. Physically, the stream function is a constant along a streamline. The flow rate between two streamlines is proportional to the numerical difference between the two stream func- tions, The sign convention used below in the definitions is such that the flow is positive from right to left when passing from streamline ¥, to streamline ¥,, and the flow rate is given by (¥, ¥,). See Fig. 1-7 below. vs Positive flow won = fiw = festa = flown = 0 Fig. 1-7. The Flow Between Two Streamlines.42, FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP. 1 (@) Streamlines in Two Dimensional Incompressible Flow. Cartesian coordinates: 4 and » are the velocities in the x and y directions respectively. oe aw ws = 1.139 Axial symmetric flow, (about the z axis): v- and v, are the velocities in the z and r directions respectively. lav low ean wae 1.140 Polar coordinates: v and vs are the velocities in the r and @ directions respectively. — lee aw w= 7%, = 1tat (6) Streamlines in Compressible Flow. ‘The symbols are as used in the above section a, p, and p are an arbitrary refer- ence density and the ordinary density respectively. In various coordinates then: Cartesian: fav . oa Be 14a Axial symmetric flow (about z axis): = flow flow ee pr ar’ ag prez tied Polar coordinates: v, = 21 = ew 1.144 pra ar Various forms of the equations of motion in terms of the stream function are listed in Section 1.22 in the general area of vorticity where the stream function can be related to vorticity. Also, in Section 1.21 the role of the stream function in poten- tial flow theory is discussed. i “1.20. veiociy rorenniat A velocity potential can be defined if the velocity field is irrotational, i. 0, ‘The velocity potential # is defined in various coordinate systems below. (a) Cartesian Tensor. 1, is the velocity in the 2: direction. w, = - 2 1.145,CHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 43 (b) Vector. V is the velocity vector. Vv=-ve 1.146 (e) Cartesian. ‘u,v, and w are the velocities in the 2, y, and z directions respectively. ao ao = 28 -— °5-y 8 =-k 1.47 (4) Cylindrical. v», Uo, and vs are the velocities in the r, 9, and z directions respectively. ao 1a _ wa ZB, y= ane 1.148, (e) Spherical. ‘vn ve, and ve are the velocities in the r, 4, and ¢ directions respectively. ae 1_@ a % =~ Fang 3g 1149 (f) Equations for &. Continuity requires that the velocity potential satisfy certain equations. For incompressible flow: vie = 0 1.150 and for compressible flow: 1.181 e 2 a 0 9 _ 2 HD a ~ Caney dx ayo By az ay where ¢ denotes the local velocity of sound. For two dimensional, incompressible, inviscid (and irrotational) flow, a stream function and a velocity potential can be defined. The condition of zero viscosity implies irrota- tionality if there are no external rotational body forces. Then, # and ¥ are conjugate harmonic functions. Both © and ¥ are harmonic: vie = y= 0 1.152 ‘The complex potential F is defined: Fo = o+i = F@ = Feta) 1.15344 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP. 1 ‘The complex velocity can be defined: a oo a —# Vin unin = -B4 1% e # 1.154 and hence: wee We wee = & . 1.155 where the bar indicates the complex conjugate and i is \/—1. The Cauchy-Riemann conditions are satisfic o_o eae a 1.156 1.22 vorticity ano cincutation Pee: (a) Vorticity a. Vorticity is defined as: vxv GG 1.157 « is the angular velocity of an infinitesimal fluid element, and is equal to one half the vorticity vector. The rotation tensor », may be related to the vorticity vector © as in equation 1.157. The rotation tensor is written in terms of the velocity 1; as: So | (2 wy) = M 1.158 The rotation tensor is antisymmetric so that w, In the expression 0, = a care must be taken to use the permutation correctly. "A detailed discussion of the components of rotation has been given in Section 1.3. (®) Circulation r. ‘The circulation ris defined around a closed path as r= fvede = fivxvyda = fade 1.159 r is the position vector of a point on the curve C, and hence dr is an element of path length. In irrotational flow v x V and hence Tare zero for any closed path unless point singularities exist within the enclosed region. (©) Joukowski Litt. For an airfoil or object immersed in a flow, the lift in terms of the circulation Fr is given by L = Ur 1.160 where U is the free stream velocity and p is the density. ‘The direction of L is per- pendicular to the direction of U, and in the direction of Ux. where a is the net vorticity generating the circulation. The minus sign in the above equation is due to the method of defining 1 positive in a counterclockwise direction. Fig. 1-8 shows the arrangement.CHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 45 L ar u Fig.1-8, Cireulation and Joukowski Lift. (d) Equations of Motion in Terms of Vorticity. ‘The vorticity transport equation expresses the equations of motion in terms of the vorticity 0, 9 has been defined in section a above. ¥ is the kinematic viscosity. In vector form: 0 yxqyxa) = svn a where 0.= XY. The above ountin may lo be writen: 2. (yw +90 In Cartesian teas form: aa, 30, aw #0, = ~ ate (e) Motion in Terms of Stream Functions. For two dimensional flow a stream function exists and the above equation becomes: a wa ee HW) - FSi + SS) = vw 1.163 which is written in Cartesian coordinates, 21, 2, and zs. The one component of Fee av wv vorticity 0, is given by 0, = V*¥ and wi = — 5, we= 5 (f) Croceo's Theorem. ‘The variation of entropy s along a streamline is given by: Tye + Vx(Vx¥) = vho+ © 1.164 where his the stagnation enthalpy, fo = h+V?/2. V-is the velocity. 1 is tempera- ture. V is the velocity vector, and the entropy is specific entropy (per unit mass). (g) Kelvin's Vortex Theorem. In an ideal fluid the circulation around a closed fluid line is constant in time. A fluid line is a line made up of the same fluid particles at all time. Denoting the circulation by T, we can write: B= -$2-$ao+ Flavy = 0 16s46 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAP. 1 where P is pressure, p is mass density, V is velocity, and is the gravitational potential (or other conservative body force potential). For a viscous fluid the flow is not irrotational and the circulation around a fluid line changes, in general, with time. The circulation can also change in time even for an inviscid fluid if rotational body forces are present to generate vorticity. In general the circulation time change around a fluid line is given by: ee 1G ova +} freae = — ef cv xoy-ar +} fred 1.166 where » is the kinematic viscosity, @ is the rotation vector, and F is the body force which may not be irrotational (say if it is generated by electromagnetic means, ete.). Linearized perturbation theory is used to solve flow about thin bodies at high speed where compressibility effects must be considered. Various forms of the general equation which allow simplification of the equation for certain regions of flight velocity will be dis- cussed below. ‘The main flow of the free stream has velocity U. in the direction. The small perturbation velocities are then defined as u, v, and w in the 2, y, and z directions respec- tively. 1, m2, and us are the total velocities in the zs, 2s, and zs directions respectively. Hence: m = Ustu mao wy = w and %,0,w < Us In the following M, is the free stream Mach number and y = ¢y/¢s. (a) General Equation (for any velocity). ‘The general equation (for any velocity) is: ye au CMa HE + fe + 1167 = M[o+nge +CHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS a7 (6) For Subsonic or Supersonic Flow. a-my + 24 = 0 1.168 eco +24 2 morn 1.169 (d) In Terms of Velocity Potential. In terms of the velocity potential ©, the above equations 1.168 and 1.169 can be written respectively, where V=—Vq: For subsonic and supersonic flow: a, oe, oe (- Me fe) ot * ot 0 1.170 and for subsonic, transonic, and supersonic flow: Pe > Ae May +1) 20 ao (MY + sett aot =~ US ati aet qa Note. The above equations valid for supersonic flow are not valid for hypersonic flow, ie. M. ™ approximately 8. (a) Sonic Velocity c. ‘The sonic velocity ¢ is For a gas: fe nan For a liquid: © = VBle ars Where is the bulk compression modulus defined as = 4°. y is the ratio of B specific heats, ceex: Tis absolute temperature; sis entropy; and R is the gas constant. g is the acceleration due to gravity, necessary if engineering units are used for R. (6) Wave Equation for an Inviscid Fluid. ‘The wave equation for an inviscid fluid is: ae = vp 1174 1a 7 aa = Ve 1 ee don where P is the pressure and p is the density. ¢ is the sonic velocity given in section a. ® is the velocity potential.48 FLUID MECHANICS [owar.1 (c) Wave Equation for a Viscous Fluid. ‘The wave equations for a viscous fluid (the Stokes wave equation): LEP _ yap 4 etd a0 age = we + HED Sypy 17s 1% +0 at = vie + HAD Foy) where p, is the mean density. ¢ is the second coefticient of viscosity defined as zero for a monatomic gas. If the velocity V is written in terms of a velocity potential and vector potential A as V = —V+Y XA, then the wave equation for is: aS = yes e205 (9%) 1.176 ‘The diffusion equation for A is: mi pega which is the same as that for vorticity a: em _ _yxyxe = ye at Note that 9 = YxV and yxVvxe = -y'a+ y(V-a) but Va = V(Vx¥) = 0 For motion where the inertia terms can be neglected compared to the viscous forces, ie. low Reynolds number flow, certain simplifications can be made in order to linearize the equations of motion, 1. In two dimensional steady motion the stream function satisfies: ve =0 aa 2. Lubrication Theory: The Reynolds equation for incompressible lubrication flow is a (he aP) , a (ht aP a & (FE) +R) = Zou 1178 Here, the coordinates z and z lie in the plane of the lubrication film. h is the thickness which may be a function of z and z. The motion of the slider is in the x direction.CHAP. 1] FLUID MECHANICS 49 The fluid properties across a normal shock wave may be related by applying the equations of momentum, continuity, and energy. ‘These relationships are known as the Rankine-Hugoniot equations, Here, the subscript 1 refers to conditions upstream before the shock and subscript 2 refers to conditions downstream after the shock. The velocity before a normal shock must be supersonic and the velocity after the shock must be subsonic. ‘The following symbols are used: P = Pressure T = Temperature M = Mach number ¢ = Sonic velocity 8 = Specific entropy % = Velocity R = Gas constant p= Mass density 7 = Ratio of specific heats, s/c. 1.179 1.180 1181 1.1982 1.183 P-P Pe ies Ts mh > » 1.185 wnf{t : Ahag— vp"? — ee ae50 FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP.1 Average values are denoted by ("), and fluctuation values are denoted by ( J’. The stresses 3, do not include the pressure and are the same viscous stresses denoted by 0, in Section 1.4. In the following P is pressure, p is mass density, and wi is the Cartesian component of velocity. aD ay 2 a, %y 0 (Ste wR) = -B + See 1te7 In Cartesian coordinates: Gere eo ie ie ate tay a ao La +a t ae yt In the above equations z, is related to the average strain rate by the formulas of laminar flow. The turbulent Reynolds stresses are given in terms of correlations a: Ped =| pice Fir 1189 pw’ pwr pw em = where w, v’, and w’ are the fluctuation velocity components in the z, y, and z directions respectively. ‘The equations of motion in cylindrical coordinates can be written as follows. The turbulent stresses have been inserted directly into the equations, and the viscous stresses have been neglected. The Reynolds equations for turbulent motion are then: a, gt | oh at et Fae tT 1.190 207m; 7 (2) — Zr —HAP. 1] a a i er rs om -126m Se ‘The continuity equation takes the same form as in laminar flow except that the velocities are now the average values, FLUID MECHANICS re ae -F Some of the more frequently used dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics are listed below. In order to avoid confusion the symbols that are used here are listed below in detail. Drag Coefficient Eckert No. Froude No. Grashof No. Hypersonic Similarity Parameter Lift Coefficient ‘Mach No. ‘Nusselt No. Peclet No. Prandtl No. Pressure Coefficient Reynolds No. Schmidt No. Skin Friction Coefficient Sound Wave No. Stanton No. Strouhal No. Surface Tension No. ‘Weber No. Ce = Diya BE = Ussaes(aTo F = UYgL G gBOLA/ K Mat LipA Ule Nu = hL/x Pe U.Lla = Pr+Re Pr = va = pepln (P= Poftpt pLUIn = LU/y wlpD: reltp? uM Nul(Pr+Re) = hlegG = hlepUp UL T/oplt pUrLIT’ In the above dimensionless groups the following symbols have been used: A = Characteristic area, © = Sonic velocity. ¢ = Specific heat at constant pressure.82. FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP.1 Drag. ‘Material diffusion coefficient. Acceleration due to gravity. Film coefficient, Characteristic length, or Lift. Pressure. Thickness. ‘Temperature. Surface tension. Prat — Tae Characteristic velocity. Denotes free stream value. ‘Thermal diffusivity. « =. al diffusivity. « =< = Coefficient of thermal expansion. TT. ‘Thermal conduetivity. = Viscosity. Kinematic viscosity. Density. Characteristic time. Wall shear. Note. Other symbols have been used but were identified explicitly at the time of their use. The following are the most important symbols used throughout the chapter. Occa- sionally, these symbols were used to represent other quantities but were then explained in the text. Sonic velocity. Heat capacity (specific heat) at constant pressure. Heat capacity (specific heat) at constant volume. Materi or substantial derivative. Internal energy. Strain rate tensor. Body force density. Acceleration due to gravity. Enthalpy; film thickness. Defined by space metric or line element if curvilinear coordinates.CHAP. 1) L P q @ R ® u v v FLUID MECHANICS Lift, Pressure, Heat rate per unit mass. Heat quantity. Gas constant. Entropy. Velocity in x direction. Velocity in y direction, Velocity vector. Velocity in radial direction. Velocity in @ direction. Velocity in ¢ direction. Velocity in z direction. Velocity in z direction. Velocity in the 2; direction. = Shaft work or shear work rate. = Coo = Thermal diffusivity. = Coefficient of thermal expansion; bulk modulus. = Actual shear deformation rate. ate. Circulation. Kronecker delta, Second coefficient of viscosity. Zero for a monatomic gas. Related toa by = A+ du. ‘Thermal conductivity. Viscosity. Kinematic viscosity. = Density. = Entropy production rate per unit volume. = Stress tensor. = Non-pressure part of the stress tensor. = Dilatation, y-V. = Dissipation function. Velocity potential. Stream function, Angular velocity. Rotation tensor. Vorticity vector.54 L 2. 8 10. u. 12. 13. 4. 15. FLUID MECHANICS [CHAP.1 1.300 ust oF erenencis Aris, R., Vectors, Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, 1962 Eringen, A. C., Nonlinear Theory of Continuous Media, McGraw-Hill, 1962 Goldstein, S., Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics, Vols, I and II, Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1938 Howarth, L., Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics, High Speed Flow, Vols. I and I, Oxford University Press, 1953 Lamb, Sir Horace, Hydrodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 6th edition, 1982. Also in Dover Publications. Landau, L. D., and Lifshitz, E. M., Fluid Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, 1959 Liepmann, H. W., and Roshko, A., Blements of Gasdynamics, John Wiley, 1957 Love, A. E. H., A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1927. Also in Dover Publications. ‘Milne-Thompson, L. M., Theoretical Hydrodynamics, Macmillan, 1955 Pai, S. I, Viscous Flow Theory, Vols. I and II, Van Nostrand, 1956 Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Vols. I and I, Dover, 1945 Robinson, A., and Laurmann, J. A., Wing Theory, Cambridge University Press, 1956 Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1955 Shapiro, A., Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Flow, Ronald Press, 1953 Sommerfeld, A., Dynamics of Deformable Media, Academic Press, 1950The infinitesimal strain tensor is denoted as ey. The actual components of strain are related to the strain tensor in the following manner. The normal strains are exactly equal to the normal (or diagonal) terms of the strain tensor, but the shear (off diagonal) terms of the strain tensor are one half the corresponding values of the true strains. Denoting the actual strains as y,, we can write: y,=2e,, ixj, and y=e, i=j. The strain ‘tensor is defined in this manner so that it will be a true tensor and transform accordingly. ‘The strain tensor is the symmetrical part of the deformation tensor 2“, and the rotation tensor «, is the antisymmetric part. Here, 1 is the deformation vector. The rotation vector is one half the curl of the deformation vector, # = $V Xu, and is completely analogous to the rotation veetor in fluid mechanics. The dilatation ¢ is a strain invariant and equal to the divergence of the deformation vector. It is equal to the sum of the normal strains, i.e. g = en + €xa+ 6s Below are listed the strain tensor and rotation tensor in various coordinate systems. ‘The dilatation is also listed. (a) Cartesian Tensor. 1% is the deformation in the 2 direction. 21 is 23 ‘The dilatation ii 2456 (6) Orthogonal Curvilinear. ELASTICITY [cHAP. 2 hy, ha, and hy are defined by the line element (see appendix) and x,, 2, and zs are the coordinates. In the following the summation convention of tensor notation is not used. ‘The normal terms are: and the shear terms are: “ Written out: en = es = en = en = ‘The rotation tensor is: te so ‘The dilatation 1 (©) Cartesian. 1, 0, and w are the deformations in the 2, y, and z directions respectively. Fie Fi |? S17 SB Pin 5 FF Ble wim ine i PF le le BF | Cee = ea = ee $= rahe {aey tba) + 5B tuahoh) + 52 (anki au ae av ay aw cA 26 27 2.8 29 2.10CHAP, 2} ‘The rotation tensor is: (d) Cylindrical. ELASTICITY 87 an ‘The dilatation : mu vy ow $= tte ten = BB a2 ‘Ur, Us, and u, are the deformations in the r, 9, and z directions respectively. = ite e, = i 213 1%, Uy = et Oe a = % a cae ale ae * a) en = A (ME ae e, = 2 oe 2 The rotation tensor is: = 4 The dilatation is: = Oe Le yey ate $= ete te, = Mey Ley ey i 2858 ELASTICITY [owap. 2 (e) Spherical, ‘Ur, Ue, and Uy are the deformations in the r, ¢, and ¢ directions respectively. = Mm fee Oe 216 a7 : foe ns ne = bratna (ip ~ Hemainoy} : 119 yy — 2M = = Edi - 3} The dilatation is: ap =e 18 6 ee, | (4) Plane Polar. 2.19 (9) Plane Cartesian. 2.20CHAP. 2} ELASTICITY 69 (h) Nonlinear Strain Tensor. ‘The nonlinear strain tensor to quadratic order may be written in Cartesian co- ordinates as: 221 ae ow nw teas sa} a a+ Se (Principal Strains. The principal strains are denoted by ¢1, ¢:, and es in the directions A, As, and As respectively. If the coordinate axes are oriented along the vectors A, then no shear strains exist. This condition defines the principal axes. ‘The principal strains are given by the determinantal equation: ley e8y| = 0 222 where 8, is the Kronecker delta. ‘The vectors A are given by the equation: [e,- edJ[A] = 0 2.23 ‘Equation 2.22 can be written as: + ee gete = 0 2.24 where the symbols have the following meaning: = 6 = tate = ent enten 2.28 Cay -- ene = extn + ets + e102 en ei ex 4 = lew en en) = exeees en es ess The three values $,, ,, and ¢, are strain invariants (with respect to orthogonal trans- formations of coordinates).60 ELASTICITY (cHar.2 QD stmess RetationsHips = ‘The stress tensor +,, is a symmetric tensor and can be written: ‘The sign convention is illustrated in Fig. 2-1. The first subscript indicates the surface on which the stress acts and indicates the axis to which the surface is perpendicular. The second subscript denotes the direction in which the stress acts on the positive surface (which is the one shown in the figure). On the negative surface the stress acts in the opposite direction. Fig. 2-1. A surface is denoted by the axis to which itis perpendicular. ‘The stresses shown are on the positive surfaces, On the opposite or negative surfaces the stresses are in the opposite directions. ‘The stress vector 'T is defined as the stress acting on a surface as shown in Fig. 2-2 below. Fig. 2-2. n is the normal unit vector on the area SA. Tis not in general in the direction of n.CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 61 In general, the stress vector at'a point in a body is given by: T, = wh, 227 where 7; is the component of TT in the direction 2. ‘The principal stresses + act on the surfaces defined by the vectors A. If the coordinate axes are oriented along these vectors there are no shear stresses. The principal stresses are given by: en) 2.28 ‘and the vectors A by: [ry~ 78,4] = 0 229 Equation 2.28 can be written as: yl = 2 +O - Or +0, = 0 2.30 where 0,, 0,, and 0, are the three invariants of the stress tensor given by: 4, nats tut te tte = 6 2.31 ete ee Se 4% nn Ta tm te ‘The generalized Hooke’s law for homogeneous isotropic bodies is listed below in various coordinate systems. The general stress-strain relationship for anisotropic bodies is dis- cussed. © is the dilatation (# = ey +¢n+0¢x). » and A are the Lamé constants and is the Young’s modulus. ¢ is the Poisson ratio. y is sometimes denoted as G and is the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. The general stress-strain relationship for anisotropic media can be written: 2.320 where Cia: are the elastic constants. Since the stress tensor and strain tensor are symmetric, the above relationship can be expressed in terms of a second order elastic coefficient matrix as: Cu Cu ex fn Cu Cn ea tas : : és = 23% te : : en te en ta Cos Cu} | ern62 ELASTICITY [cHaP.2 If the coordinate axes are taken along the principal axes for homogeneous, isotropic material the shear strains and shear stresses are zero, since the principal strain axes and principal stress axes are coincident for homogeneous isotropic material. For homogeneous isotropic media the invariants of stress and strain are related by: 6 = @r42np We now list the generalized Hooke'’s law for homogeneous isotropic material: (a) Cartesian Tensor (or Orthogonal Curvilinear). Fog E ty = Myo + uey = EA ay ty + Tae 2.33 where 8, is the Kronecker delta. ¢ is the dilatation. In terms of strain: a; a ite eo = ~agetrag hi’ + ty Fir — 08, 2.34 where 6 is the stress invariant, @ = 7,, + 14 +14: (6) Cartesian. oe rarest eee + ofen + ex)] 2.35 y= Taya aoy todo + oleae ene] te = aa jl e)eee + oleae tend] In terms of strain: 2.36CHAP. 2 (©) Cylindrical. In terms of strain: (d) Spherical. ELASTICITY 63, [-o)e, + of¢,,+¢,)] 2.37 =Be) i OFaa=%) oo a 2 iF b 2.88 + Baa) Equilibrium in Terms of Displacement, Cartesian Tensor. ‘The Navier equilibrium equations in terms of displacement tw can be written as: Fu 2 agi + Ot ws + 0 2.89 or in terms of rotation as: +2) St — 27 x0), + F = 0 2.90 where the dilatation ¢ = entem+en, and » is the Lamé constant, sometimes called the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. A is the other Lamé constant.0 ELASTICITY (CHAP. 2 (k) Equilibrium in Terms of Displacement, Vector Notation. In the following, u is the displacement vector, « is the rotation vector (see Section 2.1), and A and » are the Lamé constants. u is sometimes called the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. is the dilatation, = Y-u. (O+2)V¢ - nV X(VXu) + F = 0 291 which can also be written as: Qt0ve tavu + F = 0 or equivalently: 1 : tap = vu + ptvivew) + td = 0 292 or tu +E os Via + p35, V(V-u) + @ 0 or in terms of the rotation vector: A+2u)V6 — WVXe +F = 0 2.93 (Equilibrium in Terms of Displacement, Orthogonal Curvilinear. In the following »,, wy and », are the three components of rotation in the three coordinate directions. and y are the Lamé constants. , is sometimes called the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. ¢ is the dilatation which can be written: * = iahoke {eatin + ge ltahah) + aps (tahah)} 294 ‘The equilibrium equations can be written: 5d $6 2 2 the) + eal) +A = 08 ate Pike + Pee +h = 0 s3e) a Qn a Sh hic a eh) + asa) + Fy = 0 (m) Equilibrium in Terms of Displacement, Cartesian Coordinates. In the following u, v, and w are the displacements in the z, y, and z directions respectively. © is the Poisson ratio. In the equations, use has been made of the relationship, **# = 71, in order to simplify the equations. (a and q are the Lamé constants). The Laplacian is: oe ee Ve gi oer ontCHAP. 2] ELASTICITY n The equilibrium equations are then: On the surfaces the boundary conditions take the form: nat + afte + (Me) + (4 28)a] a7 1 = sam 4 nfm + (Za M)n + (4-%)i] aon + 0 [25En + (B+ Bes (+2) m| where 1, m, and n are the direction cosines of the normal vector n. 7, Ty, and T; are the components of the stress vector, and the dilatation 1 Lai au 6 = ta ten tee = tH aw te () Equilibrium in Terms of Displacement, Cylindrical Coordinates. In the following, u,, us, and u, are the components of displacement in the r, ¢, and z directions respectively. \ and » are the Lamé constants. y is sometimes called the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. ‘The Laplacian is: oe ie ee VES at Far * ram * oat ‘The equilibrium equations are then: at 2f 2m) +2 = = 0 298 "ar ar 7% : att alam fe Otel + au, ou t+ GE] + vem) + Fe ° (0) Equilibrium in Terms of Displacement, Spherical Coordinates. In the following, u,, ws, and ws are the displacement components in the r, 4, and directions respectively. A and » are the Lamé constants. is sometimes called the modulus of rigidity or the shear modulus. The Laplacian in spherical coordinates is: 1 8/02 1 a v= a("a) + mama e 3 ag a nom) + a2 ELASTICITY [omap. 2 ‘The equilibrium equations are then: aria lay ws 1 Oi sla RO + caine sing + oh % ate 2ucote gay Ww -a - whl + so 1 au O02 SLs Zeeu + 5 Stu, sino) + | raind d6- 2 ou, 4, 2eosg eu, + alm, + Boe - pateg ~ B20 Bltn = 0 1 a oe 1_ ou, +e Faina ale ar * Zaina sin) + a] %, 2 au, 2cosa oo aur 4, Boss a, + Lv ~ pits + ads et tae] te = 0 ‘The Compatibility equations are written out below in various coordinate systems. Of Particular interest are the compatibility equations in terms of stress. ‘The equations are written in their basic form in terms of strain; then various forms, of importance in analysis, are written out in terms of stress, implicit use having been made of the stress- strain relationships for homogeneous isotropic media. (a) In Terms of Strain, Cartesian Tensor. eu 5 Feu _ den _ en _ ig Ae dee dai * Saide; — dajaei — desde (6) In Terms of Strain, Cartesian Coordinates. ees ayoz 2.101 Fen azar OP eun ae ey Bey ae ay Fee 7 Iy Oz een 2 ‘exCHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 8 (c) Plane Strain, in Terms of Strain. Only one equation remains here and is written out in Cartesian form: Plex Pex ee Zs 2.102 (d) Plane Stress, in Terms of Strain. Written out in Cartesian form these are: teu fe so 2.103 Pere a . Fen _ me Per _ Fey ayaz ade Fen _ Fen onez ay dz fe . Ha ozay ‘aa* (€) The Beltrami-Michell Equations. ‘The Compatibility equations in terms of stresses are known as the Beltrami- ‘Michell equations. These can be written in Cartesian tensor form as: (H+) 2.104 1 ae T¥e anax, Vy + where the stress invariant @ =r, +7%+ 7 @ is the Poisson ratio, and 3, is the Kronecker delta. In Cartesian coordinates the Beltrami-Michell equations are: a ert 2.108 Vig + Vie + Vie + Vie + Vig + pee where the stress invariant @4 ELASTICITY (CHAP. 2 (1) Compatibility in Terms of Stress, Body Forces Conservative. If the body force F is given in terms of a potential 0 as F = -vyo then the Beltrami-Michell equation becomes in Cartesian tensor form: 1% 20 Neat T¥0 tnx, ~ i-~'v2 = Ox; x, aed where the stress invariant @ = 1+ r—j +7: If F is a constant, we get the equation of Beltrami: 2, a Fo Vey t te = 0 2.107 in Cartesian tensor form. Written out in Cartesian coordinates, these Beltrami equations become: 1_# Va + iecat = 0 oo . 1 #9 Vw + ts 0 . 1a Vee Teor a - 1 #0 Via + Tica = © pene 0 T¥0 ara 1 l+e dyaz c where v#, the Laplacian, is y? = In the case of constant F, the stress and strain invariants satisfy the following equation v9 = vig = 0 2.109 and the stress and strain components all satisfy the biharmonie equation (if F is constant): Vig = 0 2.110 vieg = 0 (The biharmonie equation is written out in full in the appendix.) In the case that F is not constant but is derivable from a potential function that is harmonic, equation 2.109 above is still valid.CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY © (a) The Airy Stress Function. ‘The Airy stress function is defined as: eo = 0+8% am eon ve oot ees ta =~ Bey where the body forces are determined from the potential function 9 as an r= -§. F=-vo (b) Plain Strain, Cartesian Coordinates. ‘The Airy stress function in this case satisfies the equation: ao ao a 1-20 Se oe ee o 2n2 where o is the Poisson ratio. This equation may be written as: = 0 2.113 where © is the body force potential defined in part (a) above. In plain strain the stress r,, is given by +r,, = /(e,y)+constant, and +,,, r,, and r,, are given as in equation 2.111 above. (©) Plain Strain, Polar Coordinates. The Airy stress function satisfies the equation: ve ttztgn = 0 am which may be written out as: 2115 ‘The stresses are related to the stress function as:6 ELASTICITY (CHAP. 2 f(r, 6) + constant 2.116 mw = Bea = -8C8) (d) Plane Stress, Cartesian Coordinates, ‘The Airy stress function satisfies the equation: vie + (I-ey4a = 0 2.17 or, written out: 2a | ato ao, Foy _ cet + aging t+ Get O-N(Se4 SS) = 0 2.118 where the stresses are related to the stress function as in part (b) above. © is the body force potential defined in part (a) above. (r,,=0) (©) Plane Stress, Polar Coordinates. ‘The Airy stress function sat ies the equation: Ve + (l-c)y'a = 0 2.119 or, written out: # 1a Layee, 130, 1 ao (art bie t pan \(ae + 23 + SS) alee _ (22 4 1a, 1 #0 HOSE Te eae) = 0 where the stresses are related to the stress function as in part (c) above. is the body force potential defined in part (a) above. (,,=0) 2.8 stress runcrions in THREE DIMENSIONS = There are two commonly used systems of three dimensional stress functions, the ‘Maxwell system and the Morera system, (a) Maxwell's System. Im the absence of body forces the stress functions #,, ©,, and ®, are defined as:CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 7 oes te > Sry = ei a ese oe t= > ~Gaae ‘The stress functions satisfy the following six equations where #, tate, and a = Sh Se Fo, Fe) tov [T+ Se] + Zive-» = 0 2.122 to, FO wt ato: [G+ Si] + Zive-a = 0 HO, FO) aroy:[F+ Si] + Siwe-a =o # gayi tov,- vera = 0 wpa A +o)V%,— Viet Al = 0 # 2 oe gaglatovs,- vera} = 0 (b) Morera’s System. ‘The stress functions ©,, ©,, ®, are defined in the absence of body forces as: a, 2.123 : ®eB ELASTICITY (CHAP.2 ‘The basic equations for stress and strain are the same as those in Sections 2.1 and 2.2. In the following equations « is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion, and T is the temperature excess above an arbitrary datum. Eis Young’s modulus, and ¢ is Poisson's ratio. The coefficient f is defined as: f = a(3\+2u) = 3ea where A and » are the Lamé constants and « is the bulk modulus. 4 is also known as the shear modulus and is some- times denoted as G. (@) Hooke’s Law. (The shear relationships are unchanged.) fe = Ble Oty tre] + oP 2.124 Cy = Ble etre) + a? Are, + %_)] + aT or: Neon + (Cy, +e] — AT 2.125 = E (a te = Tra ae | E [A -oe,, + of¢,,+6,)] — BT ee (6) Equilibrium, In terms of stress the equilibrium equations are the same as those given in Section 2.5. In terms of strain or displacement the equilibrium equations take a different form. In terms of displacement in Cartesian Tensor notation: vu + Atm Sb + Fi - pyT = 0 2.126 or in vectors: viv-w Set yxgxu + Oa2lF yr = 0 where the dilatation ¢ = ex +e + ex. A and » are the Lamé constants. F; is the body force. ite (©) Compatibility. In terms of strain the equations are the same as in Section 2.6. In terms of stress the equations must be modified to:CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 9 1 #0 Vig + T+ anda; 2.197 saver ~ (Bil) ~ renevr ~ (Pazas) which is written in Cartesian Tensor notation. « is the Poisson ratio. F is the body force. f is defined above. (a) The thermal stress problem can be stated as: The displacement in the body is the same as if the body were subjected to a body force (per unit volume) which is the gradient of a potential 7, and to a normal surface pressure 87, in addition to the forces and surface tractions that are usually applied to it. In terms of strain, the strain energy U stored per unit volume can be written in the following fashion. Here A and » are the Lamé constants. is the shear modulus and is sometimes denoted by G. a is the Poisson ratio. ‘The equation holds not only in Cartesian formulation but is valid in general orthogonal coordinates, with 2, y, and 2 replaced by 2%, 4, and 23 respectively. U = sate [ez +eZte3) + Qules, +e +62) 2.128 + Mecelyy + Cals + Cox] Cape led + ef + ed] + dnlede +k +) + Meee + alae + &nxe pl or in terms of stress: 4 ary U = gph ttl) — Bete t wet ete) 2.129 La tedtet + aCa tat) In isotropic homogeneous media two independent wave equations can be written. A longitudinal wave equation and a shear or transverse wave equation are uncoupled. How- ever, it must be remembered that in practice the two equations may become coupled at a boundary through the boundary conditions and that the waves exist alone as pure shear or longitudinal waves only if plane wave solutions are admissible.80 ELASTICITY (CHAP. 2 (a) The Longitudinal Wave Equation. Ores = St 2.130 where the dilatation $ = 1 +ex+ es. p is mass density. \ and # are the Lamé constants. ‘The longitudinal wave is often referred to as the dilatation wave. (6) The Transverse or Shear Wave. wa «8 aim where « is the rotation vector given in detail in Section 2.1. It should be remembered ‘that the Laplacian operator operating on a vector is not the same as the operation on the individual scalar components. It is useful to replace ‘V'~ by the identity: Vie V(Vre) — VX(V Xe) Fig. 2-8 below shows the cross section of a cylinder with an external torque M applied as shown. The angle of twist per unit length is «. w(z,y) is the deformation in the z or axial direction due to warping. ¢ is the warping function defined so that w=ag. The shear stresses on the cross sectional surface can be written then as: mm = me(448) aise te = ma(= +3) and the warping function satisfies the harmonic equatic vs =0 2.133 in the region R; and on the boundary C, ¢ satisfies the condition: ag Cae (v+38)r + (2+%4)m = 0 where ! and m are the direction cosines of the outward normal to the curve C. A function 4 may be defined such that 2¢ = 2%, and then y satisfies: v4 =0 2.134 in R, and on the curve C: [y = 4(z+4*) + constant].CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 81 Fig.2-3. Torsion of a Cylinder. Cross Section in the xy Plane. ‘The shear stresses in terms of ¥ are: tw 2.135 A new function ¥ can be introduced such that: ¥=y-Het+y) andhence Vv 2.136 R, and ¥=00onC. The stresses can be written: oa te = nee 137 MG 2 ay tw = ae and the angle of twist can be expressed as: OG 2 2.198 Qu f eda in terms of the external moment M. ‘The torsional rigidity of the cross section is denoted as D and is defined as M = Da. In terms of ¥, D can be written: D = “0 SS (25E + v5) dey 2.199 = Sf vacav82 ELASTICITY (CHAP. 2 Consider a thick wall cylinder of inner and outer radius a and 6 respectively. ‘The inner pressure is P; and the outer pressure is Po. The stresses r,, and ,, can be written: @P— Po a8b*(Pi—~ Po) oR 2.140 = GPK UP. _ ab4Pi-P) ia te Sa a : Consider a thick wall sphere with inner and outer radius @ and b respectively. The inner pressure and outer pressure are P; and Ps respectively. The stresses are: a), py (—a) te = Pay + Poa 2.142 = pp S42") _ yp Herter te = EGS - ep Eee 2.143 We consider the theory of thin plates with small deformation. The deformation in the direction normal to the plate surface is denoted as w. The coordinate system is as shown in Fig. 2-4 below. The z and y axes lie in the surface of the plate. The z axis points downward to form a right handed system. D is the plate flexural rigidity defined yr Where H is Young's nodulus, o is Poisson's ratio, and h is the plate thickness. q is the transverse loading on the plate per unit area, measured positive in’ the positive 2 direction. M is the bending moment per unit length along the plate. Fig.24. Coordinates on the Thin Plate. and y lie in the plane of the plate.CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 83. ‘The equation for the deflection w in the z direction for small deflections of thin plates is: viw = 4/D 2.146 ‘The boundary conditions can be written as follows: (a) Simply supported edge, along say, whe = 0 Malmo = 0 7 : i au) or writing out the expression for My and using the fact that 24|,_, = 0, we have: = 0 2.145 = 0 (6) Built-in edge, along say, =o 2.146 o (c) Free edge, along say, z=: ‘The Kirchhoff boundary conditions are: Marlene = 0 2.47 which can be written: writing out the expressions for the moments Mz: and M,y The moment My is the bending moment per unit length. The first subscript refers to the axis to which the lane on which the moment acts is perpendicular. The second subscript refers to the direction of the shear generating the moment. Refer to Fig. 2-4. Qi is the shear force (in the z direction) per unit length on a surface perpendicular to the i axi In engineering, beams are treated by an approximate elastic theory discussed below. In the ensuing analysis: the following special symbols are used: ‘Young’s modulus. = Moment of inertia of the beam cross section about the neutral axis, Bending moment. Shear force. = = Coordinate along the beam. y= Deflection of the beam, measured positively downward, or centroidal coordi- nate on the beam cross section.84 ELASTICITY [oHa. 2 (a) Defection of Simple Beams. Referring to Fig. 2-5, 2 is measured from the left end of the beam. y is measured positively downward and represents the deflection of the beam. Moments may be ‘applied at the ends as shown. Positive moments tend to bend the beam concave upward as shown. The beam may be cut at any point, and the necessary shear and moment M(z) determined in order to hold the beam in equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 2-6. M M, (4 * Fig.25. The Simple Beam Coordinate System Fig.246. Shears and Moments ina Beam In Fig. 2-6 the shears and moments are all shown acting in a positive sense. In pure bending the top fibers compress and the bottom ones elongate. The axis through the beam which undergoes no strain is called the neutral axis. Consider the cross section of the beam in the yz plane, xyz forming a right handed system with the origin at the centroid. If the y or z axis is an axis of symmetry (so that the products of inertia of the yz sections are zero) then the neutral axis coincides with the 2 axis if the loading is in the zy plane as shown. The deflection will then be in the zy plane as shown. If loading also occurs in the zz plane, the deflection in the z direction can be linearly superposed on the y deflection. If the z and y axes on the cross section are not principal axes, the principal axes can be found (in the yz plane) and these principal axes represent neutral axes for loading in the respective planes. ‘The equation for deftection is: ay M ah = -2 2.149 where M is the moment in the beam, I is the moment of inertia of the cross sectionCHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 85 Ps v = FE ei-2) a= y= FE gna) ocece Pat oar v= Pe e-oy acct ws? ott v= RE (et + 6R— ale) = Me ue ai ° = oer Pe (ap 1 war #) o | Fig.28. Shear Stress in a Simple Beam.CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 87 Simple end loaded columns buckle under the Euler load, which we denote as Pa. For various end conditions the critical loads can be given as listed below. J is the minimum moment of inertia about a centroidal axis. 1 is the length of the column. (a) Both ends pinned. Pp, = 2H 215s (®) One end pinned, one end built in. Pp, = oot 2.1860 (©) Both ends built in but free to move vertically. P, = S95I 2.156b ‘The various situations are shown below in Fig. 2-9. P P oe end pinned pinned ende allen anda Fig.2-9, Simple Columns. : Sonos " In a two dimensional stress state, the principal stresses can be found for any orientation of the coordinate axes in a simple manner. A graphical method is known as Mohr’s circle. Consider a stress state as shown in Fig. 2-10(a) below. What are the stresses on the faces of the square element when rotated into position (b)? Fig.210. Two Dimensional Stress State.88 ELASTICITY (CHAP. 2 From equilibrium considerations the stresses on the surfaces of the element rotated through an angle ¢ in a counterclockwise direction are: tatty cos29 + r,, sin 2p 2187 c0s24 — +, sin 2p = Stes (epare 10 oes (2S) +3 tan 24, 2.159 The maximum shear stress is Coda = V('™) + 2 2.160 and occurs at an angle ¢, given by tana, = - ("3") 161 ‘The Mohr circle shows all these relationships graphically. As shown below in Fig. 2-11, the original stress state is plotted on the diagram, and the circle constructed. The stresses for any arbitrary orientation of the axes are given by inspection of the diagram. Fig. 211. The Mohr Circle.CHAP. 2] ELASTICITY 89 & Analogous to the stress Mohr circle in the previous section, strains can be analyzed in the same manner. Consider the strain state shown in Fig. 2-12(a) below. The element may be rotated through an angle g measured positive in the counterclockwise direction as shown in Fig. 2-12(b). The Mohr cirele construction is shown below in Fig. 2-13. @ © Fig.2-12. Two Dimensional Strain State. Fig. 213. The Strain Mohr Cirele.90 ELASTICITY [omar. 2 2.20 ust oF sympois’ usep IN CHAPTER. Note. Other symbols were used in the text but were explained at the time. These represent the most frequently used symbols and correspond, in so far as possible, with current usage. = Strain tensor. ‘Young's modulus. Body Force. Defined by line element for curvilinear coordinates. Bulk modulus. ‘Temperature, Strain energy per unit volume. Component of displacement in x direction. = Component of displacement in y direction. Component: of displacement in z direction. Linear thermal coefficient of expansion. B = Defined as: «(8A+2n) = ka =p. True strain matrix. yy =2e,,i* 4 vy Kronecker delta. 9 = Stress invariant, (74, +7 +73) 2na see gue eae A = Lamé constant, » = Shear modulus, or modulus of rigidity, sometimes denoted as G in engineer- ing literature. Density. Poisson’s ratio. Stress tensor. Strain invariant or dilatation, (e,, + ¢, +) Stress function. @ = Body foree potential. 2.2] ust oF REFERENCES Biezano, C. B., and Grammel, R., Engineering Dynamics, Vol. 1, Theory of Elasticity, Blackie and Sons Ltd., London, 1955 Borg, S. F., Fundamentals of Engineering Elasticity, Van Nostrand, 1946 Borg, 8. F., Matriz-Tensor Methods in Continuum Mechanics, Van Nostrand, 1963 Durelli, A. J., Phillips, E. A., and Tsao, C. H., Introduction to the Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Stress and Strain, McGraw-Hill, 1958 Eringen, A. C., Nonlinear Theory of Continuous Media, McGraw-Hill, 1962CHAP. 2} ELASTICITY 91 6 10. 1. 12. 18. 4. 16. 16. 17. 18. Godfrey, D. E. R., Theoretical Elasticity and Plasticity, Thames and Hudson, London, 1962 Green, A. E., and Zerna, W., Theoretical Elasticity, Oxford University Press, 1954 Landau, L. D., and Lifshitz, E. M., Theory of Elasticity, Addison-Wesley, 1959 Love, A. E, H., A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Cambridge University Press, 1927. (Also Dover, 1954.) ‘Murnaghan, F. D., Finite Deformations of an Elastic Solid, John Wiley, 1951 Prescott, John, Applied Elasticity, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1924 Sechler, Ernest E., Elasticity in Engineering, John Wiley, 1952 Sokolnikoff, I, 8., Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, 1946 Sommerfeld, A., Mechanics of a Deformable Body, Academic Press, 1950 Southwell, R. V., An Introduction to the Theory of Elasticity, Oxford University Press, 1936 ‘Timoshenko, 8., and Goodier, J. N., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, 1951 ‘Trefetz, E., Mechanik der Elastischen Kérper, Handbuch der Physik, Vol. 6 Wang, Chi-Teh, Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, 1953Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Theory Several systems of units are used in electromagnetic theory. The two most commonly used systems are the mks and cgs systems, both of which may be either rationalized or unrationalized. A rational system of units is one that contains a factor 4r in the funda- mental source relationships such as Coulomb’s law, and hence does not contain the 47 factor in the Maxwell field equations. ‘The conversion from one system of units to another is indicated in the table below. In current engineering practice the rationalized mks system (referred to as RMKS) seems to be the most widely used. In this chapter the equations are given in both RMKS units and in unrationalized cgs (Gaussian) units, which are used extensively in scientific work. ‘The following conversion table is listed here for convenience. To convert from one system of units to another make the following substitution: RMKS Gaussian (Rationalized mks) (Unrationalized egs) E E B Bie D D/4e H He/4z ‘ An # waslet ° ° a J * + A Ale In Gaussian units the current density vector J may be measured in esu or emu. Usually ‘est is used and that is the system used in this chapter. However, the results listed here in esu can be converted to emu by multiplying the current density J (as it appears here) by ¢, the velocity of light. Conventional symbols used for the field quantities are listed below. 92CHAP. 3] ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 93 = Vector potential. = Magnetic induction field. = Displacement field. = Electric field. = Magnetic field. = Current density. (Conduction current unless otherwise stated.) ‘Magnetization. = Polarization. = Charge density. = Dielectric constant or permittivity. EO MO n= Magnetic permeability. # = Scalar electric potential. Other symbols are explained as they are used throughout the text, and a complete listing of symbols follows at the end of this chapter. Maxwell's equations are listed below in various coordinate systems in RMKS and in Gaussian units. ‘The detailed forms in various coordinate systems are given only in RMKS, but the forms in Gaussian follow from the vector forms. Other systems of units can be written using the table which appears in Section 8.24 of this chapter. The symbols for the field quantities have been defined immediately above in the introduction. (a) Vector. RMKS units: vD =p aa vB = 0 32 2B eae 3.3 = 342 VxH= J+ at 34 Gaussian units: V'D = 4p 35 ee 3.6 VxXE = 37 = +d, 10 Mabe ec In the above, p is true charge density. J is conduction current.94 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (6) Cartesian, RMKS: Dz , aD, oe ty (c) Cylindrical, RMKS: (CHAP. 8 39 3.10 313 3.14 3.16CHAP. 3] ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 95 (d) Spherical, RMKS: 1 a any + 12 D sing) ae es 37 Bar") Fain a9 (P.8iN8) + FainG ao “ " la 1 HOP) + raiwaag B80) + sana oe = oie ie aE) _ By rains lan osin — Sy] = Se aE, 1a 219 Fain op ~ rar "FO : 1pa aE ile (rE) | a 320 (€) Orthogonal Curvilinear, RMKS: In the following, h, ha, and he are defined by the line element, (see Appendix). ‘The subscripts refer to the field quantity component in the coordinate direction. isDs) , ahshiDs) , aUuhaDy) ne dis ma) ae hg [Rta + Aa + Maha] 5 2216 g(t - MB] = 2 Tahal” de os wt ‘a(hsE) _ (hss) _ _aBs kel as an, | = a a2 i (ez _ uly _oBy tae) = ae Ds It cy nn 3.23 aD; “ea96 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (a) In general the following equations can be written: RMKS CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS D = .E+P 326 B = 4(H+M) where P and M are the polarization and magnetization fields. Gaussian 1 P= 70-5 3.25 ae (6) For a linear medium the following equations can be written in the rest frame. The rest frame of reference is that frame at rest with respect to the material medium. Because of the covariant character of Maxwell's equations, they are valid in any frame of reference. However, the constitutive equations, being phenomenological, can be written only in the rest frame (unless the field quantities are all transformed to another frame as is done later for moving media). RMKS Dee ee 326 B= WH = iH = a(t x JH D = £ = E = (+yE sar B = WH = «Ht (14 y,)H «and 4 are the dielectric constant and magnetic permeability respectively. x and sy are the relative dielectric constant, or relative permittivity, and relative permeability respectively. x and x, are the electric and magnetic susceptibilities respectively. In Gaussian units, « and » are simply equal to « and x, respectively. Hence, in free space, we can write: D=.E B= .H 3.28 in RMKS, and D=E B=H 3.29 in Gaussian units. ‘The value of «, and y, in RMKS units are: fe = W0/Are? = 8.854 10-" farad/meter, = 4x x 10-* henry/meter (©) Anisotropic Media. In anisotropic media, in the rest frame the constitutive equations can be written as: Die= yEy By = 1H, 3.30 if the dielectric constant and permeability can be written as tensors. The summation convention for Cartesian Tensors is used above.CHAP. 3] ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 97 ‘These equations, as the other constitutive equations, hold only in the rest frame. The generalization to moving media will be discussed later. J is the conduction current dent E is the electric field, and ¢ is the conductivity. Ohm's law holds in any system of units as it is written below. (a) Scalar Conductivity. (b) Tensor Conductivity. 3.92 (c) Total Current. ‘The total current J, can be written in terms of the polarization P and magnetiza- tion M as (in any system of units): aos +B vem 3.33 ‘The polarization current Jp is: w , = oF 334 ‘The magnetization current Jn is: = vxM 3.35 (4) Conservation of Current and Charge. In any system of units: vr B= 0 3.36 ‘This equation is not independent of Maxwell's equations and follows directly from them. : (a) Scalar Potential. ‘The scalar potential ¢, for an irrotational electric field is defined as: 3.37 in any system of units. (b) Vector Potential. ‘The vector potential A for the magnetic field can be written: B= VxA 3.38 in any system of units.98 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (ona. In general, [KS = my a9 Gaussian = ~yp —10 B= ~yy 198 40 (e) The electric potential satisfies the Poisson equation in static situations. RM) EMKS o aan Gaussian ve ‘3.42 In the following, « and «,, denote the relative dielectric constant and permeability respectively, « is the conductivity, and c is the velocity of light. (a) In a region of no true charge or sources of electromotive force: oe "ot B = 1 B Apo OB at uo OB eat 0 3.43 OF 3.44 0 3.45 0 3.46 In free space, (in vacuum), the homogeneous wave equation becomes (in either RMKS RMKS = ag — Sin FE Veer. sn 2B Vee ven Gaus — ean 9B VB oe or Gaussian): 1 VE- a 38 38 a 3.47 (©) Inhomogeneous wave equations in regions where true charge and electromotive force exist. RMKS 3.49CHAP. 3] ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 99 Gaussian aq PA dep OA ed? VA Safe a = ~~ oe 2g — we _ Anwe 86 _ Are ve oe Le sae € oe where J’ is the current produced by external electromotive forces. The following relationships are useful in the above equations: 1 Fam 2=me 3.52 Note that in the wave equations the following vector identity is useful VA = Vv(vrA) — ¥x(VxA) ‘V* operating on a vector is not the same as V* operating on a scalar component except in Cartesian coordinates. (@) At an interface between two adjoining media we can write (RMKS) in vector form: nx (E:-E) =0 3.53 nx (He-H) = J, 3.54 (Dr—D:) = », 35 ni: (B:—Bi) = 0 3.56 In Gaussian units the equations become: nx (EE) 3.57 nx (He— Hh 3.58 n- (D:—D,) = 4np, 3.59 n: (BB) = 0 3.60 In the above equations n is the unit normal vector measured positive from medium 1 into medium 2. J, is the true surface current on the interface, and p, is the surface charge density.100 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (CHAP. 8 (6) Moving Media, For moving media in situations where a tangential velocity discontinuity exists at an interface, the above boundary conditions all hold if the field quantities are all measured in any one frame of reference which moves parallel to the interface. For general motion the Lorentz transformations may be applied to the above equations. Fig. 3-1 below shows the orientation of the normal vector. Since Maxwell's equations are covariant, they take the same form in any frame of reference. Consider a coordinate frame S’ attached to the medium which is moving with velocity V with respect to the laboratory coordinate system. The field quantities measured in the frame attached to the medium (the rest frame S’) are denoted by a prime, while those quantities measured in the laboratory frame are unprimed. Maxwell’s equations can be written in either frame of reference. In each case the field quantities and coordinates are those with respect to the observer writing the equations. The transformations of the fields will be discussed in the next section. Hence: RMKS ve = vp = 361 vB = 0 vB =0 ox EP es Eee, vxe VxE a ox = y+ = vx = 4 & vxH = 34+2 Gaussian VD = dap VD = 4p 3.62 vB = 0 vB 0 VxE = VxE vx = vxH =CHAP. 3} ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 101 ‘The field quantities as measured by observers in the rest frame and laboratory frame ‘are related by the Lorentz transformations. In the following equations the primed quan- tities denote those measured in the rest frame, and the unprimed quantities are those measured in the laboratory frame. The rest frame is at rest with the frame S’ which is moving with velocity V with respect to the laboratory frame S. ‘The symbol y, as used in the following equations, yr 4 oe 3.63 ‘The general transformations are listed below. Rectilinear motion is assumed, but for most practical situations the transformations may still be used for accelerated motion. EB = Ev 3.64 EL | 3.65 Di = Di 3.66 Di = 3.67 Hi Hy 3.68 HL = - VxD), 3.69 Br = Bu 3.70 w= 2(a- YB), on wi = =F eVn 372 mos 3.73 us on Pioo= Ph 375 m= i(p- eM) 376 Mi = My 377 1 ML = 7} + VP), 378102 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (CHAP. 5 B= E+vxe 379 p= oe ae 240 yo 2 TXE Ww = H-vxD 22 ooo 23 ve = --% aes p= p- Yam 385 MW = MivxP 3.86 Note that for nonmagnetic material («=,,), P=P’; and for nonpolarizable material, M=M'. In some of the above equations, factors of c? are retained. This retention is necessary even for low velocity because of the relative magnitude of the terms in the expressions, and may under some conditions be important. Constitutive equations can only be written in the rest frame of material media. (The distinction between the frames of reference has been made in the preceding two sections). ‘The rest frame is a frame of reference at rest with respect to the material media, If the material is moving at a velocity V with respect to the laboratory frame of reference, the observer in the laboratory must transform the rest frame constitutive equations into the laboratory frame if he is to write constitutive equations in terms of field quantities measured in the laboratory. Equations 3.24 through 3.80 express the constitutive equations in the rest frame. ‘The following equations are written for the laboratory frame: (a) General expressions (valid in any frame): RMKS = QE+P 3.87 B= 4(H+M) 3.88 Gaussian = &P +E 3.89 B= 4M+H 3.90CHAP. 3] ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (b) In free space, (vacuum) in any frame: RMKS D= « B= D=E B= 103 391 3.92 3.93 3.94 (c) The following general expressions can be obtained by substituting the Lorentz trans- formations into the rest frame equations. ‘These equations hold only for linear media with a scalar permittivity and permeability (RMKS or Gaussian). D = (E+ vxB) -dvxu B = »[H-VxD] + 3VxE For velocities small compared to light (|V[? < c®), these equations become: p = (e+ (1-x)vxB] b= ofa (1-d)vaa] B.T] onms aw FoR MoviNG MEDIA 5 3.95 3.96 3.98 In the rest frame (at rest with respect to the material medium) Ohm's law can be written (for a scalar conductivity) as: J’ = oE’. This expression can be transformed into ‘the laboratory frame and thus be written in terms of variables as measured in the laboratory frame. The rest frame is assumed to move with velocity V with respect to the laboratory frame. u, v, and w are the z, y, and z components of V in Cartesian coordinates. ‘The equations are written with the assumption that |V' < c'. Ohm's law written thusly is valid in either RMKS or Gaussian units. (a) Vector. J = (B+ VB) + Vv (®) Cartesian. J, = o(B, +0B,—wB,) + pV, J, = o(B,—uB,+wB) + pV, J, = of, +uB,- vB.) + pV,104 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (CHAP. 3 (e) Cylindrical. Us and vs are the velocities in the r, 6, and 2 directions respectively. J, = oE,+0,B,-0,B,) + pV, 3.101 J, = AB, +0,B,-0,B) + pV, J, = 0B, +0,B,~v,B) + pV, (@) Spherical. ‘% vy and ve are the velocities in the r, #, and 4 directions respectively. J, = of, +0,B,—0,B,) + pV, 3.102 o(E, + 0,B,—v,B,) + pV, 1, = oll, +0,B,~0,B,) + pV, SS 10 The Lorentz force on a charged particle, F, transforms according to the Lorentz transformations for force. In the rest frame of the particle the force can be written as: P= 3.103 where q is the charge on the particle, and E’ is the local electric field seen by the particle. By transforming the force according to the transformation: Fi=F, Fi = =i, 3.104 (where V is the velocity of the particle with respect to the laboratory frame of reference, and the parallel and perpendicular components refer to the components parallel and Perpendicular to the velocity vector V), and transforming the fields accordingly, there results (in RMKS): F = q&+VvxB) 3.105 which is a covariant expression and holds in any frame of reference. In Gaussian units, equation 3.105 is: Fo= (E+ v8) 3.106 For velocities V small compared to that of light, c, we can write: r=F 3.107 ‘The force density f, (per unit volume), can be written in the rest frame as: f= pE 3.108 where p’ is the charge density. From the Lorentz transformation for volume, 8V = 3 it follows directly from equation 3.104 that (RMKS): f = o(B+VxB) 3.109CHAP. 3} ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 105 which is valid in any frame of reference. The foree density then transforms as: tan, so fin In Gaussian units, equation 3.109 becomes: vxB f (E + VxB) a hy 3.110 In the rest frame the body force can be written in the following manner. This expres- sion is valid only for quasi-static situations and is not a covariant expression. General ‘expressions valid for any frame of reference will be given in subsequent sections. Assuming a linear, isotropic medium, then: RMKS f= ph + IxB - SB ~ Srv, ane +30 (F ake) + By (aS xB_ BY, or Gaussian {= E+ rad x - Eve, 3.13 +e (Baee) +s where p,, is the mechanical density of the medium, ‘The individual terms have the following physical interpretation: Electrostatic: ame axe ans axe « ans Inhomogeneity in the magnetic permeability or permittivity: EM © Ev. any. any Gaussian 3.118 Electrostriction: RMKS 3.119 Gat106 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [cHap. 8 Magnetostriction: a RMKS 2 (#520) 3.121 1 Hm Gaussian EV (WP 5re0) 3.122 In general, in any frame of reference the body force in material media can be written: ay _ am f ey 3.123 where g: is the electromagnetic momentum density. The Maxwell stress tensor Ty can be given in covariant fashion, but we write out below an expression valid only in the rest frame because the constitutive equations have been implicitly used. The stress tensor actually has physical significance only in terms of its tensor divergence and hence body force. The stresses themselves do not always have significance, and one must be careful in their interpretation as actual stresses. In fact the stress tensor is defined only to within an arbitrary funetion whose tensor divergence is zero. Including striction effects, the stress tensor can be written in the rest frame as: RMKS = -2[p.: i fe yp, oe T, = ~3[D-E+ B-H Pegg ~ HF rag] 3, + DE, + BH, 3.124 Gaussian Ty = ge]s, + 2B 4 Banas For reference, the stress tensor is written out in full in RMKS units below, with the constitutive equations for a linear, isotropic medium having been applied. ™m% = 3.126 a HUB: ~ B)— BL + de, (BB, + oHH,) (EB, + oHH,) + dels — HY — HE) + domi Se] HE} BE Bf) + dont Se (BB, + oH Hy) = (BE, + wHyH,) tty — HE HE) + out ge HED BE BR) + donee Se (8,E, + oHH,) (BB, + HH) 4 dele — HE — HB) + doubts 22CHAP. 8] ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 107 ‘An important consideration is the diagonalizing of the stress tensor, that is, the determination of the principal stresses. Although these stresses do not always have physical significance, the stress state and consequent body force which it generates is particularly easy to visualize in terms of the principal stresses. We denote the principal stresses as A,, 4y and Ay oriented along the principal axes ‘Ay, As, and As respectively. The secular determinant for these stresses is: IT, ~ A841 0 127 and the vectors A are given by: (T,-rJIA] = 0 3.128 It is convenient to split the stress tensor into an electric and magnetic part and then add, linearly, the resultant stresses. Hence we will solve for the electric principal stress state, and the magnetic principal stress state separately. We can write then: [Ty-aay] = 0 3.129 (T-aaliaj] = 0 and [Ty-amayl = 0 3.130 (75 ans)[47) ‘The results for the principal stresses and directions of the principal axes are given below for the case in which the striction effects are neglected. In RMKS units: % 2; is oriented along the electric field E, and x, and 2; are oriented normal to the E vector. Hence the stress state is one of tension along the E vector, and hydrostatic compression normal to it. If the E and D vectors are not collinear, then the situation is more com- plicated and one must work directly from equation 3.124 or 3.125 since these results above are based on isotropy. In Gaussian units the stresses are: 3.32 ‘The principal magnetic stresses are given as: RMKS ay = BE, HB 3133 MES z Gaussian aR og -5 = 58 3.134 Analogous to the electric stresses the orientation of 4; is along the H vector, and AT and AS normal to the H vector. Hence the stress state is one of tension along H and compression normal to it. ‘The same observations about isotropy apply here as were made above about the electric stresses.108 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (CHAP. 5 An alternative interpretation of the principal stresses is as follows. The stress state can be interpreted as a state of pure hydrostatic compression of value: ap, HB 3.138 in RMKS, and = ED, HB 3.136 ca a E-D in Gaussian, with an added tension along the electric field K of E-D (RMKS, or © jn Gaussian) and a tension of HB along the magnetic field H (or 4-8 in Gaussian), hence the origin of the so-called electromagnetic pressure. One must remember that these stresses and pressures act together with the mechanical stress tensor, and in a state of equilibrium the mechanical stresses are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the electromagnetic stresses, The striction effects can very easily be included in the principal stress determination, The striction effect is one of electromagnetic hydrostatic tension, and hence ,, 1, and A, must be modified by the addition of the term in RMKS units, so that 2 Lm de : N= SP te, - 137 and Sab oo etrsrsS—Ss—S 138 In the alternative formulation given above by equations 3.135 and 3.186, the hydrostatic Pressure term becomes: ED HBL pa 1 poe =? ~ Braap ~ Zowllst 3.139 in RMKS, and ED Be i 8 et Be Bela Be Onl 5 in Gaussian. The tensions along the E and H vectors remain as stated above. The form of the momentum density g, which was discussed above is still in dispute, but the two commonly accepted forms appear below. The Minkowski expression for the momentum, which is the same in any frame of reference, is: a. = (DXB), 3.140 in RMKS, and xB), a = Ox 3.141 in Gaussian, The Abraham expression for gi, which is written here only in its rest frame form, is:CHAP. 3} ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 109 a = Aexm, ane in RMKS, and exe eel aus in Gaussian. By combining one of these forms of the momentum with the stress tensor in equa- tion 8.128, the foree density can be obtained. In the rest frame this force is identical to equation 3.112 for quasi-static situations. If the Minkowski momentum is used the expression for force density is the same as equation 3.112 (in the rest frame) even for time varying fields. However, if the Abraham momentum is used, there is an additional force of »S@xm a a € in RMKS units in the rest frame. Current usage tends to indicate that the Abraham tensor should be used, although until a few years ago the Minkowski momentum was accepted. B15 rorce In movine MEDIA ‘The Lorentz force transforms according to the Lorentz transformation as indicated in Section 3.12, equation 3.110. That is: Whe, = vt aus eG, t= vy where f is the body force density, and the primes indicate the values as measured in the rest frame. The unprimed quantities are those measured in the laboratory frame with respect to which the material media is moving. For velocities small compared to that of light, the force is numerically the same in any frame of reference. For high velocities the rest frame value of force as calculated by the equations presented previously may be transformed into the laboratory frame as indicated above in equation 3.145. Alternatively, the force can be calculated directly in the laboratory frame. For forces on charge distributions, equations 3.109 or 3.111 may be used. In general, however, the covariant form of the stress tensor must be used. ‘The general form, neglecting striction effects, is written out below. In tensor form, before constitutive equations are applied, this tensor is the same as the Maxwell stress tensor. In obtaining the tensor divergence of the stress tensor and finding the force, the constitutive equations are useful in simpli- fying the resulting expression. Care must be taken if the constitutive equations are applied in the laboratory frame, and the reader is referred to Section 3.10 of this chapter. ‘The principal stresses in the laboratory frame (in covariant form) are the same as those given by equations 8.127 through 3.136, since the constitutive equations have not been applied in these equations and they are derived from the covariant form of the stress tensor. ‘The covariant form of the stress tensor can then be written: T = -#D-E + H-Bls, + DB; + Bay 3.146110 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY [CHAP. 5 The total force can be obtained by integrating the force density throughout the body, or by integrating the stresses over the body. By Gauss’ theorem it follows that: fae fe avr where F; is the total force on the body. From Maxwell’s equations it follows that in any frame of reference: RMKS -V(EXH) = ES + 3.148 Gaussian 3.1469 -V+(BxH) = E-S+ If the constitutive equations are linear the theorem takes the following form in the rest frame of the material medium: RMK: -VXH) = Bs +32 0B + E-D) 3.150 Gaussian La -V+(ExH) Esty (H-B + E-D) 3.151 In equation 9.150 the left hand side represents the energy flux, EXH (RMKS) or Z(EXH) (Gaussian) being the Poynting vector. On the RHS, E-J is the Joulean dissi- pation, and the 5 (H-B+E-D) term is the rate of increase of the free energy of the fields. Equation 8.150 or 8.151 is not a covariant expression since the constitutive ‘equations have been used. However, for the special case of free space properties of the material, n=, and <=«, the above equations, 8.150 or 8.161, are covariant and hold in any frame of reference, and ean be given a simple interpretation in the laboratory frame, with respect to which the material is moving with velocity V. In the laboratory frame then: RMKS VEX) = Bs + eG ey 3.152 Gaussian WVEXH) = BS + tu 4 oe 3.153 ‘The left hand side term is the energy flux. The RHS term E-J represents the Joulean dissipation plus work done on the media by body forces, and the last term on the RHS represents rate of energy increase. This interpretation can be seen by expanding the E-J term as (RMKS):CHAP. 3] ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY sBby Evy Y Es = + Lie + xB) 3.154 ‘The primes represent quantities measured in the rest frame. The appearance of the factor y is to be expected due to the volume change because of the Lorentz transformation. ‘The above interpretation is seen to be valid then if the force is simply (pE + J x B) (RMKS), which is the case for « and y, In more complicated situations ‘where the constitutive ‘equations must be used in their complete laboratory frame formulation, the foree is not so'simple and the energy change is not easy to determine. For A.C. problems Poynting’s theorem can be expressed as (RMKS) u Af ==») : : * Hetetas Prolate Spheroidal Oblate Spheroidal Elliptic Cylindrical sinh w sin v cong 2 2 = acoahu cos sinh « sin sing ¥ = ecouhusiny sing sinhw sin y 4 cosh x cosw 2 = asinhu conv 8 aink# w+ aint» sink? « + cont») nw + ain) ms ° » > a ainht a + aint» aXGsinh#u + cost») sink? w + ain?) * + * z a oHsinh# win?) conhtu sink 1Appendix] MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS 151 ‘Tables of Orthogonal Coordinate Systems (cont.) Conical coordinates Confocal Paraboloidal Parabolic coordinates er) ge = W@HMet— Marv 2 = freon ae =a) Clete = Wot = IQ? = 6H, a = Wer) a . BE ¥ rae) v= eraing = weotment—ey |g yar ot—a-aon B= He Hosea en) w-oe ™ « » ‘ a 1 e+e 8 er ” ” , ’ 8 et ‘Toroidal coordinates: Parabolic Cylindrical Bipolar coordinates 2 = reony a= v= sing p= —esinb woah y = cost eae sae 2 = —esing_ Soak y = cone * é ‘ ‘ : eg Coa — oo a , , 7 4 ere a sinh?» (eoahy — cos152 MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS [Appendix Vector Operations in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates. Grac (ve), an cs (V%), = : a a va aesltalods) + 32 uhads)] Aso Curl: a (xan = ay, [ae lad — Lads] ast 1 (VxAe = FaAg[am dd ~ Zitat] (yxy = he [ sh (heds) — aetna) | Laplacian: Tish a ve = (B28) 4 an Materi: De ere at ne non cme where wi, ws, and ws are the velocities in the coordinate directions. AS teiconomerric retationsiies. (a) Trigonometric Identities. sin?9 + cose = 1 Ase 1+ tanta = secta Ass L+ elute = cacto Ase sin2e = 2sind cose asr ©0820 = 2eos@—~ 1 = costy — sinte Ase tan2¢ etane ASD T=tan?oAppendix] MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS 153 gest Ae Lees Aa Gmet = creo - sin(9+4) = sind cosg + coss sing Ass cos (0+ 4) = cosdcoss = sind sing Ass tan (9 $) ees Aes sing + sing = 2sin4(¢-+¢4) cos4(0—¢) Ass sing — sing = 2cosd(0+4)sind(0-¢) AST 088 + Coss = 2e0s4(0+4) cosi(0~4) Ase cond — cos = —2sind(0-+4) sin (0-9) Aes sin3a@ = 3sing — 4sin*o A70 cos39 = 4cos@ — Bcosd an sinnd = 2sin(n—1)@ cose — sin(n—2)0 An cosmo = 2cos(n—1)0 cos# — cos(n—2)0 Ars sin?@ = 4(1— 0820) ay costa = 4(1 + €0820) ays singcos¢ = $sin(0+g) + $sin(0—9) Aq singsing = $c08(0~¢) ~ 4c0s(0+4) aA cos8 cos = $eos(6—$) + $08 (0+$) Are sin’@ = 4(8 sing — sin 36) Aro cos? = 4(cos80 + 8 cos) Aso Referring to Fig. A-4, we can write: a = aa =aey 4M @ = B +e — 2becosa a+b _ tanHe+s) a=b ~ tand(e—A)154 MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS [Appendix He ALG wrrtrsouic Functions (a) Relationships Invotving Hyperbolic Functions, sinhz = (ee) Ae coche = ier+er4) Aas tanh z Ass esche = nar oo ase cothe = Ging Aso sinh (-2) = ~sinhe Aso cosh (2) = cosh ast tanh(-2) = —tanhe as cosh — sinht2 = 1 Age sechtz + tanhtz = 1 Ase esch*z ~ cothtz = -1 Ags tanhs = sinha Ag sinh (zy) = sinhzcoshy + cosh sinhy as7 cosh (zy) = cosh coshy + sinha sinhy ase sinh2z = 2sinhz cosh a9 cosh2z = coshtz + sinhtz A100 (6) Hyperbolic Functions of Complex Arguments. sing = -Hie*—e-*) = —isinhie Ato1 cose = coshix A102 sinhiz = ising A103 coshiz = cose A104 tanhic = itanz A105Appendix} Fr 8 0 at rie+5- Ft MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS sinh(e+iy) = sinhz cosy * icoshzsiny cosh (z+ iy) = coshz cosy * isinhrsiny sinig = isinhe cosiz = coshe I oi a ees cae ee eee O<2<2 Aer Fe EtG ee), wet 155 A106 A107 A108 A109 Ano am Ana Ana. Als Ans ANG Anz Ans Ang A120 Al156 MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS [Appendix sing = Aim ne ans ae ain sinte = Anas tate = Alas tantz = F114 : @>1 A127 ae ae : . . at sme = 2+ 84% as ee 8 che = 1404 BF, Ans tame = 2-242 A130 a] 1 sim-'2 = 2-2 eel aan simh-tz = Ine + + g>1 aase coh-tz = Inde — Anas tank-'2 = og + 2 A136 (®) Binomial Theorem. (tp = Aas o aca (©) Taylor Series Expansion. A function f(z) may be expanded about =a if the function is continuous, and its derivatives exist and are finite at x=, Fay = He) + HEE + pray ZSM + pry ee so. arse (e-ay"t + ry + BaAppendix] MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS: 167 (d) Mactaurin Series Expansion. ‘The Maclaurin series expansion is a special case of the Taylor series expansion for a=0. Hay = NO) + POE + MOVE + FT + o> aa + FO Gray + Re (©) Arithmetic Progression. ‘The sum to n terms of the arithmetic progression S = at (a+d) + (@42d 4 +++ + [a+ (n~1)d) An38 is (in terms of the last number 1) S= Fat Dy A139 where I= a+ (n—1)d. (1) Geometric Progression. ‘The sum of the geometric progression to n terms is S = atartar +... tamt = A140, (g) Sterling's Formula for Factorials. nl = V2ennet enn Ala 1. Aris, R., Vectors, Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, 1962 2. Borg, S. F., Matriz-Tensor Methods in Continuum Mechanics, Van Nostrand, 1963 3. Margenau, H., and Murphy, G. Nostrand, 1943 4. Morse, P. M., and Feshbach, H., Methods of Theoretical Physics, Vols. I and H, McGraw Hill, 1953 The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry, Van Spiegel, M., Vector Analysis, Schaum Publishing Co., 1959 6. Synge, J. L., and Schild, A., Tensor Calculus, University of Toronto Press, 1949Abraham momentum, 108 ‘Acceleration, cylindrical coordinates, 125 eneralized coordinates, 124 spherical coordinates, 126 Acousties, wave equations, 47 inviseid fluid, 47 ‘sonic velocity, 47 viscous fluids, 48 Airfoil, litt of, 44 perturbation ‘theory for thin, 46 Airy streas function, 75 ‘Angular momentum, of rigid bodies, 135 in moving frames of reference, 130 Anisotropic media, cloctromagnetic constitutive equations for, 96 Ohm's law for, 97 stress-strain relationships for, 61 Arithmetic progression, 187 Beams, simple theory, 88 deflections, 84-85 shear stress, 86 stresses, 86 table of deflections, 85 Beltrami-Michell equations of compatibility, 73 Bernoulli equation in fluids, 40 Biharmonic operator, 149 Binomial theorem, 156 Bipolar coordinates, 151 Body force, electromagnetic, 105 ‘control volume, 110 moving media, 109 Body force, in elasticity (see Equilibrium equations) Body force, in fluids (see Motion, equations of) Boundary conditions, electromagnetic, 99 moving media, 106, Boundary layer theory, 28 in rotating frames of reference, 30 integral form of, 31 ‘on a curved wall, 31 orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, 30 ‘thickness of boundary layer, 32 Buckling of columns, 87 Cartesian coordinates, vector operations in, 146-149 Channel flow of fluids, 40 Bernoulli equation, 40 energy equation, 41 Charge densi Charge of an electron, 121 Charged particle, force on, 104 Christoffel symbols, 125 159 fluids, 44 Coefficient of restitution, 133 Columns, buckling of, 87 Combined stresses, 87 Mohe's cirele for, 87 Compatibility equations of elasticity, 72 Complex potential in fluid flow, 43 Complex Poynting theorem, 111 Complex velocity in fluid flow, 44 Compressible flow, continuity, 1 ‘energy equation, 32 ‘equations of motion, 11, 18 linearized theory for high speed, 46 Confocal ellipsoidal coordinates, 150 Confocal paraboloidal coordinates, 151 Conical coordinates, 181 Constants, electromagnetic, 121 Constitutive equations, electromagnetic, 96 anisotropic media, 96 moving media, 102 Constraints, dynamical, 124 Continuity equation, fidid, 1 integral form, 38 Continuity equation for current, 97, 115 Covariant formulation of electromagnetic theory, 112 Creeping motion of fluids, 48 Groceo's theorem, 45 Gross product for vectors, 148 Curl of a vector, in various coordinate systems, 148 Current density, 97 conservation of, 97, 115 ‘magnetization, 97 Ohm's law, 97 plasma, 117 polarization, 97 Curved wall, boundary layer on, 81 Cylinder, torsion of, 80 ‘stresses in thick wall, 82 Cylindrical coordinates, 150 ‘acceleration in, 126 ‘veetor operations in, 146-149 velocity in, 126 Deflection of beams, 84 table of, 85: Deformation rate tensor, 2 Deformation tensor, 55 Diagonalization of electromagnetic stress tensor, 106 of inertia tensor, 135, of strain tensor, 69 of stress tensor, 61 Dielectric constant, 96 fof free spuce (numerical value), 121160 INDEX Dilatation in fuids, 6 in elasticity, 55 Displacement ‘eld, electromagnetic, 96 current, 93 Displacement thickness, boundary layer, 31 Dissipation, function in fluids, 32, 36 Joulean, 82, 110, 116 Rayleigh, 140 Divergence of a vector in various coordinate systems, 147 Divergence theorem, 145 Dot product for vectors, 148 Drag coefficient, 61 Dynamics of rigid bodies, 135 Eckert number, 51 Elastic constants, relationships among, 66 Elastic wave propagation, 79 Elasticity, Chapter 2 Electric susceptibility, 96 Electromagnetic body force, 105 in moving media, 109 in terms of stress tensor, 106, 109 fon a control volume, 110 fon a particle, 104 Electromagnetic momentum, 106, 108, 109 Electromagnetic pressure, 107, 108 Electromagnetic theory, Chapter 3 Electronic charge, 121 mass, 121, Electrostatic force (sce Electromagnetic force) ‘on a particle, 104 Electroatrietion, 105 Ellipsoid, momental, 135 Elliptic cylindrical Coordinates, 150 Energy equation for @ fluid, 32 dissipation, 36 for a perfect gas, 35 in integral form, 39 in terms of enthalpy, 95 in terms of entropy, 37 Energy of electromagnetic fields, 110, 113, 114, 116 Enthalpy, energy equation in terms of, 35 Entropy, electromagnetic fields, 118, 114 Entropy, energy equation in terms of, 37 Croceo's theorem, 45 Entropy production, 37 integral form, 89) Equations of motion for a fui equations of) Equilibrium equations of elasticity, 68 in terms of displacement, 69 Euler's equation for a fluid, 40 Euler's equations of motion for a rigid body, 137 Eulerian angles, 129 Eulerian equations of motion for a fuid (eee Motion, equations of) Expansion in series, 165 (sce Motion, Flow of fluids (eee Motion, Energy, ete.) Fluid mechanics, Chapter 1 Force, body, due to electromagnetic fields, 105 ‘moving media, 109 in terms of stress tensor, 106, 109 ‘on a control volume, 110 Force on a charged particle, 104 Four-dimensional formulation of Maxwell's equations, 112 Free energy of the electromagnetic field, 113 Friction factor, 41 Froude number, 51 Gauss’ theorem, 145 Gaussian units, 92, 118, 120 Generalized coordinates, 123, 149 (ace Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates) Geometric progressions, 157 Gradient in various coordinate systems, 146, 16 Grashof number, 61 Green’s theorem, 145 Gyroscopes, motion of, 138 motion about one torque-free axi Hamilton's equations, 141 Hamilton's principle, 141 ‘Head lots in channels, 41 friction factor, 41 Heat conduction, in energy equation, 32, 29 ‘and entropy production, 27, 89 Heaviside-Lorentz (egs) units in electromagnetic theory, 118 Hooke's law, 61 for thermal stresses, 78 Hyperbolic functions, 154 Hypersonic flow (perturbation theory), 46 Hypersonic similarity parameter, 51 Identities, hyperbolic functions, 154 ‘trigonometric, 152 veetor, 144 Inertia tensor, 133 diagonalization of, 135 Instant center, 131 Integral forms of boundary layer equations, 31 continuity equation, 88 energy equation, 39 entropy production, 39 equations of motion of fluids (momentum principle), 39 Maxwell's equations, 111 second law of thermodynamics, 39 Internal energy of the electromagnetic fleld, 113 Invariants of inertia tensor, 135 strain, 59 stress, 61 Tonized gases (see Plasma dynamics) Joukowski litt, 44 Joulean dissipation, 82, 110, 116 Kelvin’s vortex theorem, 45INDEX 161 in moving frames of reference, 130 Kinetic energy of rigid bodies, 136 ‘in moving frames of reference, 192 Lagrange multipliers, 141 Lagrange’s equations, 140 Lagrangian equations of motion of a fluid, 27 Lamé constants, 62, 66 Laplacian in various coordinate systems, 147, 162 Lift coefficient, 61 Lift, Joukowski, 44 ‘ight, velocity of, 121 rized thin airfoil theory, 46 Lorentz force on a particle, 104 Lorentz transformation for’ force, 104 Lorentz transformations for electromagnetic ‘quantities, 101 for low velocities, 102, 116 Lubrication theory, Reynolds equation, 48 Mach number, 49, 51 Maclaurin series, 157 Magnetic field, 92, 96 Magnetic induction field, 93, 96 ‘Magnetic permeability, 93, 96, 121 fof free space, numerical value, 121 Magnetic susceptibility, 96 Magnetic vector potential, 97 ‘wave equation, in terms of, 98 Magnetization current, 97 Magnetohydrodynamics, 114 constitutive equations, 115 continuity, 116 dissipation, 116 energy equation, 116 equations of motion, 116 field equations, 114 Lorentz. transformations, 116 Ohm's law, 115 Magnetostriction, 106 Mass of the electron, numerical value, 121 Material d fe, 149, 182 ‘Maxwell's equations, 98 covariant formulation of, 112 four-dimensional formulation of, 112 in magnetohydrodynamics, 114 in moving media, 100 integral form of, 111 Maxwell stress tensor, 106, 109 ‘Mechanies (eee detailed topics) dynamies of rigid bodies, 135 ‘uid, Chapter 1 kinematies, Chapter 4 of particles and bodies, Chapter 4 Metric tensor, 112, 125 Minkowski momentum, 108 Modulus, Young's, 61, 66 shear or modulus of rigidity, 61, 68 Mohr's circle, for strain, 89 for stress, 87 Moment of inertia, 133 Momental ellipsoid, 185 ‘Momentum, angular, 195 ‘Momentum, electromagnetic, 106, 108 Momentum thickness, boundary layer, 81 Morera stress function, 77 Motion, equations of, for a fluid, compressible fluid, 11 ‘compressible fluid, viscosity constant, 18 incompressible fluid, 21 incompressible fluid, viscosity constant, 24 Integral form, 39 in terms of stream function, 45 in terms of atress tensor, 8 in terms of velocity potential, 43, 47 Lagrangian form, 27 rotating coordinate system, 27, 30 Moving frames of reference in dynamics, 120 ‘acceleration in, 130 angular momentum in, 130 kinetic energy in, 182 velocity in, 130 Moving media (electromagnetic theory) boundary conditions, 100 constitutive equations, 102 force in, 109 Maxwells equations, 100 Maxwell stress tensor, 109, Natural units in electromagnetic theory, 118 Navier-Stokes equations of motion, 11, 18, 21, 24 (see Motion, equations of) Nusselt number, 51 Nutation, 138 Oblate spheroidal coordinates, 150 Oblique triangles, 153 Ohm's law, 97 ‘in moving media, 103 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, 149 Dipolar, 151 confocal ellipsoidal, 150 confocal parabotoidal, 151 conical, 151 cylindrical, 160 liptic cylindrical, 150 oblate spheroid, 160 parabolic, 151 parabolie’ cylindrical, 161 prolate spheroidal, 150 spherical, 150 toroidal, 151 veetor operations in, 152 Orthogonal transformations of coordinates, 128 Osculating plane in kinematies, 127 Parabolic coordinates, 151 Parabolic cylindrical coordinates, 151 Peclet number, 81 Perfect gas, energy equation for, 85 Permeability, magnetic, 96 Jn vacuum’ or free space, numerical value of, 121162 Permittivity, 96 ‘in vacuum or free space, numerical value of, 121 Perturbation theory for thin airfoils, 46 Plasma dynamies, 117 current in, 117 generalized Ohm's law, 118 Tinearized motion, 118 motion, 117, 118 Plates, elastic, 82 Poisson's equation for the scalar potential, 98 Poisson's ratio, 61, 66 Polarization current, 97 Potential flow, 43 Potentials, magnetic vector, 97 scalar, 97 vector, 97 velocity, 42 Poynting’s theorem, 110 complex form of, 111 Prandtl number, 51 Precession, 188 Pressure coefficient, 61 Pressure, electromagnetic, 107, 108 Principal axes, of inertia, 138 of strain, 59, 89 of stress, 61, 88 Principal electromagnetic stresses, 107 Prineipal strains, 59, 89 Prinetpal stresses, elasticity, 61, 88 electromagnetic, 107 Products of inertia, 134 Progressions, arithmetic, 157 geometric, 187 Prolate spheroidal coordinates, 150 Radiation, in fluid energy equation, 32 in electromagnetic theory, 110, 113 Rankine-Hugoniot equations, 49 Rationalized units in electromagnetic theory, 92, 118 RMKS units, 92, 118 Rayleigh dissipation function, 140 Relativity, in electromagnetic theory, 101, 112 (ace Covariant formulation and Lorentz transformations) Restitution, coefficient of, 133 Reversible work done by’ the clectromagnetic ‘eld, 118, Reynolds equation, in lubrication, 48 jn turbulence, Reynolds stresses, 60 Reynolds number, 51 Reynolds stresses, 50 Rigid body dynamics, 135 ‘angular momentum, 135 equations of motion, 136-140 kinetic energy, 136 torque-free motion, 138 Rigidity, modulus of, 61, 66 Rotating frames of reference, in fluids, 27 id body dynamics, 130, 136 Rotation in a fluid, 2, 44, 45, 46 Rotation, orthogonal, of coordinates, 128 INDEX Rotation tensor, in a fluid, 2, 44 Scalar potential, 97 Sealar product of vectors, 148 Schmidt number, 51 Second law of thermodynamics, 39 Series expansions of common functions, 155 Shear modulus, 61, 66 Shock waves and relationships, 49 Similarity in fluids, 61 Skin friction coefficient, 51 Slow motion of fluida, 48 Sound, propagation of (eee Acoustics), 47, 79 Sound’ wave number, 51 Sphere, thick wall, stresses in, 82 Spherical coordinates, 150 ‘acceleration in, 127 vector operations in, 146-149 velocity in, 126 Stanton number, 51 Sterling’s formula for factorials, 157 Stokes’ derivative, 149 ‘Stokes’ theorem, 145 Strain, 55 true strain, 55 Strain energy, 79 Strain invariants in elasticity, 59 Strain rate tensor in a fluid, 2 true strain rate in a fluid, 2 Strain tensor in elasticity, 55 nonlinear strain tensor, 59 true strain, 55 Stream function ina fluid, 41 equations of motion, in terms of, 45 Stress functions, two dimensional, 75 Airy stress function, 75 in three dimensions, 76 Maxwell's system, 76 Morera’s system, 77 Stress in elasticity, 60 Stress in fluids, 5 Stress invariants, 61 Stress relationships in elasticity, 60 Stress-strain rate relationships in fluids, 5 Stress-strain relationships (Hooke's law), 61 in thermal stresses, 78 Streas tensor, lectromagnetic, 106, 109 in elasticity, 60 in fluids, 5 Striction effects, 105, 106 Strouhal number, 51 Supersonic flow, linearized theory, 46 Surface tension number, 51 Susceptibility, magnetic and electri 96 Taylor series, 156 Tensors, Christoffel symbols, 125 electromagnetic theory in covariant tensor form, 112,INDEX 168 ‘Tensors, (cont,) ‘equations in tensor form (see detailed equation) generalized tensors, 123-125 metric tensor, 112, 125 ‘Thermal stresses, 78 ‘Thermodynamics, energy equation or first law of thermodynamics, 32 first law in integral form, 39 second law, 89 second law in integral form, 89 ‘Thermodynamics of electromagnetic felds, 110, 113, 116 ‘Thickness of the boundary layer, 32 ‘Thick wall, cylinder, 82 sphere, 82 ‘Tops, motion of, 139 ‘Toroidal coordinates, 151 ‘Torque-free motion of rigid bodies, 158 Torsion of cylinders, 80 ‘Transformations, coordinate, 124, 128, 134 Lorentz, 101, 102, 104, 116 orthogonal, 128, 150 ‘Translating frames of reference in dynamics, 130, 132 ‘Transonie flow (perturbation theory), 46, 47 ‘Trigonometric relationships and identi ‘Turbulence, 50 Units, electromagnetic, 92, 118-121 Vector cross product, 148 Vector dot product, 148 Vector identities, 144 Vector integrals, 145 Vector operators and operations in various coordinate systems, 146-149, 152 ‘Vector potential, 97 ‘Vectors, representations, 123 Velocity of light, numerical value, 121 Velocity potential, 42, 43, 47 ‘Viscous fluids (eee detailed equations) Vortex theorem of Kelvin, 45 Vorticity, 2, 44 ‘equations of motion, in terms of, 45 transport equation, 45 Wave equations and propagation, ‘acoustic, 47 elastic, 79 cleetromagnetic, 98, 99 Inhomogeneous electromagnetic, 98, 99 in viscous fluids, 48, vorticity in, 48 Weber number, 51 Work, in fluid energy equations, $2, 39 ‘Work, reversible, done by electromagneticCorot Nw Teo Coens eet eT ean ooy ee een ry ome eer reenter, mere ey reas tees Cee rea Business Statistics. nd Ed. ees See ed ony eet tno oye eee oes meet) Seems) Renee ts era rear) erecta) eed Manager Finance eel Vea res ‘Microeconomic Theory, 2nd Ed ert) Cen Personal Finance & Consumer 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