.
28
interests in particular aspects
of sexual behavior. We therefore
focusedon the developmentof a self-
report instrument to measure sex-
ual motives.
A '7'L t 1 I:' 1t f focusof the activity, that is, whether
"
S 1 fl.eOre
1 ~". lca
"
t . .L'ormu
t" a lon 0
exua .11'10
lva lon
Motivation is a state of increased
interest in a particular goal. With
respect to sexual motivation, the
goal is experiencing satisfaction
associatedwith sexual behavior. In
more operational terms, motivation
is the processby which behavior is
initiated, energized, maintained,
and directed toward a goal (Buck,
1988; Heckhausen, 1991). The
processconsistsof the orientation of
cognitive, affective, and motor activ-
ities in service of its attainment. In
accounting for changes in motiva-
tion generally,many traditional the-
orists have maintained that
motivational processesare stimu-
lated by the perception that desir-
able or undesirable incentives are
available in the current situation,
which are the goals of motivated
behavior. However, for behavior to
be initiated toward the incentives,
individuals must also believe that
their actions will reasonably lead to
the attainment of the incentives
(Heckhausen,1991).
As with motivation in general
(Atkinson, 1966;Heckhausen,1991),
we propose that sexual motivation
involves interest in attaining a gen-
eral class of incentives, all of which
provide the samebasic type of satis-
faction (i.e., that associated with
sexual expression).That is, human
motivation is hypothesizedto result
from interest in any of a number of
separate, but related incentives
(Buss, 1986; Hill, 1987; Spence &
Helmreich, 1983; Veroff & Veroff,
1980).In addition to the desire for
incentives related to pleasure and
reproduction proposed by Murray
(1938) and other prominent early
theorists (Freud, 1940/1969; Mas-
ters & Johnson, 1966), we propose
that several more socially-oriented
types of incentives also motivate
Dispositional Sexual Motives
sexual behavior-specifically, affec-
tion between people and power
exertedor yielded to (Murray, 1938).
Further, we proposethat the experi-
ence of satisfaction dependson the
. dIVl
In . "d I "
ua s perceIve th emseIves as
th t th .. t f rt .
e agen or e reclplen 0 ce aln
actions (although an individual may
perceive both types of actions as
occurring simultaneously during
sexual interaction). Such a distinc-
tion is similar to that employedby
Murray (1938) between nurturance
and succoranceand between domi-
nance and deference. Eight incen-
tives are hypothesized to motivate
sexual behavior: (a) feeling valued
by one'spartner, (b) showing that a
person values his or her partner, (c)
obtaining relief from stress or nega-
tive psychologicalstates, (d) provid-
ing nurturance through sexual
interaction to improve a partner's
psychologicalcondition, (e) enhanc-
ing feelings of personal power, (f)
experiencingthe power of one'spart-
ner, (g) experiencing pleasure, and
(h) procreating.
This perspective emphasizesthe
importance of situational factors
external to the individual as the
causes of motivated behavior (i.e.,
the availability of incentives). In
addition to situational factors, dis-
positional theorists also emphasize
factors internal to the person, the
value that different individuals
place on the incentives that are
available. Enduring interest in a
particular type of incentive is
referred to as a dispositional motive
(Heckhausen, 1991) or a disposi-
tional need in the framework of
Murray's theory of motivation (Mur-
ray, 1938). The concept of disposi-
tional motive is not merely
descriptive but is intended as an
explanatory construct (Heckhausen,
1991). Dispositional motives deter-
mine the nature of an individual's
reaction to incentives that are avail-
able in the environment. Individu-
als with strong interest in an
available sexual incentive are
hypothesizedto experiencea height-
enedmotivational state in that situ-
ation, whereasindividuals with less
interest in the incentive will experi-
ence a smaller increase in motiva-
tion to attain the incentive. Because
dispositional motives influence
. In
behaVlor . sItuatIons
. . aftior dIng
"
reI -
.. h ""
evant InCentives, t elr m fl uence
results in a pattern of similar
behavior acrosssimilar situations or
produces the same behavior in
future occurrencesof the samesitu-
ation (Emmons, 1989; Heckhausen,
1991; Murray, 1938). Dispositional
motives also organize perception
and emotion around motive-rele-
vant goals, binding together seem-
ingly different behaviors as related
to the goals.
Because incentives intrinsic to
sexual behavior are conceivedas a
class of distinguishable rewards, we
propose that individuals may pos-
sessan interest in one or in several
sexual incentives. That is, distinct
sexual motives are assumed to be
associatedwith eachof the separate
sexual incentives proposed previ-
ously. The self-report instrument
developedin the current study was
intended to assessindividual differ-
ences in the eight sexual motives
related to these sexual incentives.
The relationship betweensexual
motives and sexual desire. Sexual
desire is a particularly difficult
aspectof sexual responseto concep-
tualize adequately (Bancroft, 1989).
Although desire has been conceived
of as a distinct phase in prominent
clinical models of human sexual
response (American Psychiatric
Association, 1994; Kaplan, 1979),
Bancroft cautionedthat little empir-
ical evidenceexists to support a dis-
tinction between the desire and
excitement phases.Few researchers
have operationalized or measured
sexual desire in nonclinical popula-
tions, particularly employingassess-
ment instruments derived from a
specific theoretical construct. The
lack of well-constructed and well-
validated measures(O'Carroll, 1991)
makes it difficult to evaluate the
exact nature of the conceptof sexual

desire, much less its validity and
practical utility. One of the few
empirical attempts to measure sex-
ual desire is the set of ratings devel-
oped by Beck et al. (1991) to
determine the frequency of desire in
a nonclinical sample.
As presentedin theoretical discus-
sions (e.g., Leiblum & Rosen, 1988)
and as defined by Beck et al. (1991),
sexual desire is a subjective feeling
that may be causedby factors both
internal and external to the individ-
ual and that mayor may not result in
overt sexual behavior. Sexual desire
has been regarded as a relatively
non-specificsensationthat results in
a subjective assessmentof height-
ened sexual interest. Furthermore,
the subjectiveexperienceof interest
is often assumed to be associated
with a potentially complex array of
cognitive,affective,and neurophysio-
logicalantecedentsand concomitants
(Bancroft, 1989).Yet, the theoretical
links among sexual desire, precipi-
tating conditions, and behavioral
outcomeshave been discussedonly
in the most general sense.By exten-
sion, however,the sexual desire con-
struct is apparently intended as a
mediating processbetween precipi-
tating factors and the translation of
these influences into specific sexual
behaviors (including fantasizing,
masturbation,and sexualinteraction
with a partner).
Although sexual desire may be
viewed as a transient state, it has
alsobeenconceivedof as experienced
by an individual at a characteristic
level of intensity. In this view, typical
intensity suggestsa disposition-like
tendency(for example,in the concept
of trait sexual arousability, Griffitt,
1987, and in discussionsof hypoac-
tive sexualdesiredisorder,such as in
the Diagnostic and Statistical Man-
ual of Mental Disorders, American
PsychiatricAssociation,1994).Given
the proposeddispositional nature of
this form of sexual desire, the pro-
clivity for an individual to experience
characteristic levels of arousal is
likely to reflect the influence of stable
motives.
Hill and Preston
Consequently, we hypothesized
that the proposeddispositional sex-
ual motivesregularly activate or ini-
tiate sexual feelings and may
contribute to heightened sexual
desire. Dispositional sexual motives
are likely to exert stable, recurring
influences on sexual desire because,
theoretically, dispositional motives
are enduring and operate across a
variety of motive-relevant situa-
tions in an individual's life. Beyond
a generalized influence, sexual
motives may also independently
increase sexual desire abovetypical
levels in situations that are concep-
tually relevant to a specific motive,
meaning those that afford the
opportunity to attain specificincen-
tives (e.g.,love and esteem).In such
situations, a particular sexual
motive (e.g., to express love and
value for one's partner) can be
expected to predict sexual desire
and sexual behavior independently
of one'stypical level of sexual desire.
To examine the relationship
between the proposedset of sexual
motives and the construct of sexual
desire, the eight sexual motive
scales were correlated with a mea-
sure of typical sexual desire based
on the Beck et al. ratings. Addition-
ally, both instruments were
employed as correlates of sexual
behaviors to investigate the rela-
tionship of motives and desire to
sexual activity.
..
GenderDif(erencesLn
Sexual Monves
Gender-roleprescriptionsin U.S.
society maintain that men should
have a strong, pervasiveinterest in
sex and women should be relatively
less interested in and more
restrained about sex (Griffitt, 1987;
Tiefer, 1993;Whitley, 1988).However,
researchrelated to reasonsfor engag-
ing in sexualintercourse(a term typ-
ically referring to penile-vaginal
intercourse) has indicated that a
more accurate conceptualizationof
genderdifferencesmay be in terms of
the typesof motivesthat leadto inter-
est in sexual behavior. Several
29 .
researchershave demonstratedthat
men are more likely to be interested
in sexual intercoursefor reasonsof
lust, pleasure, "physical release,"or
being "horny" (Carroll et al., 1985;
Denney et al., 1984; Leigh, 1989;
Whitley, 1988).Women,on the other
hand, have reportedbeing interested
for emotional reasons, such as the
expressionof love.Suchresearchsug-
geststhat genderdifferencesmay be
found for severalmotivesproposedin
the current theoretical framework.
Three motives relate conceptuallyto
feelingsof love and intimacy for one's
partner (i.e., feeling valued by one's
partner, expressingvalue for one's
partner, and providing nurturance
through sexual expression),and one
motive focuseson obtaining pleasure
and sexual release. Thus, women
were expected to endorse motives
related to emotionalexpressionto a
greater extent, whereas men were
expectedto endorsemotives related
to pleasure.
.
OverVLew of the Research
The purpose of the research was
to provide evidence regarding the
existence of eight distinct sexual
motives by demonstratingthat indi-
viduals variously report being sexu-
ally stimulated by each of the eight
proposed types of incentives. By
doing so, we sought to provide sup-
port for the position that a number
of different factors-rather than one
fundamental reproductive drive or
one pleasure-oriented drive-serve
as sexualmotives.Wealsoattempted
to establish a relationship between
sexual motives and the measure of
sexual desire so that the different
types of sexual motives could be
linked empirically to established
measuresof desire.Finally, the rela-
tionships of the eight sexual motives
to self-reports of sexual behavior
and typical responsesto sexualfeel-
ings were examined,to demonstrate
that the proposed motives are
empirically associated with overt
sexual responding.
In Study 1, to provide support for
the proposed formulation, a self-
30 Dispositional Sexual Motives

report questionnaire, The Affective
and Motivational Orientation
Related to Erotic Arousal Question-
naire (AMORE), was designed to
measure the degree to which indi-
viduals value and are interested in
the sexual incentives associated
with the eight proposed motives.
Responsesto the questionnaire were
factor analyzedto demonstrate that
the statements clustered into
groups reflecting the theoretically
proposeddimensions. Based on the
first factor analysis, the question-
naire was revised and administered
to two additional sets of respondents
in Studies 2 and 3. Data gathered in
these subsequentstudies were also
factor analyzed in an attempt to
replicate the first factor solution.
The convergent and discriminant
validity (Campbell& Fiske, 1959)of
the final instrument was exaInined
in Studies 2 and 3 by correlating
scoresfor each of the eight motive
scaleswith establishedmeasuresof
attributes and behaviors commonly
employedin researchon personality
and human sexuality.
Study 1
Method
Participants. Participants were
612introductory psychologystudents
(385 women and 227 men) who
receivedcoursecredit for participat-
ing in the research.Participantswere
informed prior to volunteering that
the study concernedreasonsthat indi-
viduals typically experience sexual
feelings.The averageage of the par-
ticipants was 23.32years,with 38.8%
being older than 21 years. With
respect to current legal marital sta-
tug, 71.9%were single, 19.6%were
married, 8.0% were separated or
divorced,and 0.5%were widowed.In
terms of current romantic involve-
ment, 58.4%reportedbeing in a seri-
ousrelationship(includingmarriage),
20.8%wereseeingor dating someone,
and 20.8%were not seeingor dating
anyoneat the time.
Measures.At least 10 statements
were written to reflect each motive,
with the initial version of the
AMORE comprising 101 randomly
ordered items. The responseformat
consistedof a five-point Likert scale
ranging from not at all true (1) to
moderatelytrue (3) to co~pletelytrue
(5). Respondentswere Instructed to
indicate how true or descriptiveeach
sta~ment was of them. Potentially
am?I~OUS terms such as sexual
a.cuvlty and partner were opera-
nonally definedf~r the respo?dents.
(A complete verSIon of the mstruc-
tions can be obtained from the
authors.) . .
Procedure. Part~cIpants
pl~t~d the AMORE.m. gz:oupscom-
pnsmg 30 or fewer IndIVIduals.
Results
.. . the power of one'ssexualpartner (10
Factor analysls. A p~ncIpal com-
ponents factor analysIs was con-
ducted using oblique rotation (Ll =
0), based on the assumptionthat the
motive factors were moderately
related. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) measure of sampling ade-
quacy was .95, indicating that the
matrix was appropriate for factor
analysis. As predicted, the eight fac-
tors obtained from an unconstrained
factor solution consisted almost
exclusively of items that were con-
structed to represent a given factor
(see Table 1). Specifically, 62 of the
original items written to representa
particular motive loaded most
highly (approximately .30 or above)
on the same factor and only mini-
mally on other factors (less than
.30).Thirty-nine original items were
eliIninated becausetheir pattern of
loadings was weak (i.e., < .30) or
because they were factorially com-
plex (i.e., they loaded substantially
on more than one factor).
The final version of the AMORE
(Table 1) consistedof the eight pre-
dicted motive dimensionsreflectinga
desireto (a)feelemotionallyvaluedby
one'spartner (7 items); (b) express
fi lings of emotional value for one's
pe;rtner(8 items);(c)obtainrelieffrom
stress or from negative psychological
com- states (10 items); (d) provide one's
partner with nurturance or stress
relief (6 items); (e) enhanceone'sfeel-
ings of power (10 items); (f) experience
items); (g) experiencepleasure (5
items); and (h)procreate(6 items).

Table 1
Factor Pattern Matrix of the Final Version of the AMORE
Factor
Item Number from the AMORE Scale and Item Statement I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Experiencing the Power of One's Partner

47. I often find it a real turn-on when my partner takes charge and becomes .89 -.02 -.00 -.00 -.05 .04 .00 -.08
authoritative .during sexual activity or fantasy.
54. I am especially excited by the feeling of domination and being controlled .86 -.01 -.03 -.01 .09 .01 -.01 -.13
by my partner during sex and sexual fantasy.
19. Sex and sexual fantasies are most exciting when I feel like my partner has .84 -.04 .07 .08 -.04 -.07 -.02 -.02
totally overpowered me and has taken complete control.
23. Many times it is extremely thrilling when my partner takes complete charge .84 -.03 -.02 .04 .08 -.04 -.04 .11
and begins to tell me what to do during sex.
50. I find it very exciting when my partner becomes very demanding and urgent .82 .08 -.03 -.07 .01 .02 -.01 -.07
during sex and sexual fantasy, as if he or she needs to possess me completely.
25. Often I have a real need to feel dominated and possessed by my partner .79 -.02 -.10 .02 -.06 -.05 .04 -.13
while we are engaged in sex or sexual fantasy.
 Hill and Preston 31

Table 1,. continued

Factor
Item Number from the AMORE Scale and Item Statement I II III IV V VI VII VIII
13. It is frequently very arousing when my partner gets very forceful and .77 -.09 .00 -.00 -.05 -.01 .05 .11
aggressive during sex.
51. I frequently become very aroused when I sense that my partner is excited .72 .19 -.08 -.01 .01 .08 -.03 .04
by controlling and directing our sexual activity or fantasy.
5. Sexual activities and fantasies are most stimulating when my partner .64 -.12 .10 -.06 -.02 -.03 -.08 .26
seems extremely self-assured and demanding during sex.
29. Engaging in sexual activity is a very imp~rtant way for me to experience and .48 .04 -.14 .03 -.14 -.15 -.06 -.05
appreciate the personal strength and forcefulness that my partner is capable of.
Emotional Value for One's Partner
60. Sharing affection and love during sexual intercourse is one of the most -.05 .77 .00 .03 .05 .00 -.04 -.01
intense and rewarding ways of expressing my concern for my partner.
44. One of the most satisfying aspects of engaging in sex is expressing the .06 .76 .05 -.01 -.04 -.00 -.04 .10
intensity of my feelings for my partner while we are having sex.
43. The sense of emotional bonding with my partner during sexual intercourse -.01 .75 .05 -.00 .03 -.12 .01 .11
is an important way of feeling close to him or her.
61. The sense of emotional closeness I experience from having sex with my .01 .66 -.09 .06 -.07 -.17 .05 -.07
partner is one of the most satisfying ways I know of feeling valued.
59. Sexual intercourse is important in creating a great deal of emotional -.07 .63 -.07 .04 -.03 -.17 -.01 -.00
closeness in my relationship with my partner.
55. One of the most satisfying features of sex is when my partner really .05 .60 .11 .01 .00 -.05 -.31 -.07
seems to need the love and tenderness it conveys.
17. A major reason I enjoy having sex with my partner is because I can .04 .58 .09 .02 .04 -.26 -.09 .00
communicate how much I care for and value him or her.
49. Being able to experience my partner's physical excitement and sexual .15.44 .06 -.12 -.09 .05 -.10 .41
release is incredibly thrilling and stimulating for me.
Relief from Stress
39. Many times when I am feeling unhappy or depressed, thinking about .02 .01 -.82 -.02 -.03 -.00 -.04 .02
sex or engaging in sexual activity will make me feel better.
40. When things are not going well, thinking about sex or doing something .02 .09 -.82 -.05 -.04 .10 -.08 -.02
sexual is often very uplifting for me and helps me to forget about my
problems for a while.
45. I often have a strong need to fantasize about sex or to do something sexual .03 -.04 -.79 .02 -.07 .00 -.02 -.08
when I feel upset or unhappy.
27. I find that thinking about or engaging in sexual activity can frequently .00 -.00 -.78 .02 -.06 -.06 -.05 .01
help me get through unpleasant times in my life.
20. When I am going through difficult times, I can start feeling better simply by .10 -.02 -.78 .07 .01 -.03 .02 .05
engaging in some type of sexual fantasy or behavior.
28. I often feel like fantasizing about sex or expressing myself sexually when .03 -.08 -.77 .03 -.06 -.12 .01 -.07
life isn't going very well and I want to feel better about myself.
37. Doing something sexual often seems to greatly improve my outlook on life .03 -.00 -.72 -.03 -.04 -.03 -.12 .02
when nothing seems to be going right.
3. When bad or frustrating things happen to me, many times I feel like engaging .03 -.13 -.67 .04 .13 -.11 .01 .10
in sexual fantasy or doing something sexual to try to get to feeling better.
12. Thinking about sex or engaging in sex sometimes seems to help me keep .01 -.02 -.66 .04 -.04 -.10 -.00 .14
on going when things get rough.
31. Thinking about sex or engaging in sexual behavior can frequently be a source -.01 .08 -.64 -.10 -.04 .05 -.11 .13
of relief from stress and pressure for me.
Procreation
42. One of the main reasons I am interested in sex is for the purpose of having -.00 .01 .01 .81 -.02 .07 .01 -.09
children.
4. Sex is important to me largely for reproductive reasons. .03 -.00 -.00 .74 -.03 .00 -.06 .06
8. Often while I am engaging in sex or fantasy, the idea that children might .02 .08 -.05 .69 .00 -.04 .02 .10
result from our sexual behavior is extremely arousing.
15. I especially enjoy sex when my partner and I are trying to have a baby. -.02 .08 .01 .66 .02 .00 -.05 .13
32. I would prefer to have sex primarily when I am interested in having a child. .03 -.11 -.10 .63 -.03 -.01 .03 -.21
21. The idea of having children is not very significant in my feelings about why -.02 .01 .06 -.51 -.01 .06 .03 -.07
sexual activity is important to me.
Enhancement of Power
46. I really enjoy having sex as a way of exerting dominance and control over .14 -.02 -.02 .06 -.79 .05 .08 -.08
my partner.
56. Often the sense of power that I have over my sexual partner can be extremely.ll .13 -.07 -.05 -.76 .15 .02 -.07
exhilarating.
32 Dispositional Sexual Motives

Table I, continued
Factor
Item Number from the AMORE Scale and Item Statement I II III IV V VI VII VIII
11. I find sexual behavior and sexual fantasy most exciting when I can feel .03 -.12 .06 -.00 -.76 .03 -.03 .08
forceful and dominant with my partner.
6. I find that I often feel a sense of superiority and power when I am expressing -.15 -.12 -.00 .06 -.72 -.12 -.10 .12
myself sexually.
48. I am often very excited by the sense of power that I feel I have over my .14 .09 .01 -.03 -.74 .02 .01 -.08
partner when I am sexually attractive to him or her.
58. I frequently find it quite arousing to be very directive and controlling while .16 .07 -.09 .03 -.68 .12 .08 -.00
having sex with my partner.
41. Engaging in sexual activity is very important to me as a means of feeling .01 .04 -.25 -.05 -.65 -.02 .08 .05
powerful and charismatic.
16. Often engaging in sex with my partner makes me feel like I have established .03 -.09 .05 .06 -.63 -.20 -.04 -.02
myself as a force to be reckoned with.
7. One of the most exciting aspects of sex is the sense of power I feel in .01 .04 .16 -.05 -.63 -.12 -.12 .14
controlling the sexual pleasure and stimulation my partner experiences.
53. Expressing myself sexually generally makes me feel personally strong -.01 .08 -.23 -.02 -.63 .00 -.05 .02
and in control of things.
Emotionally Valued by One's Partner
1. Often when I need to feel loved, I have the desire to relate to my partner .02 .00 -.00 .02 .06 -.66 -.02 .28
sexually because sexual intimacy really makes me feel warm and cared for.
14. I frequently want to have sex with my partner when I need him or her to .13 -.03 -.14 -.02 -.09 -.62 -.04 -.07
notice me and appreciate me.
36. When I need to feel a sense ofbelongingness and connectedness, sex with -.03 .25 -.10 -.04 -.11 -.62 -.02 -.13
my partner is really an important way of relating to him or her.
9. Frequently, when I want to feel that I am cared for and that someone .06 .10 -.07 -.03 -.03 -.61 -.09 .04
is concerned about me, relating to my partner sexually is one of the most
satisfying ways to do so.
35. I often feel like having sex with my partner when I need to feel understood -.01 .17 -.12 -.06 -.08 -.61 -.07 -.16
and when I want to relate to him or her on a one-to-one level.
26. One of the best ways of feeling like an important part of my partner's .02 .20 .01 -.06 -.05 -.55 -.14 -.01
life is by relating to him or her sexually.
38. I frequently feel like expressing my need for emotional closeness and .10 .29 -.20 -.07 -.01 -.48 .05 .04
intimacy by engaging in sexual behavior or fantasy with my sexual partner.
Nurturance
10. Often the most pleasurable sex I have is when it helps my partner forget -.01 -.13 -.08 -.00 .01 -.08 -.80 .00
about his or her problems and enjoy life a little more.
2. I enjoy having sex most intensely when I know that it will lift my partner's .08 -.15 .04 .03 .02 -.07 -.79 .08
spirits and improve his or her outlook on life.
62. To me, an extremely rewarding aspect of having sex is that it can make my .05 .32 -.07 .00 -.04 .10 -.63 -.03
partner feel good about himself or herself.
33. Often when my partner is feeling down on life or is unhappy about -.09 .07 -.27 -.05 -.10 -.11 -.55 -.17
something, I like to try to make him or her feel better by sharing intimacy
together sexually.
52. I frequently want to have sex with my partner because I know how much he .06 .19 .02 .00 -.07 .02 -.55 .17
or she enjoys it and how good it makes my partner feel as a person.
57. I find it very rewarding when I can help my partner get through rough times .02 .27 -.26 -.03 -.04 .06 -.55 -.25
by showing how much I care and being sexually intimate with him or her.
Pleasure
18. The sensations of physical pleasure and release are major reasons that -.03 -.11 -.16 -.09 -.12 -.10 -.07 .58
sexual activity and fantasy are so important to me.
24. I really value sexual activit yas a way of enjoying myself and adding an .13 .13 -.17 .00 -.16 -.06 -.07 .52
element of adventure to my life.
22. In many way&, I think engaging in sex and sexual fantasy are some of the .08 .17 -.22 .02 -.08 -.08 .00 .52
most exciting and satisfying activities I can experience.
34. The experience of sexual tension and energy are in many ways the most .11 .08 -.23 -.01 -.19 .04 .04 .42
thrilling and important aspects of sexual activity and fantasy.
30. I find it extremely exciting to be playful and to have fun when I am .09 .34 -.11 -.12 -.08 .18 -.05 .41
expressing myself sexually.

men.