GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUESIesitineraetencees om sheen manna sp ghkibmietecetntee rete tet : ride cine eect es sir corsag eee seeararntscienisanette eit aii ‘grngtewrdpreeeed manor Thsve need thle 8 Kemal Mr. M. Gajonsran for drafting of the sketches and charta, eee Aeskathinaturcoldnot aren pilot » ctibobt rth pass, ndrtanin ‘and continuous encouragement shown by my wife Indira. a ‘Tho author meeomes sugatdns fom student ; or wees agate a dete cor angina for chor .PURUSHOTHAMA RAJ Contents 1, Formation and Development of Ground a ae 1a 1 16, 16 Ttration Formation of Rsk, Soll and Sit Profle 12:1. Principe Rock Types 122, OviginotSile 128, Typon of Wethoring 124. Major Sil Type 125 SeilPr Soil isteibtion in Tin 4181, Marino Doposite 192, Blase Cotton Sits 129. Lateitorand Latoritie Soils and Murvoms 34. Alluvial Deposits 1A5, DeeortSails 135, Boulder Depots Alterations of Ground Aor Formation VAAL Elst of Seasonal Mistre Variation 12, Bist of Water Seepugo and Surice Erosion 149. Bifatet Vegettion 1.44. Biot Permparature Variation 1A, Effet of Vibration 16. Bifest of ining Subsidence ana Pumping G7. Bet of Cansteetion Operation eulaimed Soils 115.1, "TypovofRedamation Material 152. _Coneteustion Methods 163. ‘Lan Gos and Leach E64. Landi Linare and Caps ‘Ground Improvement Potentind 1.61, Harardoas Ground Conditions 162, Por Ground Conditions1.68. Pavourable Ground Conditions 1.84. _AlterstivoApproachen 65. Gootechnee Proceson 2.Compaction 21. Introduction 22, Compaction Mechanis 22.1. Donation 2.22. MoitureDensity Relationship 228. Laboratory Compaction Texte 224. Compactiv Boet 226. Engineering Behaviour of Computed Fine grained Sell 28. Field Prceduro 231. Controlled Compactad Fill 2.32. Pavement Subgrade 293, Mateial Salestion Factors 234. BorzewPite 2.35, Placement and Peosesting 23. Compaction Speifoation 24. Surface Compaction 2.41. Smooth Whe lina 2.4.2. > Shoopafot Rollo 248 Grid Rallors 244. Preumate Tied Rllte 2.45. Othar Surface Cmpsction Devons 248. DynamicCempacion 25, Selection of Fold Compaction Prossduree 25.1. Cholee of Equipment 2.52. LayerThidknoee 253, Wettingana Drying Methods 24, Conszution Traffic 265, Sstovton of Sail end Degree of Compection 256. TvialZmbankints 26, Compaction Quality Conitol 2.01. Moisture Content Mesnorements 262, Insite Density Meanuroment 2.69. Nuclear Mosture-Density Method 264. Hills Method Sesess SSSSSSRERISSatSsEESeeeageeRseEE oo 8,Drainage Methods 84, Ietolvetion 32. Seopnee 38. Pilter Reguiternents 84. Groundwater 8.6 Groundwater and Seepage Control 8.6, Methods of Dewatering Systoms 361. Opon Sums and Ditehes 862. Wellpoint Sytome 363. DeepwellDrainsgs 2.64, Vasuum Dewstering Syne ‘886, Dowatering by Blcto-smos 8%, Design Stops for Dowataring Spot: 74. Submit Tavetigation 8:72, Soures and Water Tele Deta 181.8. Diptanee of Wellin Wells rom Souic of Seepage ‘814, Biative Well Radius 2.76. Diichasge Computations 3.78, Devignotiters 8.77. Design and Seletion of Well Seroons 378. Selection of Pump and Ascssoies 319, Welpeinting in Deep Rxsavations 87.10, Doep Bored Wells 8.711, Control of Surfae Water 28 Drsine 81. OponDreine 3.9, Closed Deaine 383. Horizontal Drains R.B4. Drainage After Contraction 4.Procompression and Vertical Drain 4.1, Teteodotion 42. Compreniilty of Sil an Coneaiation 42.1. Compresability 422. One-imensional Cnsalidation 428, Comprossitlity Charactorstin of ei Deposits 4.24. Methods of Balusting omprestiityo 425. RatoofConlidtion 4.2.8. _Accaleraing Consolidation 48. Prfoading ond Sorcha Fils 431, Procomprosson Prinilos 482, Prlondi Methods 4.28. —Constuetion Require ‘Monitoring of Compression 441. Prodation rom Botggs ana Tots 464.2: Proltion om Tost Pile 443. Monitoring Time Rae of Sttloment 444. Thoteumentstion 45. Vottioa Dine 451. Gonarl Principle 452. Designef Verte Dina 4.53, Types and Consteactin of Vesti! Drains 44, Efilncy of Vertical Diane 455. Applieations 4:6, Dynami Consliation 441. Conesidtisn by Bloto-smos 5. Vibration Methods 51 Intvoduction 52. VibroCompaction 521. Blasting 5:22, Vibatory Probe 528. _Vibrainry Compactors to-Dieplacensent Compaction 58.1. Displacement Piles 552. Vibrofetation 53.3, Band Compaction Pike 524, Stone Cohmne 585, Heavy Tenping 6.Groutingand Injestion 81. Introduction 62 Axpetsof Grouting 621, Groutabilty 622. Grouting Matvile 828. Suspension Goats ba, seaeege 100 102 02 108 104 106 no ua 14 ur us cry ne 124 125 wr 128 0 120 120 18 0 MG M6 Me ur Ms Mo 440 624, Solution Grouts (626, Compaction Grouting 63. GroutingProsedare G81. PregoatingSite Investigation 222, Grout Holes Patten 683, Grout Characteritics 54. GroatingPlant and Equipment . 835. Injeton Methods (636 Grout Injeetion Mogrurements and Monitoring 64. Appientions . G41. Soopage Coisal $42. Soil olidfenton sind Stbiliaston 84.3, Vibration Control ‘T-Mechanicnl, Cemonting and Chemleal Stabilization 14, Intrtuction 12, Regulsmntsof Si Stailztion 18. Meshal Stabilization BL. Mechonia Stabity of Mattila 1182, Proprtioningthe Materials 1183. Addition or Berra of Soll Parsee ‘14, Portland Comet Comenting Sabiiation aa. NetoreafSoil 742, ArountafConont TAS. Mixing TAA. Moisture Content TAS. Compaction Conditions 7148, Ageand Curing 14:1. Adnintore for Soi-Coment TAB. Gonstretion of Soi-Cement 125. Bituminous (Comentng) Stabillaaton 264. NaturoofSeit "162, _Amountot Asphalt 163. Ming "164. Compaction Conditions ‘155. Cus Conations 456, Constzuction of Sait Aephalt 182 186 181 187 199 160 110 m m 1m 15 m7 am ro m8 18 v9 180 a8 181 188 183 ia 185 185 188 186 st 187 188 188« 1.6. Chemical Stabilization 161. Line ‘162. Calcium and Sedum Chores 788. Ligsin 164, Waterproofs ‘165. Natural and Sythots Polymers 1166. _Agaregants and Daportante 18.2. Mivenllanoous Chemical St 1A. Conetrustion Moths TAA. Mivin-pace Method 142, TravllingPlont Method 14.3, Stationary Plant Method 144, Field Coteot, 8: Geosynthetics BL Introuation 82, Gecaynthetic Types 821. RawMatorain 822. Wovenn 828, Nonwovens 824. Kwited 8.25, Biogradablo. \ 826 Netsand Grids 8.27. Theeimensonal Miata 828. Composioe 829. Mombraner 85. Propatie of Gomnynthotios 82.1. Mri and Foe Propertiss 892. Geometrical Anpots 83, Mechanica Poopetin 834. HydraulioPropertion 236, Durability 4, Applicatians of Geoeynthtion 54.1. Separation 1842, Filtaton nd Fivid Transmiesion 843. Reinforeoment 844, Containment and Bassons 180 180 180 191 101 206 au a 24 au 28 228 om 0.Mincellancour Methods 91, Tnteduation 92, Soil Reinforeoment 91. Material 922. Applontione 9.28, Columns Formed In Sita 88, ‘Thorml Methods 931. Stabilization by Heating 92, Stabilization by Conling 94, Other Simple Methods 941, Slurey‘rorch 24, Moisture Bair: 942, Prewetting BAA. Void Filing 95, Typroving Rook Stability and Quality 95:1. Trealmant and Purpose 95.2. Unlit Pressure and Sepa Control 953, RoskBainfvcament 2.64. Ros Deterioration Provention 26. Ground Improvement-—A Ganmary [Btbllogeaphy 7 230 290 aa 202 224 238 238 ast 299 229 299 250 299 240 40 240 2a 240 a 253al 5 paase pose FrcRSESge?2 Be List of Symbols CConstantispacingot wells Confiiont a eorpreebiity Cootisient Contant Compression index ‘Sidelined cohesion ‘Confint of onan for oriaontal dig Point eohesion {Caffiiont ef contoliatlan for verti desinage Partie eizaeonaled medaluaeTeative depth Shes eanatrained module ‘Average demateltainags path thylnecoplymer bitumen Initia void ratio Specie gravity Groutbiity ratio ‘Thickness of ayerktepth of mata water table Avetnge head los Hendfhight of drop een et tho voll Hyraliogvadiont CCrflsient of permonbility {Coffisientofelestruemetis permeability Coufiiont of horiantal prmeabilty Coofisint of erteal pormesbiity Distance ose from wellestode spacing Stone clufan length Loedensity polytivlene near low dons polyethylene {Gotficiont ef values corpressbilty ‘Standard penetration reitanes Natural ororburdon street Oversnnaidation ratiospagrteEs oo ‘Tota land an stone cola Preconolldation presure (Overburden pressure Polyamide Polyethylene Polypropylene Polyinychorie Alowablo boning pasty (Cone penetration resistanco adi of influence aioe Radia of wel sty empresa Initial compresion Secondary comprersion "ime fetor for taal flow ‘Tomo fctr for vorteal Mla Time ‘ime whon primary compression complete ogre of enzalidtion Pore presuredtfernes Dejeofensalidatin or sail ow Dee of ensaliatin fr one dimensional fw Voltage difrence Diachargo vloiyneuum at pump inte Seepage vest Weight ofexplorveeight dropped gui iit Unit osight of water hangs in presare ‘Time increment Additonal tees Etfcive adil trons festive conmalidation tae Drainod ange of intarnal tion Bifiiengy tor ~~ Cuapter 1 Formation and Development of Ground 1A. INTRODUCTION "The material that conta arts rast ie boadly elesified into to elagoies te vock and sil Rock Ia a mataral stongly bowel of minrals whereas solo en eemblage fell prices formed hy disintegration of eck, It =p bneath rivers [Indseesandon land lang witha orgie and snorganiemeterilsoseying tho betork, “The type and choreterite propertios af the ells dopond en its fermion and deposition by tennsporation agente Additonal partici binding tara ple due to the proses of ertanates, oxides and oganie mata, The expesuo of ei ith Lime develops ipeatherng pai rom th ground rurfass don, ‘Changes pound after foriation, cure dat dire natural cass and nae civitio othe thant prod tystractaes, Marana lands eae relaimed lands {isos In ow ying aren anon war by land fillings "Te ground formed base on ts above ative should havo equate mecanisst ‘aya properties other Che ground hast be improved "This Chapter dle wth the formation af ferent types of sil and thu rthor terstion dof diferent tearm ad Mentos th conditions of ound which requis found improvement 1, FORMATION OF ROCK, SOIL, AND SOIL PROFILE loi an rok ae tho prinipalsrucbral meteiae with whish iit engineer deals. ence a knowledge of th ergin, manner af occurence, an chacacteristise of these, ‘motor i eseeiil forthe aaseuetul protic of evil engineering design end eonsrae- tion Hecke wconsoldaied matsial composed af matraleggoyate fat are connected ly Strong boning fren, Sl, om theater hand, ean tensile mataia arposed of Inotrgl agate of ines gina which have reulted from the dlsintagration of rok ‘Border inongineoring professing considered ta nludo to elaine cl thst Is theraides of vegeta snd animal ifs ioahading industvalreadual wastes, Thus sit japaticalse matvil wherein tho gen aro bonded together nota strongly a inrocks, 2.1, PRINCIPAL ROCK TYPES ‘Toe rock imatevalaeneountered at the our of th sil are lasted under three rnjr groups, meee ferks, baed on their made sag Ignensn rose are ove by theceolingof the melon thar beneath the suessags oy the yeerytallietin of he oot eke under heat and pressure great nou Eger them Mu. Sedimentay rose af Uae proucts of minerals farmed by Physical PAeTAET Alon ofa kil of feck ape charistdarompoition and dope of plant and ‘Inimal omeine-Metamorplorock are those prasad hy informal processes uch x heat, aoe ey pantie wr ating on vsks of any ind i de Ttetion that the rosks erereesed rennin ecsontally at duting thos teansfrmations Each and every rosy [Wied under any onect eee roups bee on Uo foxture structive and minaeaogcal ‘Sompaeition ofthe rook "gneous voeke are clans primarily on tho Baie of tatare al elowt Thay are ionoraly very hard and have Wxturor that Yar fTom cnrvely erysaltne to elsny pening upen te rte ef coling Th ineaas rocks are gomaally massive witha xy ‘Rlacval eatines bone ana reek ee untaly found inal son eek, Most ofthe ‘fosaus materials that cooled vry rapidly ay contain gue bubbler eso have fagmen~ {Utsteuctaree ‘The principal mineral omelituents eo light coloured quart and fldspar Se dan colaured ernblond, bate, git an olivine ‘Sedimentary rocks may be frtho divided into thro maups, elas and heme in esoance with the oxi ef Uo eden. Rosk oF minora ‘derived fom pre~usting minaal belong laste group, thee deposited from orb ving water are grouped an gan and tow prospitated by chemical activity ore te ‘aporaton i rofeved to ax chelenl. Fhe texture of shore sedimenl® ae usualy ‘Dheowcopiswherens lotsa ongnni ay ary fram oar grind to mivonnpie. The ‘Pradomntontminerataof sedimentary rocks ae quett,calite nn chy mineral. Almost {Ute semana rocks use essed ar sandtona limestone or shale The other minor ‘onattuont ofthe rock ae ian cides, feldspar and carbonaceous material. The mast faportantssusturlcharacteistns of ealmontary zak frm the gelagiel pinot vow Julai being or sralifeation. Salon st0 mod prdominanty from deposit of fine ‘Gained particles ilo" ap elayot) Te estate tht shal covrs aver SD% ofthe ore [iis exposed at te earth's unten or slagat tthe suviace ner sileover. Sound shale ‘anprowiisn gpd foundation materia. Tee nebraitablo aa construction materntbesaane tT tendon to reais down undr aang and woatherng. ‘Motamorphis rocks ae ditingished from otorepimarilyon the bss of trite ‘and iineralopencomposton, The agent f metamorphism sac as heat rere, a {ovtheriolsltions lend to thn oxtaliation an orinntatin of minerals ot ound ‘Parone rock, Metamorph rocks ara ehninetoriaed by tho foliated strvctore. However, Tavlamorphic rocks desied hom sediments perssses a massive rither than foliated “ture The rocks alo show aructral defect as cracks anoint, By metamorphion Tieton, sandstone and shal are changed to rl, quncste a slate Metamorphic {ok fred from avund ignea or acimntary orks ean b god mera fr eteace Fon typical metamorine instal ae ebority erste tle, hornblende and aie, The ‘ont importentonginsoringsharateritiereeatamorphierosks aethesoRseneafechints find he high mney ofl ised rocks to weathering Patties Sits 0262 nt 08T5 a, Clay = O072 a. 1.28, ORIGIN OF SOILS. Upto depth ofabout 20k th ert rast eomprise ofboth sk ond weathered ‘sock (ana, Sl (outer st ovginated rom tho ok are minora ofthe earth's ‘font. The princpel mira utjet ta weathering to produce sit ator near the earths Striie and evalaointhe order of buvanee ar: quate feldspar, ryroxene amphibole, ‘ie Solid wcke neo decomposed ofrgiente creat uly tho eontuons weathering ‘racoeee in combination with xptaldforations, The tye fil doreloped depends en ‘he rok typos if neta onaitunts aa tho climate region af the on Roc containing quar ov tela noses with high ii content (oa ante an hyelte ety esempone nto sands or genvelly sols witha filelay Fine textured ‘ity nn elajy elle aro formed dt deeompeotin of rook (gabbno ail avats) Canteining noel ofiton, agnaram,ealsiom arsed, with Reston, Clays reat feagments of primery minva ror parent voce but eecosary minerals fried by he ‘Bccampostion of primary mineral, Ths the bahaviour of gravel nd sand aro difesent than tatf clay ae tha former arecompored to primary minora Give and echit decompose into eilzand winteros wth mic sates ad pyltos to ciage, merlot limestone aquaria fo sands and yauvels, Be disco earls ‘esedh notumorphieryingonown tient rsks could frm metunorphierosks and ‘SSumlated depose ow pvc with omeatingatarints ented thigh presure ould form eadimentany rock, Ths the eee prose af teenafrming rok to sil an (Satveranieacontinaot presse eseuringover millon ofyenrsthroughemplexcherisal Utd physio proceses| 1.2. 7¥PES OF WEATHERING Breaking down of inns nness of rosin snr pieces by pgs, heme or solution proceser I called reek weathering All thew Chea prosetet ay take place ikattaneousy bt at diforont rales, depanding on the climate, topogepy al compos ‘onafthecrignalreck Hoek wenthoring sone af th important gelorielpocetes. Rock product formed ty weathering ave dopeited ax unconsolidated sdients as sll, ‘Tho procaa Uy bic rook dingo inte aoa ragmente sto combination finding shattering brosking a tess charges witha invaving any chang in Ue properties eallod phiel ot mechanical worthering or dlaintegration Fer example, [lean emjestmentedavingregional wplfeacempanied by wator runs resingot walsr {incre and pores, tho abrasion of gravel an buldat by mountain strane and rivers, the pounding of wer waves on bashes olf, and the end blast endladen desert winds ew I yeathoring, Machaneal worthoring may alo be enaed by argue ality, sul ee sreoking fee exotedbyplentsgrowingin the crisis af ods andthe ‘moving fagmonie toward the surface iy abil a ise, Mechanical wentheving ‘predominates in dry regions end areas with rugged topography. ‘Chemical weathering doccmposition ix the alteration of he oe minerals, di to wna! rention, to form naw minerla which Rave chomical and physical prpetise Aterent rom hefeparensnaternds Th chmiealvnction of minrasesure with water, isrived eartandiond sd oxygen rom ai, organi cia from plant decay and dnelvedalte prosontin the eter: Hyatedonorhlseatbonatesandoulphate aro formad when ‘Slater comes in contact wth eek srfacer: Selly ainvates with pH < may rset ‘SRemloally with ome eck Pithar, during gwoogien time perind owen «Woak oid ay xine Sesomposttion, For example lsohing may remove tho somonting peoperties of Samentony rock, Choma weathering predaminates in warm; hui yegons ad fn ‘rena wth lat tapogrephy ‘Solaire tho dseolvng of woluble minerals fom tho toe, Hoving the inseluble winerle behind ee nesdue Solution ie predminent in humid region sndeain by alae roo. "Thos in the weathering process, rok minorls, av broken phils, changed hominy ant dcelvod inate Tw ene produat el hah consists predaminent of [Tun and chy mineral nih vying amount of io, oremagassm mineral rm Unidos and caonstes. Tis alterattn poop farDer continues with change onion ‘mont wel Unf ae duced ny munemad sletiag such as construction of drainage anc [rctares entation, flooding eed lings 1.24, MAJOR SOIL TYPES: ‘Basel on th muted of formation oie can be grouped inthe ron eatgoree— side sedimantary or fils Reside sae have oed fom the weathering of rosks or [ssumolation organi mataial and pracesly romain a the loelion of ng wih itl iEpo movement of individual el pasties, Sedimentary sil ro formed ty individ purticles which werecrentad atone ston anata tranportod and deposited tanethor [Eeston Fl ie a man-mate dopo ‘Rorkdunl Sls, All the thie presets of weathering eam eas the fornaton of eit sla Tho tata rock wearing is more than Uh at of raon or Uaaporeae {on of weathered tena, th tesulngsccutlted soll fs the residual ei. The em {ting seo br ts rete wonthering nd nature of weathored profucts areclinats, mm, rk sous, vogelation,daitigs and bctrialaiy. A he weathering asion {Tccoenon with depth th sper resid soils meinain the concentration of mineral ad ‘rietaton of grain of tho paren sock Ths Uh herons osu eo ecurlated a Smeal featon depen omthe ste of ee went he avai of erosive Totes teary the ell away ator i fora: Residual sole generally he wie ang of eve ian shapes compton ad onthe de slp eterna te nena oi parents Reid eile may bedsived from lhe nee bai ok. Residual sila proce from igneous eck, oush a ane, ae enn en elow sony wilt and ity aan with nic a ey of line fay Theo sil from grates dinaiy For od conetruex Tom mntovin Basal ete igneous rock, while veh in frromsghesinn materials protane reid ith higlyplactimontnonloniteclas with deopredte dar bown, [Ect and ave nes eit far cnartion ota foundation.‘ black cotton sis found India belong this roap Teil sue derived fhm cost sediment ‘composition and ate nse rained then Uno ou ‘seathoring of hate sedimentary voc Is onerally rok exit an altered minotal edimenta: Futhes the dap of ftom finest sock he no omar AN VERE OF GROUND 5 onvironmont, The residual gil fom carbonate eedlmentsny rela cont ofall the IRuulue impure ofthe rock, Theo sol have clay varying fom kacnit to wonbnorl- Tonite td iienvaryng rom boule: to aiesine an Won ox, Residual il frmed from metamexphiersks mucha oie and sohist range om andy ails to sity rends with varying amount of lea, These deposits are exreiely ‘aril in composition and extntand the aserals ae fora in Un are onder of bands SEN cvginat rors Tp rosideal sla derives fom quartzite ard marble recemble Tone fren anion oni limectanesreapestely nthe ongneering wow. Hesanseot the varaton in composition, eco residual sls nord carefubstuty before se, Residual soil ape foul abundant in hard andwarm toons which ave favourable sochesiea weathering of eck Residual cil axetim many pats ofthe wor, os, South ‘Rin’ Aten, Southeastern Nerd Aonien,Contea Amerie, thelaaris of Caeitben ant Seu Nitin Sowers (106) hae eperted the following type dpe of residual cil srithanarn United tee Sioa ‘are tua Sout 150018 ruth Aen de16m Wat Atos ovezom Beas iota Studio on rex sie are ited compare to sedentary sis Sedimentary Sells, Socimontacy sll ars produced depending onthe formation, In and depoition of vedimonts. Sudinonts are farmed besially from the in chica neutering of rocks an the arfose. Generally physlea weathering ft rooks predic Wt gravee paiicles whereas comical weathering prods cag-ized parlsdes, Tyeneportation of saiments can be eroxmon by the five pts is, water ie gravity end oraniems, Duingtho proces ranmpertation the ‘Mf the particles ar ltred and accordingly sorted depending en Uo agoney. Lambe ‘Set Whitmen (1970 ha given the effete of Usen fv traneparting agent on sediments {table 1), Thos, palsies 20 formed and transported, ar deposited in wator ar land to {em andimontay ells The dessin in watar may be caused die toreduetionnvlory, ‘esreae nelubty and ereae in eletrlyie concentrates, ‘Sedionitaty lls are Rrther assed bau on the mado of taneportation exaig tho depen Soil pve which are teaagorteiy wata aed water-transperted ile may be nthe font of nepended pails oy Tolling and aiding along the bottom of sean trrsvur, Porites traneporte by ater range imate fom baulanrs* to eny Seis Ut are ‘FantPoaytovorwater ant deprtedanoelledelwvtel daposit.Soilpartsls carried Ey arivur whi entering les depois coarae partis beeno of eudondeeeate {velo and ucla postin mero to as ake dette However th ine patiles reach ‘hoecats othe lke alge posted und quiet watrs. ory senso lternate layer Me firm aneuchtate deposite vealed acustine oposite, Thso depots ate weak rer en- svt ont pnt unin sd == secrete teat, a ==. Notas rants hg oi el ine nn ly ea wnt ie che a i= Moethca Poth tna plano -——L—rti“—~™—sC—s—sés™s™s—s—s—s—SO fossa te oe psn ens em ‘peat, Muc ly decomposed materiel, + iat im weig a Pe eb thio eialamerescttn Mahe ERY emer ‘ein tao f goto hs torn, tot at = Tey aot of ath veting sonnei, brome oe eerie Sete se emadaenaaeeigeeinnteee eis stersensceiereeetehemn or ufos anh ae ery ens particles and form construction materials. Eskcers are the remains of soils dar sited by the ‘Er psi irs Dea sonal ine oatiftha pose ‘orate ipsum nti caler arpa te foeation nd Gropp ne cali a ed eerutes: Glacial depois provide poor to oral eure ‘Tablet Bffet of Trancportation on Setimente ‘Afr Zaman Winn, 1979) faim (aaton a eer erat inch atin, mgm flop [Seaton ie em rctnpie i ae ronan sional sara Rang tah, doef angsiae, sent |e! ee sures» | sand: Sob | mpm pos Sintnd step" tte tone sung |omaidrsie | ary ces oe rine io “stig ere Veta (rages) “= Crit peer capalioftaeporting ater pstoofianprtng aii niyo aint ene there wi be apie cheng notre mowed by the Waren precees Gravity depsits are cilled a tah Tas inten the material cntlaw the Be otelffand lands dopoits ‘Wind Tke water can erate franeprtfne grained pts Uy elling or ating an Sh cane ty wid and subsequent deposited re referred > tem ad dena SAesumultione of ouch windapoited wands ae ferme os dunes, eli ee csrin deve amen, aon te dovnind sie of bedie of water having Darna et pana rue ay bed for construction purpose toa limited extent 1 rae ere oe grained vi cnn bo ransportd ty wind ta greater Win Blown ar a Te Sted with sane comenting rates in for eable onlin i> Hes Tee depots have lo deny bighsompresiy ad acento allay on ataratios, IIL The proers af et frmalon igewesed in Uheproceding sections are du te nature Aeoateiae sl apes ie fil and the pros adopted to form the i scaled Taare Aen mtsinisneeioa fr sl are alain fom « sure called Doerow oF {lig Ty Ulening and are raneorted through land or wstor wir aulabe veces eae and dopaited nthe tered location by dumping flea bs denaifed Rachie coupon dovis(oonacorecfaneatthiamorastroctirailoraecgrede) Efe unsorted Gain rk to x Hycale . 11255, $01L, PROFILE ‘Uppornet cis develop acharsteitc weathering profil fom the ground satan down heneecentinanesenpoaur tocnvionorentaletvties. The tom sll profile sect aaa serial oncton throagh the ubsol showingthethicknees and squnes of he carat irate, The sail pafie call simp or ruta, i Uv boundaries bnee ae anprotentaly parallel, ths inndavies show irregular attr the sit rei see een he yeies chemical properties of si profile upton depth ofr ae Finuenccl ty the orvonmontal fete uch ax changes of moisture atl temperate, inn coosonaldativation of toitare and temperature, amount and easanel a ee sina change to boll agents, ground wala lve the dee sree nia deelopment depends on thalengthof tine afenvzonnont activity. Infor Sener atria Un tae shaw ar pool dane ana in lor depot may ete thick av 8 to mand clearly defied ‘The nenoo of eal profits analyte clled pedolagy oil conge whi i one of tho bese lone oh agro. Ax civil engiors are als eter wth spe portion of cara itr a foundation ern aouren of eonerutin materiale knows of tho si, weit a pevtcte lection i ory impotent fr them Further nesta ground Terman techie canbe sided ony afer king he dis of 20 prot the uppermart part of Uo ground urfco ie subject to th mechanical eels of seca or eis ofsome-eanatiteente du to lenehing This oon is wforred to rreatring de snmp ange fm foe contmettestohalf a mete The lower w finuceredvanthe Bhona, wher patotth substance washed ovtofthe Aaa ae eee ited and acumtated The, Bhorizan ie bo refered to ax the zone of ‘Eceulation and hiknars varie fens 0:50 400.76,‘Tho properties of ils inthe AendB horizon are cial nose for road works. For sndation an oarhvorke ths tat etrminedonty, by th a tras am nah Std the meted of topics ed ‘Sheeqent gel ont Te sata teneath the Boron may bamogeer, ‘trai reratie Gonerally done wilontaninterial which was ieedepstal leyate, wind rain gslgcl gle Por eatoceptoitnay beaut elon ‘avenge toes. General the pglcal poprdes a mat evry manasa estoy ‘atyloaconatate ott ini verina sieion nl os malar epee mh Selo of sion ogame sei eat elo Samer, 197) Cool ana Tomporate Huns Region Sol Profi. la col tmperature reons ‘with hom later, hoes age aston ded lense, plants end athe ore {ihre caste hony growth of wpstaton Ths eumlaed marine desmpec wy sv produce weak clo which asnerat Uh weathering the cellar seman iN ownward tthe water abe ‘The uppimestaiiesbjstedta shone atorationprodasinglaofth ase family nab carbonates nn temcable reduced ion mati Theos arson dwar bythe wll ita reulingin ean sila wth dein clays Hore the topo dark aed ng aroha eae Te ached or cults in th ay apr ith deeonsng eet of enching wth dpe Tras che injer ts dv alse a onan «nts onunteatien of cy erly a ona than he vgn ol Bel theca ae ea tater lowed by unsleedprent ae, ot Samia Region and Proiie.Theupeoyrtofthe depastsin thie eon abo cexpevienoaernat weling drying nt davrvmr lacing The dacmponon [Efeter and no arpa nid proton Beem of natin ofl senate tho silt weather reed na sete snsrnont alte alae clad in leeheddownoard. ‘The aluminssn and ion bese highly orien eament ‘uniaint ssttecktie ald The ron ad alumi ge amie de tocotine Sathsring nd leaching and fom soles operotins otra tate often Sat evenod gravel with sour ranging fen tao tight rod Thiapesee veered to inert nie enrol leap ois re ptouy, ih night bat trong and oativelieompesil, So ofthe strongly cormnollatriien rea elonastoil npacsof gre Ontteather rd fem ofthe lrs-ovelpadIneien may ot sftned opon woking. Late cam be ‘ante tmeed on the pesos of sient sienna. iy Region Sil Profil. In thie ype gin thre wl en presence ofc ratte, Boots of surface eaperatin te mostaro movement ie feral eps esting ecumatation fob materials us sorbate nese cve oa tne partial ementing of tho ao ‘Thi son of daage etter to on dria by {sinatio. Thi phomemenon of dation ey mash pronounced nl afnontan tna ard roions. Ths dntrbtion of earbnatos swoon nonin, When dy ese ila re hight lncomprsshe ao rong However, pon wating tay ween sens ndsllape. Thay euldbeused a onstruction material dependingos the parent atari Textromoly ara ragons, salto o alkali topell fe formod duet soluble salts bought Lbyexpllary pein. Those sila ae refered tow desiccated roll angie often ata foreofe ook Humid-Poorly Drained Soil Profile, The wet, por dime eile frm ilar soup dapmning on the oitur, Organe growth ie usually apid in a vory wot eneon- ‘mont and tho decay prose is slo kallingteweeoationoforgunematier.Sower eaten fdoonyaeecinted with tagnaton of water produce fibrous pont While higher eats of ‘say with vetuating water lvls produce nett rele mates, In coal regions hk est deporte ae formed dust era dey. 13, SOIL DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA Inia has a combination of tropical and temperate climate conditions and expowel ta monsoon wether almost teoughout the county. Tho aarago nual ainall Yoriee fom 20 to 400 om. ‘ho als of Tai aro gooraly Yor old and fay mature ae thie Tormation is due to sanronal limate ditibation and smo of rafal. The chomil ‘eatin Involved sre mare intanso an thorafore rock dentogaton i eapaly flood by shamicaldacomyesition, Tho cil of Inde Ganga plains are mainly allyeal sed ‘ealders bing brought down ty rvers from tie limalagae Moet of a ote ot ofa, have been formed in the ateae who thoy aro found. Tho sl of lia may genoraly be ‘hse allow Picts, 1970): @) Alavil mil) Blase i Re el e) tote cll (0) Porat snd hl sols) Avid and deer scl, (9 Bali ad alive ‘sl and (op Peaty and marshy sil However, koopingia iw tho west afgeetechnica ‘ginearing the apr dopositeof eda Katiete, 1975; Ranjan Ra, 1901) whieh ‘over lnge axon Fig.) are dlecueted below. 13:1. MARINE DEPOSITS: ‘The maine deposits epread along the Indian cout are vlatiely narrow Vall and ‘generally derived fom trestial ureesoxcept for tho coral sans and med nace the [Andaman and Nob Islands andthe Lakshadwenp. These deposit are wry sof to af ‘ermal eanaoidated lghlycompreribleclaja The senitiity range ian the ardor of Slight to medion werstive end aesentaly inorganic in compaiton, Te thickness of ‘posit vary rom bt» 20m tine dapasincora longthe sons of Wart Bengal, na Pradesh, Tost Nad, Pendichory, Kerala, Ga, Karna Carat ‘The deposits gunarll need epre-eeatment before application of ey externa load, 183, BLACK COTTON SOILS ‘Block eottan eal ea of tho major coll depot of Tia andi pro vor ido ‘065 of30,000 a9, km. To ate etont tay ae foun in riens Facing oe to edi {lope and peor drtnage sondilesThe primary ed rock i ban or tap ate locations quartile, ehlsts nnd eadimentary rake ao found, Ie expansiva in nature Ae ta the presonco ef montmorilleite en ili tay minatale. Same af thas black colton ‘ell are slo fed to contin igh amount carbonate The depth of Mack cotton elle "abe sigh a 39m. Black clton oi ektende over the wate of Maher ehten, Madhya,aig suse [9 se ee eS nc | Bait sae soe (GL sw sour F eee Pradesh, Karnatakn, Andhra Prodesh, Teil Nadu and Uttar Pradosh. Batod! an the [pdologcal enmtion the depth of eack and evack alter vary.‘ soil aface ned Tnrummareoaeon ut Bacomes slushy gd os it seength substantially duting rainy ‘sean, Volume shangee up toa depth of 1.6 m genorally ever ds ta soanonal mei ‘hangne. Highly oeded esrucures ae mont utcoptble a damage ae a ena oth olen ‘changes. Beene of the sinking and avolling dhractriaties af the ola special teat ‘onto tho sole design approech hast be apie. 1.02 |LATERITES AND LATERITIC SOILS AND MURRUMS ‘Topicl regione of high moistre and high tesparatreetablsh apsial cn ofsesolerated ad inlanes weathering which ed ote developmental smniguesal pe ‘ented as atrt. In such regions woathorng seit iso intnsathatstreinndously think til exeveing 301) may br doveloped from th parent rock Una proteaes follively terned ae stevnation Latarsation ie oto deceraposiconeftek, removal lution of ailen aa bases and aessmlaton of skmninm ap sesqinsiden, tani, Tagnesir, cage an other amorphous prcta yer and Pl 172). Tho ed pnkor "row soour of laterite oneantialy eto th presane fron aids and maeaness ‘Aconrre pained concretichaty retail with 00% of thew lalerceonstituont scald Intart.Hine-grana materials with lower eonentatins of xidesat called at ltriie ‘il tortie le of nner aida ule and form on of tse aor so daposts and pron over am ten f 100000 og. hm. Lata ol oxtand ove Koval, Barna Maberashira, Ovsoa and West Bonga Sato. Intian atrites hae been derived from Alfrent rocks undor not hari sonitine in plas with an avernge anal rainfall of ‘bot 200 $0 em "Thechneacteritiafentreoflatarites a tho highleength whan itis eu and died.in ‘2, Harned eilennetnin Ue high stength even subject to immersion in water. The {omic razon for auth a behaviour ie due dehydation of rm aden ato presence ‘ot alleyete tpn of iy mineral Ie ha buen report in teratuethat come ofthalatortos howextrouly highstrength omparabloto thn ofburntbricke Mary laterite sro pero Snnatore and posse meom to high permet Callout atte were foto be ah Sn hallayeite and eqtaline gotta whereas Haamurstey laisse presenco of ‘yetlline kaolin ae motahallosite (ao and Rayne, 185). Th oar for such ‘behaviour boon attributed te Ue gologiealenronmiont ofthe areas ‘An pact which sprobamato isthe parmeatliy of nlerites neato to nists: ‘ion of rooroire (Kathi to, 1976), Toad cuts laterite dapoits pe a savius stability prablom. Further diiltiee avo boon exprionad inthe meessnent of lntaral stresses Inletorte profes (yer and Filta, 1872). ‘Muprums ar osidua ol frmod basically fom weathering t basalti rock, where monsoon ie sven (Nota, 1970, urs corte mites of weathered rock pio, ‘layey sand andlay Murra may contain ook agments in varying sizow Murase found in many paces with thicknase vying for fo entimetars to af Mater a totally apron ver nn aro of 400,000 ha. Ie urualyunderiebacc oto sll ro oryollow eal, Murrums container S0% gravel al very lets prcentofslay aston. The nasal ts gonerally quite compact and sft at shallow dopth apd hard a dapor dope, Marrume Teentoe ofthe presence of nel and sand sive patie ahd compact exit very high "rongth-‘Thoy arene extensively asvoad rater andfillmateria. The beatingespacty ‘such als are extremely high ad donot pose any Bundation poslem 1.8.4, ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS ‘Ta falar lial deposits of Idina in the Indo-Gangeti and Beabmnapotre thee ans eaten ED Nott of Vina ptosd ness the 205. tha east to Poni in est Alluvil deposits {gnerally preset alternating agers of sendy silt and lay and in tome lcations organica “ono murgovnr Terms layors aro aleoensountved The Beng basin is anethor portent alluvial doposit anes Irlioved toa bon formed inthe mile of Mesosicera, The subsellofto upper strate tretout 1001 Unchaor af the Bengal Basin ia econ ovina is dopo by the ‘Gangesivorayrtetn (Som, 1978). Theme deposits ate primarily taken ple user typical Slavia snvngrments: The ell sraind Caleta trad the normal Caleutia dont, sats pron of desieated brownish greyfight brown silty eaysayey silt with ‘concn Tenses asi incon lowe peta grey styl Wwith decomposed ‘fowl and xia up tom depth of 10 (Som, 1975). Another deposit of Bonga bain fs the Tiree channel deport consisting earls oily sen upto a dapth of 2.1, Sem, we. 1.5, DESERTSONS. "Thar desert in Rajasthan, covering about £00000 ag fa. consists of eons of Inia. These ae il blown deposit gnorallyprosontn the fem of sand des wit tcvrage hightet ebout Ibm, The depts ar rnd unr ad conditions ant the se Sanda ave predominantly of nan-plastc uniformly graded fine or lly sands, Some of the probloms astslated with thei are ofelstabiation for oude an runaysandscmcity St tet frenyeonatrcton actly = 1.86, BOULDER DEPOSITS age ules st ete down ill dust rvesanddapeited ns foot ils Such Aepasita tre enovantored inthe saleialayen regions af Himochal Pradesh and Uetar Pras, The propotie of thee depaite ate complex and depand onthe size of tours fandtho sol mari: Generally, been of patel contact high retina esistanc shoul ‘etanlieipated Gaia and Bo, 1091), 1.4, ALTERATIONS OF GROUND AFTER FORMATION A.ctaustao to bo gonstrsed othe sind or under the round shoul be designed ‘eonsideving the properties of the ground atthe Une af formation, atthe starting of Ue Dror an the poste changes which ght take placo tothe gure dung the deg [Crebesteuctno, The alte and shape of sven dopa nd the ones properties ofthe ail in the doposit nay change ory sian Ground movemonts which are inde pendent of etscaea Imposed ty the staat can oaur doe fo diffrent avis, For ‘enn ground msvomont nay ose fe toweling and skin, static seepage, ‘lovation ota. Many of Uae changes my Be etunedIndepondant of mars activity ae {ome diuetoconatestionstvity tall Hones, newesvary precautions ave tobe kon while ‘Signing wetastorokeoping in vow the posible antcpated change which ould exo [the dog of th seuss, A ow of Uh factra which contribute fr ound 1A. BPPECT OF SEASONAL MOISTURE VARIATION ‘under volume changes caused by soaconl maisare content vation. lowed dey onieus develops neach vo at hesoil surface Ipoistare onto, tye a esaunt of elayeontnt, modo and envionment of wee! ‘Sepia. Shrniape fe edueed dv to tho proton f sun anda ‘silvhigh plete shin ony enonng sells. Shyinkago tes place horizontal Und aswel in vattel'dvecuons becauo of cups tension wich in exerted fs all “lvectine Highly eomoressibe aye enibited ecole O5.m wide aa 6 mer Sowers, 510) Repeated shrinkage produce a natworkef shvinkage eeeks ill divestons, ome sil Cexpanvs oi like blak colton salle of Ii) not any ink de to Aaryingiat alo show mankodeweling with insrones ofmssture content, Sling enused Inainly dhe to spulave foros whisk sepaateUseclay patisies ening volume nese. "The mesheniae cousingswelling nay bn atributed ta numberof phonamena stich asthe ‘Soutireboun of hess gens th ly mince ani for wats, th ation exchange ‘apoclty and olsen eplaiefotors andthe expansion entrapped at Al Uso factors fy contrite for sel presompres lage when in nernaly consolidate ely the afiity of welot ty slay patiles a the letieal opin of sly patiles may ‘predominate, I the ailing eprovested high presses ax high as B00 KN/# may be Seveloped Thregions which havo well fined ltrmately wetand dy cartons susceptible ils ‘evelLond sink in sos, Dut to ee aeazonal volume chenge Uhre wil bens Sd fall nthe grou sraceasompaniea ly tension cracks i tho soi dung ky season ‘tl losing of he eras in wot saron The toveronts are larger inns covered aes {tan in anova devoid of vegetation Sails with lito or kaolinite ao large ita volume ‘eoreass on dying with only «nite swelling en reveling “As shrinking and sling depend on Use charactor of the soil el he rots ange diffient to nants thera qualitatively. Theoretically, «mais aol ens eink. “in reaches the shrinkage init Pureher ifthe wel isnt er than ho binge limit tahuld not brink Tngenaral,Uholowr tho shrinkage line greater he potent ‘einkige Silly, the sell wil be leas whon the molturecortent is aru phic Fiitor slightly more nthe id he moe liable noted of stesing shrinkage erick {a by taal nating and sonevations of erlang, cracking ae esceatin i al pt, “dette ft oration for sevesal yas region ate needa to propery extninte the chinkage aed eweling Ifthe fel pncition compels toute a swlling al the fests ‘feeling nny bo minimis by pacing tho clay at the highest practeabie moisture ne providing surcharge over tho sil Tt hae been Tous thatthe inherent potenti to sell Alpena on the plant index Hoe and Gis, 1956; Sed ete 1902) indented in, Tab L2.‘Table 1.2 Volume Change Poteniat (After Hale and Gib, 198) Voting cakes Ply a eines a ala, Tenia on Ree sie seo “i 1.4.2, BFPECT OF WATER SEEPAGE AND SURFACE EROSION Mainly ip sandy ania table ecu de to water seepage snd erason, Tern fasion ean result fom eaeyg ata of fine sil patent groom water seeping in Srlen sewers ar ouvert in eels technique af deep excavation bow tha Walon fle. "Tho consequent los of ground fom beneath foundations may led to sllpeo of Soueture Subsidence alee possible due tsoluton of minerals rm he ground ava result Stortasenepags ‘Surface erosion may. oseor de to oe af material in atta wind ar ersion by ‘essing war, Fine particles such ne fine sod and lta tnd doy pent ao vory much suncapible fo erosion by Une winds. Sueeootosion By Mowing water may be eters it Stracbives are cantractel nthe bottom of tsa valley petculasy whore mona rans fase heey ‘Such sotone of eapingwatar and exolon may lend ta cheng in tho propartin of ils sint inal prota ehh meets nel sonsdaesion while dang sates $Broson can b prevented by peving adequate depth af foundation, by growing site ‘vegetation of Uy Hlanketing Uns eodabl al by gave, eouhed oc or ory, te 143, EFFECT OF VEGETATION ‘Swolling and shrinking rebtom is also aiggravatod duo to to fe ofthe rst of ‘vojlaton, The root of tom, pants apd shrubs conrame crsiderable out of ater ‘rom tk sol leading tothe ell sheng, Roots of walated tees can spread fo reds {router than she Haight of th te, Thoremorl of watery th roots enue sbnkags Eat Stialy and herzonaly Tha rot sytem eatce ta types af problems, vie, () eave of ‘undation on sites which haveracentty bon cleared of revs and dgos ani sltlament {enistingatractaronitedeloset rong tena caer by sbrequent planting exe tf shrub clave to them (Temi, 1985) Ths caro ebould be taken to sates the ‘attlmeat neal the orets tending fo ton tho foutatons, 14, BFPRCT OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION eth br and high temperate nes vl change nding hewve and oii seapectivel. Who dally mewn tempreurerornins Below O°C for along prod tho cil ‘molaare near th ground aueacs res. Continued sab oro woather leat oinerease in Aeptinof trou which results sve af ground suroeo know wo fot evo. Th fazer ‘ates enecntated ino frist or lyons Ut paral a Uo ground euface. Prot Ion nearly uniform ut exerts anatmaue upward preauracausingdemagotasteichtes Fomanon ako Devan OF oroUND i cénetustd on thot, During wnt weather the Grozan sil thats causing low ahest ‘trength and ground absidonce he sone oll subject to eting snd thantng depends ‘nuaverl factore suck as typ of solo eck, the ave of vogetaton expos to th sn, ‘isles configuration, and frown water sevements The depth bebw gourd sac to ‘hich O° temperatr extends called tho fet Ue: Th depth ofost ine dap o ity condct hen. ‘alle permafont, dhe rat hans efets aes wety tint layers, ln, sete cis saparatod by {ued material The urea of pormafiost rarely stable, but varie with eyeicehanges Inelimato and ground water fw ‘Coats pinadasilsuchna gravel ad and with fine arora bjt oom ‘usingobinatinnal ave. Fi uals ands have the opimua einai of fie pores “dolatvey high permeability that rents maxima ce formatin and aavo. Aseaye Ive racks a eees thay are susceptible fr oat alan. ‘Constrton of any ataste ona above the osen ground meds carol dosign beatae of he feeze Un propery of ho fain round ‘When mile subjote to vary high temporatore cowroshrinkao eas nay oer ‘Such conitians may sion sll bone ourdationoftelrs, kilns and farmaces. 1.45. EPEC OF VIBRATION Its cormon experiance tht sandy sl when aubjcted tovIbrations fom such spstcon a mavingmachiner, traf pla ding, basting oF orthjakos usualy ners Se denlty fend and cause wubsidanco ofits sfac. Te alo kn vibration sone of te economical means of cmpating lose md laers. Hens, the eae of bation ay bobaronfl or bone Iehas een shown tbat (Tovzagh ad Peck, 1967) ho sttloment ‘ta and sutlace mibected to plating aed maybe many a Ges grentr than that priced a ponestatilesd Eyporiniontl stir ad ldexperince have sown that ‘ost rade etlomonts aan dete wtralione are coused Dy ig font ibatins {nt range of 0 to 2600 inpuleos por minste(Fersashi and Pack, 105) ettement cause by viation oneal smal sou of he coheive bon ‘wtwoen cay attisles. Ths vibration dove not came any serous damage in clayey ula {Sndor any crsumatancer ven eel lay settles to armdecateoxtan whan tisrepentey Sbjct to vibration at natural froqueney. Whatever may be the sabell sno i lx ‘ecomandad to provide adequate provi Feduce he ampli of rations Toreaghi ‘a Post, 1807). ‘hn of antingiseqivnlnt to Use prodced by mild earthquake. Damages caused by blstng rot aialy ds toetloment bt fom thatransent ground mations ‘ai the ae Wat nasa ith esac. erg and Peck (106%) leo mentioned hat Tengeonllnued traf could produce considerable satioment. 1.46, EFPECY OF MINING SUBSIDENCE AND PUMPING ‘round subsidence duo to mining, pumping a dredging is neva of high mage rita, An elas method of mining partictarly coal, wa by sinking lpi pence inmecieval tines, The wbsidenca snot saddon ant oar slaw wth eesmagaltads Ati ‘ono mopowmaent Tem ning ciguninrovdgeduly. "ilar anstal ring aig asda Pine het Sa Stet ca ty ong working Tt rma fogs th tia nenteay methods wren pla od stare meth ery dan paler ne made fam hoch an Un tuted aera is eugene In fe as yon he ower rn, aorta Pca tated in thon ps om team ern Bene elder enn toto aes ae perly tee el pan mete separ tac on he gu a saan eenealtnesing te icc nena ah neatly pon so henry ncn ontron fr Trt nc teal heats oe merenoned aoa saline Uf ltmentcfingeand sues Inga eatngherbanineaeonnenee ‘npn Susan feo cota: Bsns ta annoys ft tf mene fe curt etal sons orn rt om sei epreliahecellemet ara Oar tr of unerrand mineral aes y mnie mes eve actu snr iene point Te extn sd seeped emenysdued ty cme anette arnt some ‘ese pumping omell asedhcethentalsrsenin theo eangrchs annie ta Tse ant iovenredanin gen sellers tecennay sic ierng a war te Sas ee se ae purl er etait nnn eft on he sneactedon lilacs ewan tried weighed tho band wed eh apa Stee efeive overt pots satser eitiona fompresion leading fo ground ‘Subsidence, 147. BPFECT OF CONSTRUCTION OPRRATION ‘Ground subsidence during coatrction may alto ezcar due to inetoasing lod om surrounding ell andeneavtion apart fam ibratns an lowering of water tbl Td applied on one area af a gicund surface cove el ay case the ute of tha adjcont ul toi, Practical sgneene ofthis spect depnds onthe all praia RS Sitoncone ofthe lead ree not elaysbeilu nagntade and cstibation of {Be sellomnat canbe aypronimatlynertsed onthe eaults of epprprinto ei tate. his pet on tht sft lay sol maybe greater although not necennaiy detent fn tho ‘ny subsoil the settlement de to Toud on the adjoining ste cannot Be computed ‘antonably bt hast bestia bared nly tho rood of pce ‘elloment de te excavation dopendat argo extent onthe te of racing usd rnd th cae with which breving i stalled. Tho magaade of ettement on th ground ‘nts sajocet to an ancavalien cannot be computed but ercatt canbe made bed nly on elicle well dosmenta cae ecord maintined for that aro, Bven i a ope. siatand without bracing thocetlinment4yetoenaavatingthocu does nt extend beyond Santanee equal tothe depth of the cut tbe cutis properly braced the masianum diem muy not be prota tan 2% depth ofthe cut Iman opmeatin ofl, the Floated me edo of to ace ae uehange contig alataral yok the bottom othe cut towards tho excavation. As consequenssof these movement the grow ‘suv feat above the ling say att ie 1.5. RECLAIMED SO1LS ‘The ton elaned si compris of all materials deported on site sing various sph forifrent pp ee jnitblets ethene alison {comer tothe prpuse of osrton of stacares my han conserag thca ae ‘uta mater Indl encom evelopment trhon es atop st nevigaton chemise pons sd thor waar ot srutues rome slang able Inn which cou be posible ny relation, eclamstns a sho tray be ns peta, fr depral af gato os wasn, por examine may bonne eel rat oon age to of velar. Hint elametene epeily ror Ingo is of wate leat say day fener abil and tty shore war a alec nent nent the cana fall Savinolit Ops 1016) The otachrieal pratnnetsbs mura ithnn areal tation inromnofbrtingeapcty anda tai ol Conealy elem tin followed by ground alent Preble an eens thn feng ocy foundations. te ee 1.5,1-TYPDS OF RECLAMATION MATERIALS ‘hn materi which re oan ro seman parece lint the batowing pe it) anaes pdt a coy Hi i nee Sin ec lings od ai on ear Hyde Pl a a lanatin rae i te a eomaany wed ‘asl nc for tne nly cai by deen on trac a pana th doin iaon Sonal sell ese ea ie cer {pdtetti Sandel by hdres wit antenna itso dnd St ey dae tee cpa r Hseent ‘Whore ine pr, sth ft oan a sae parle Te haa Praens with igre i ow deta wegaan sp ati oth ats Te ‘nt senna tae sat neuf ete nag wer pee nthe pe fre ned, ue taping of welded stl sos sh ‘eh dein dopo 16 Cor 10 Sanitary Pl Saran sero palm ceil ality fa such hgh mater cena anol ow sin ons othe {ete natn rent Sm alte i ine ih fe “Snare Te ss una beeen keg rite ia'ebare Poe non tof cael he eutn of methane a thr cr enn ae ane rls, ee ‘Sringeri ngs tld spect ‘tor bs don hal slogan acopttcomeldaion ag ‘este hatte ning i ue ling wl evry mos lf to ede De ‘volume and tho tine reguted for compaction Further fies havanta ad fy menace ate selon sstion- Further fre hae ap= crow nsovennns Ticennuis —|—‘RRMUCION AND BENELARE OF OROEND ‘Paper Shag, Pap ml tho oh nail or faniing The ori flltho bight ioe inthe cu ae te re nase it ach ote cgi 0 Exim epee th ened el teased eg eater hans te oH, Too daneity of the co ‘aw and the a ‘strength inereases with degree of ‘practically feasible with effictent control. mmr ligt 1 eta ean ol heanng apy os oe ‘abe 1 Materileyed ante yah and Sn matral with «lw potenags of cen ote obit Stel fanace lamalion materia, Bu bat arnace (ater iy, 1978) soy Ste fe eerste tela = a Fae eee fos ai sed il toil i these atari 6 fH | ide | “ite! | Seto” [Sees [ioe wean area eain - 7 Mc Sen aa atric ent eee ater aeets [Ragansty [Sy a ge ‘anging hom stone enerete pcos to paper ans and grass Thea are use a Hotans tan weet dai _| Vitro an ey top panon ny bn sts er ots fl Sch ie io ng [PORRSRT [ at gon tne A ag [rehighly compressible anda load tect has to be consucted to evaluate ite properties Table al ek flange vekde cae ey afte diferent poof iar wed ote 3 |e [sn | Pal ed sheen ot diy Pag and their associated problems. en nea is. CONSTRUCTIONIETHODS © fisencme [itmaoa abet |Eamitedsta compress more than th sample eorpated onthe maid ‘The rests of Sed and Chan (169) hasd onthe stay af strosratesin behaviour af ils have vealed that he espe oompactodo the yi of pda und to bo mere Fieidand strong than the samp compacted on th wotside of optirun Ts fund tok ‘tsonutant dneiy Ue sled tong dectense uth neresingreisareeantent ad tha conan! msltate content the undesined strength intone withnerense in densi ‘Thnincromsing density brings shot Intense poo presure an thusdeereaed wet ‘eength (Gee td Chany 169), Compact rampleseueequonlyeatrated der com ‘ant onfining presto showed an urdrainod etongh doooaso sigily with inereasing Sail (compaction) meista, presumably dae fo shonge of atrctuo fom the songs : ea cea Ew. 5 _ ay. : 7 Sates casio cnoden am aeerio: woistune CONTENT. ‘COMPACTIVE EFFORT KNn? (0) MOUSTURE DENSITY CURVES FOR (0) MAEM OENSITY AS & FUNCTION DIFFERENT COMPACTIVE EFFOPTS OF COMPACTIVE EFFORTS. Fig 24. tet of compasion efi her eves 18 eed to the weaedipersd form thas businoboarved that swallingt alas ineeare th density and decronses wil ‘th competion moisture, Gonerally, se welll fr greater fora snl compacted drier than {ip placilimi than for onecempacidon the wetrideot opin. Svllean be minimised ylang the compation lovl an ineoneng the mst content» th pas imitor lightly above (Sowers, 1878)u ‘noun wsoveuser eens ‘Table 2.1 compote the salient properties of samples compacted on the ry-ide of ‘ptiwum wth samples cormpactadon the we i ofoptimum Lambe and Whitnan 1970), ‘Than an engineer designing a salrade,« sub-bor, a dam or a embankment shoul consider the behaviour ft gol drng ths oni epan ofthe stele “Table 2.4. Comparison Diy-f-Optosinm with Woof Optimum ‘ier Lamond Whitman, 1979) = Ta — —— a BASES antes te — (ipso pretmne near eae Porscability ni —. —- — er ei a 7 Ee ed a See = ay me has ao oe oa pediactt = ee eee = Fieri atineet es piney en cae oman Rea nat 23. FIELD PROCEDURE, "The fil prose fr contrting controled compacted illisximple to practice, | ‘th fill re Kote bree pl. Tho ellis proessod in Ue pit fr the veqted Invite content beens transportation. Tho precseed ee tranepartod ta an ares bing (oro Tee sven in thn Tapered ditional water add Wf sassy. Each ayes [Weompasiad to predetermined density by aula compaction dovices. Thi precedare {tcapleined in th subeequent paragraph, 281, CONTROLLED COMPACTED PILL. ‘When ol suo for construction purposes itis plac in yer enh aye sing compacted tears bnngcaverel y a nubeogvon ayr ond eammpacted tila fnal required “lovetion ntl shape iv atined "The oomported ell sould have adequate strength at [Kality thet area good or otter than many natal sil omatons. Barth ststres “ich es dams an bent rs primi eompasted eal whichcould withstand all ie torecs which tay ete subjected. Similarly earths ean sapporbuilding highways, [He Suck fil eo nef fos sealeledeumpasted oath fl er etroeturel orth i. ‘Aviation of sonal sonapcted esr may becstgerzed under iregroape: 6 ‘ond to support stasturen and pavernts 0) compation of pavement lr onstustiomofesttianveck dao) tnstrction sfemtunkmants and) compas {lon of parinent layer, vs, basen eb aan nutes. Only tho fst tro ampets are lovant fo thi aoe ‘Proparing rite for buildings where controled fl is required ean fall nto the foetng tree entgories Hint, 198) (0) Fille placa on striped, compacted aligead to aie gona spose a ld protestion oo provide dookhigh lowing in ain (2) Fil plas for strastures ater excavating wk zis ram lends (Whe oxeavae tion:bakfll moth, (9 Fills conned ith bonches that ae coneteuetod for hil ide development. 12.2, PAVEMENT SUBGRADE, Ite portant thatthe aubyrade ofa rod should have dents sai congas anpeataregrade shouldbe aveded or chou breploed ith ‘natoinls. In very ool region, wha svore fos ect rst ssp {iteand calla should be enckadod otha rte aligoment should Ye changed In ene is Javits to change the one lignan, th mata so be replaed with noneaseer- tie material or bis nom-ueeoptibloratovialhas te be laced on the op of eulyrede fsfillad compacted In iter core h replaced material would frction as Che beso. nh Certain sve whove considerable seasonal mistre changes ec resting fy volume ‘hangin say achgrade expacally in expansive lay ike Mackertton eos, has 8o {ninimioed by a atable. ground improvement technique. In ardor lo enaurs eoguate [ability the sub-geaewaald be arcughly compacted when Eh wl eat fevourable thoitore contant 2.3. MATERIAL SELECTION FACTORS ‘Rock sil are anengthe eldest construction materials, hoy arloclly avaiable, really handled by a varnty of tehalques,darable and cea. Por these known reasons nly the modern ener also has boss sing ait and rook for construction, The fed Snginabe must bo faliny with he waterals wndthecaneteuebir operations that are ‘pessneay toctan the rogited reals Soll have varios Ivo of quality for use sl Th selection of borrow material foctitdponda on thepanpore ofthe fil valet ofthessaterel, and imaticeondiionsduring placement In general onginis woe an lays aro ndt used for fil. However clays fue used neath dane saan operons mot called cre "or atructuel foundations and foots welled granular sole with eae than 10 fo 18 Finer ae prfere anny have igh llaabl sl presuve when propsly compacted fn atthe sane tims have exzllet dag. In sch oil buiking yp of mote rom npr fears realing in building dampers rd possible ost hed minimised. ‘Generally silts and elaye are aspiod ar mlaquoto support eapcity by competion i no fonuible. Further uch sila may poe oetvston diffiatles ising fom ther response tornerensed meisture duving rainy pride. Any chesivo mistare may be wed provide nillny eats ave Snead inumediatslyYaneath Rao of tho eraste. Sktength of ompacted filo euch oils are ganerll Toor than gram wl fils, Hyde of ‘eaand mintues, nsompacted except fr eutico compaction wt final ras, havo Boon ‘ted to mupport ight londed stractites such as hee. ‘Baith and roel dame and einbankants are eanatrcted using aide range of| materials The major sljective ota dam ino set ora wntorbartir whereas anembankent FRrequied towuppore nly vn weightand that of effi In general ongani ei of slaye and alle are voided “Fillo and auhgrades baneath pavenants should have matorials with fhee-dratning con toprevent sinters up fom eupiley force leading fost heave, ramping of eened fine rane ells under wheel loads prope apannon of lay ol 284. BORKOW PITS Dring the prose fete investigation sof itisncessnytoleatomstabl barrow srous Evaluation ste generally mo, abou tho ailailty crate atl fom eats [nd exenestione an fram offsite borrow sures, Requirtsents of ouree material rfl pends on the prj! types Fora building, Fill may vei only ane typ alos até. Ortho ater pa for dan wide ans ft natevals av oie owas in Uo ifrent pare af am earth dam to easy diferent ‘inctions yell excavate sil een make oxsallont flwhen xy ave non-organic and ‘amee- grained nao lad bring fil stock pling nd drying aro usually necessary [uortoplacementend compaction Ineser obtain fcent operation fh exeweation ‘yulpment, moisture contra often necessary inthe boerow pi Plowing std exposure to Seand sunchin ofen ata dy theo Adin of moistiee mokesitoasiertowxeavate Fudd dry soil, f the soil der than optim, adition of water le neseeary fr Compaction. When ha uisture bide ato oreow pi ti med uniform: ‘norder to ensue the quality of the materials, equate supetvison ofthe Lrtow pitisnecorar. The quits onorionedteciclons who oan recognize tho rpc ils “nd ake adegst steps for checking moiturein borrow pits duringpleamentondroling ‘2.85: PLACEMENT AND PROCESSING "Th placment of he ill mati dapende on dh aed of hanling th ize fhe mato boii he materiale senvated by shove drains, elvating rede “robondo hy tushe and wagine Te ereporsproas the materials in ier layer ‘Shumtimes leveling ofthe layers are noeed afer tin spread bythe empes Ihe mate {too web they ar eat an nnd wt ik plow 2 the thy wll wate a ry hn Sim thc natal stony, th cosece amount waterin aed hy spriklinginigation fr mina int the so by plowing ‘Different ypera ompaston equipment re available to so fra frent ols dar od treatment on compaction upon: ide in the next 228, COMPACTION SPECIFICATION * "Two methods of ecmmpoelion epeication have been in practice Poser, 1962) to poi she compaction tepiements in he veri empected yer. none type, cll {he pevormanee typeof spascaton, th sempacton requirement stated i terme ofthe photic! propertcn ofthe compact ayer. Typizl specication ofthis typo the percent- [ie rumamur dey doit caine! in. sandasd competion tit Sometimes both the ‘35 cena a mssture content ave apeeied. For ample, a apeciiaion of 95% of Srtcnnm dy denny i requntly designated. Speifeaionntrmy of petestage ofthe Tamm dy domain anda test poferabe fo said value of dy density, [ecnowe i arsure tat campatve ff comparable to tat of thestandar iboratory ited in he field Ths type et apesiention in applieable for cohsive oils, Other ‘Sivate! properdir that aro usad ara he peresntage of a voids nw apecfe motte ‘Entent wl ratio and tolative deity, The act to are weed pineal for eabeionene teeters In peonzmane typeof speietin, th santzntar gen wide scope in the fection ofeuipment a He thickness, nthe other type ale the werk ype apis sth pootequipmantythelifethcknes, tho metstrocontent al the aeount of wake ele notin th nasansny dosity ew epi The work type speciation hes [nn asd for dems andembankoent orks whoeas the prformanss type of specication hha found wide eproud usages highway and aed permet work. 2.4, SURFACE COMPACTION Altypos of sl ea nl compacted atifctorl by ating piss of eoulpment ‘sail comprotion Is achiool hy elfarent means nh ao Lamping, kweoing vibrating oF inapact Compactors operating onthe prnsple of amping knoxdng aid pact are mart “Mkt for tubes se, wrens for coheionlees elle, equipmont operating on the ‘rice of vibration, temping ea kneading ae effetiv. Appropriate equipment ahold [Stet forthe typeof sl a the Ha eonstion. Inappeopiat ws of eniprent fora {Geen eal typo wl well not only im @ pear quality of construsion but aso lead to Sratccton Slave: Byuipmonte which are availabe bared on th abore principles sre ‘alle, tempore nd tamners: hens eqpments aro ued on ho surface of he gro Tnpeove the material property limited dept from grou auice and ae terme ‘orf compaston equiponts, Casipactng teas tolarge dept by eperatingoqsip~‘onton th gun surfaoe bang so ore cot. This now teshniqus sealed hoary {amping alsa nema ae dynamic eompactin, dynam sorzldaton ox pounding. Detaisot these equipments and theirappropinteuefrdiferent sot are explained suteoquenty 24.1. SMOOTILWHERL ROLLERS ‘Smet whoa rollers ao of types: ne with ve arg wheel in the rear and = small cing dram nthe ont and the oor typo hes lego single dram in tha font art {he oar. Th lator type of tllor fused for sompactng paving mistoree- Smooth chest rollarsmay bestticorvibztary type. Thas lls ee self-propalled with arrangements {omovetack and ferth without tuening. Phos state ele mpono limited presse on {la sll bsauve oftheir rolatvely Ings contact aeas. Thee oles vo avery Lied etive depth af compaction and hone at use sould Lo rstited to stuations whore rly thin Injersor nurse se neds tobecompacted Tey are sed far cnmpeting ubtbase layers and eubgrates, In oder to prevent weak planes every fh to be ll [ser theprevioue rolled surface i svfed. This eapecilyaprtant im enth damn a? fmbankement compaction, The ayocth dren paving llr ae somtimes ded for com ‘acting thin coelonses sil, but Ur onda to bridge cves lov apts, Some rollers aro ‘squippod with an oloetoni devi named compartion meter’ which ones continous “Sepals om an aeelromator nied onthe drums: Sach devises provide tpesure 2a vl rt dtr ml tre ott oft eal adh ‘Vibrating smoot drum roller sre most civ in competing oan ronal eis in fills or subgrade. In mort model, operate moto-iven entre ta stom i provided to catae a high frequeney, -atpiade seston ofthe vibrating drom o {rums. The perfrannes ef hi pe of compaction depends primary on latte weight, frequen, ple of bration and rller peed. Maximum compacts eft in i scored at fequencies tween 25 and 0 Ti nord a compact larg volumes of sil hd ockflinthick ayers an ampltudein he range ol Sto2 0mmvithacoresponding table frequen range 2 to 9 fe shoclde api. Medora mechines have arabe Gwen an Noa alr per tgs een ake a iene of thi layers or sila diet to compacta speed ofS to 4 Rr are Gal ‘ecstmended foramontivrhel oles in gece : 2.42. SIIREPSFOOPROLLERS ‘Sheopstot oles, slo eal ws taming fit sllars, have preting studs ft on thonurfaoet tho rollors and compact by acombinatonof apt and Kneading action. ‘Tha knwangeton oth fet nines uccorv eyors tobe isd dh inereses the stabiiy. Thess campetoacooitof sel drums which an be filled with water or aba totnerease Ue weight. Ar olingprocrde, rato he roller weight inpowed dhrough the raeetingsteds and rats nati high ontact pecete ‘Whan loc si lager i nity valid, the proections wink into th tye and compat irsaitrn Clot perton fs ers. caso pss, ere ble ‘ompact nready continuouly rites uni the aurace erence his proses of ott tinuously sing feck eapeiancd by th compacta i referred tow “walkout” ty the ‘napacta,Portosteteontcompacton the llr should wall-outonaugh tie the drm ‘St the construction nurface stent 25 to 60 mm duving th lst fow pases. Pair 10 Culcoutsignfen prosencecthigh welnecontonllwingebearfateetthe sol However, {iis doe aot necconiyindiata that aroush compaction i ot atsined. A roller my tvallcautwhon the roller weight i reduce. ‘Thea vllre ato availabe in rn with ranging om 120 to 180m andy ‘ctu lecacate oats onorhnnsjerierektstonfeen hangs nth compas rors where scene the jab tarted Tha ‘erbemanc ef setentin, th prlminay work nccetllyatwal onbankoen The contre wil be dating tho mur sf poset Tue fo ebain the aay ‘Table 2A Tentative Requirement for Compaction ‘if Se, 178) iid Sa as | Paid Copii eof dred ao sin come ‘Gh Ci oo e 2 % © sv * % a Mu 290 % 2 a 1 s 2 a 7 ® ® on = a % (ne = Oper ota npeing Lor 2H bale pert mots unde paeronts Upper 0.8m fwsbgradundr Be here2= Deeper arf is underbeiing ee 0 oer pata one ‘toss A therfilaneengsome darn tenor isempresiiity 2.6, COMPACTION QUALITY CONTROL ‘is etoial ta obtain the derity end malta contin as required in the desi, 1 could be sohived hy talcngcompscted materials and testing dom for moistare ad Aloncity, Prosuring wamples and testingthem tare important dung the niin stages of ‘he Jab while proeres ave boing worked out ti absolutely eon! to deside the hporvisory eal Gnginen snd or teshnicans) and required equpmon forthe teting be6 non onovENEN TCHMOUES ‘planned well in advance auch that they wil be available atthe start ofthe construction, As Stdiventional moods of moasuring density amd meistre cotant ae time eenauning. api method of dotrmiiny these paramtore should be used. 126.1, MOISTURE. CONTENT MEASUREMENTS "two type of moature-cotent wimps are taken, One tye led the covtruction contol inten te check whtor ot oto ayer has the proper moistre cntont fr Peation Te ther typo ls taken in connastin wie tho dansity txts &o perm ‘SMiobtation of tho dry weigh. Unully th dai ont re made bafore ary appreciable {tyincet teamed accordingly Ue roitara content corresponding this inrecrde Puitmaiturecontant at whieh th sol compacted aed termad a eco etl. ‘inthe eonvontiona oven dyingsnathed evorl hours frying is neded which may excse nzonterton delay and hence mare rapid ethade of dotermaning the mcsture and ‘SEttyshocid te uscd Sayoral rapid mathodeofmeasueingmeiturecontontareavalahe {clad heating th elim an opm pan over aot plate gas lane, he sleohol Durning ‘Rela no siakol method witha hpesometer snd amltare moter waingcaleidmnesrbe [iganevateacetyion ine closed container connected toa pescare pug, All he rapid ‘Rathod excep the quick even, equie naive tien foreach sample, Nossa, “resets nan msds Fro, tow eto ave ule fer ase re oh hers Sates lesen ding baueicon aprons ess ag ppc obs ran, 198 ‘Metstarecotat an shbecbtine fom paateatnseadings kena Frosor ail sanpe compan st ul romping with baa oo ‘Many atc the ogi oh chan onto vl he st being ted elt rbingin et hana ysecting the iin Tense aian whether their adngto rant Thine testa Stemi coments deve ty th eng a h ahicon y oereng the we re bty makings ange nner fr conten tortion spars ithe comet ono. ‘en hey impure to poces & vn pie tre seuraely, it oc eae tn ihn Oe eae cnet TEEN he rong ctnoare eto bw spt lt been Ueda, SEREuihne nace sonnet the streglh andter pope othe cm td mei 126. N-SUTU DENSITY BIEASUREMENTS Inst measurements of dais equenty are made ona i basi requiring one sect perea ensure moles or suble etre f compat al are o volume rerRee {uly, Ao por the novia of USBR. one lost po 2000 mfr embankment construction. “trial lings sopported on Toad boning ills should have minima ofone tet for trary 1000 mm? (Hunt, 1086), Further tests shold be mace wherever under-or over onpoetons wor dnbted comet a 1 a cohesive gil hank samples or drven sample ae obtsinod to determine the Asnaity (S+2720—Past 2, 1070) In eeabesiontas cals whore a rnp could nck be cat {he ad cone denny tot (0S: 2720—Past 28, Its) o the rater balloon method OS 2720 Pare 3, 1072) is ued Altes the dy ansty in eteenined, the cboerved value next dry density nod the porcontago of dons sera ‘Shmpacied tthe tequlted lve shold bo geen nalitinal empactim Who svaral it type ave encoanteved nborntaty curves ehould bo avalable for ah type for necessary ‘comparican of dara, 7 208, NUCLEAR MOISTURE:DENSITY METHOD aries ‘henacloreodreswhishorile gummaraye, detector tlk up tho guna rays hota ‘peiaing throught acted aa and ouster or ecela or detormiting the rate at which [feaamuma nye soul ie datstr Thomson soars ave adn trum and ose ‘emericum: benium eombinations, " Duving operations ofthe equipment the gamma ray penetra ind the si where seme are aonb ut come ah te dle by died tennant or afer Mtn el Felneal lotro. Tho arount of gamma radiation reaching the detector ix jversey ‘proportional to thei dansty and datormined by kaopng alr cout ate received at Frsdtosor Tha dnety is obtained ust oatrved eouat rate eo acaration ave provid by tho manafucurer ofthe eqipment _Meistedstevninstionaeabtained rom "thermal nautroncount. Alpha patios cowie fom the ameristar o adm eoute nbd bral etge and eauees ‘EXplsa tow fet neutonn These fast atone velo yo the hydrogon ‘toms in ator, Based on thir msinture resus ae provi es weight of ator pet um of ‘olume, After datocting the water dtormning fn wot dans ditorination, ie dry ‘Sealy btaine, Desnmination ofmnietarecontonty hismethod ay have igneart ‘rr ithe esl ents rn, bare readin, 264, MILLS METHOD "The rapid compastion contol procedure recommended ty Tntian Standard dS ‘20—Pac 8, 075) gies tho ast poreentage af laboratory mas dy dnc end ‘lore approximation ofthe difference baleen optimum molotrecortent ana fil meiture ‘content field dont anne without any dsterminaion of moire content By thie Ioitare procedure itis aside to elect compaction control within ene hour after concoting i eld test Although this mithet wos doveloed ly HE (1806) peimaly in contoling the placomantafearifllindamennatrotion thomathod sal appliaslts control etl Dlacemont inthe constriction of highway ombankonenteeanel onbankivents and sia leuslares tl of bese eis, Tho Teador may ofer tothe Indian Standard OS ‘2720—Par 38,1976 for detailed proved,Cuarrer 3 Drainage Methods 8.1. INTRODUCTION Groundwater ie ally considered ae ene ofthe mos difiul problems that he to ‘be handind in any svt enginooring constuction, Under many Tl sitions during nngiretion operation tnaybe nossa fo elimisat sxpage pressure to ineonte the ‘hoevingrenistanceosto vedios thedangorotTrost damage. There couldbedone ty edksing the nowt strane efectiely by adopting anyone of tu drainage methods, Dewatering toons and Decne asthe tio theds whi avo used to improve the ground con ‘efre, daringand after contraction, ‘Dewatering ayes enenlnly conse flowering the wator tabla ta requir levation and to enablish blow this level ater of ellcar lated in woe, gllorins Sruitches Tho ollosed water a Us elesors ae pumped. Continous pumping from ‘heavetions or fom natural geound je »colly affle a the continued ow fom the undng ground may endanger the stably of ajocent structures, Further best {noma teornin or cllaguect the idesinancpanexcevation Incartain stations {hero my be instal of Ue bas ofexcatation do fo upward soopag! ‘On the cthor hand drains ve provide to aeeve to cote he Now, In oma ents for towering the wetar abl, in athers or wllicing por peseate and seeps fers, Trnorder to ens in solesting proper drsinage ete importanttoobsin all theneeesany informalintnore cominensing work snd his especteuld note megected the nite vestigation eg “ 3.2. SHEPAGE ‘Amato ned to be porous ft contains intertiees, o wld apace, within whish ‘the matorial sabyont Th wld spaces maybe dorantinuoteorcentntous, Fora medium, tobe permeate atlesrt.a portion ofthe vld pace inthe medium should be continuous, i deposits ae permeable media. Permosblityof aril i its ect t transmit isi to pass ehrough its ntereon- ected vid enaces ie ow prose cold bender the action of anextarnally applied force rae on diffson process Tho externally apliod lod muy toa pressure difference de {olcadsotwater teen twa pointsnnde fusion procesie the diepersion of oleae selgnted by diferenosn in thir concertraton rom pint to print. Flow through the ‘medion ie qunnlfod bya material ehanetarietes rm tha cufient of permeabaiy, BiGwhorek= of and oi the dasharge vlosy andi th hyenas rain after Day. Persioatility depen on the typ of sil en the permit. The charactriatice elated to permeant ete viouty, unit weight and the play of pore Mul. The charac. Uevsties related to aul are patil sz, void ratio, compostion, fibre and degree of uraton Ta efile of permeability mony have mange of variations. Typical rans permeability forefront sol typon nd the drainage sharactonstice are lated in ables “tnble 3.1 Typist Permeability Ranges for Ditferont Soils “haat fom Mary 1982). Balti Teacdegseoh | Galt Branage pment iene oo eae han sd i Twie Bo Sea, Neon re ood ert Peon od www aah oe [Beachy Vaio Tetwie? | Portanane aaa ie Homwpmnonedaya | Won iowa | han io iain ‘Watercanviaoinascilehraghsonnected soil toelevatins above the ground water tale deeply actin, Sas an ation ovis the moisture the reat ia boning st buldings and pavennents fem Us elena fetes of oxpansive sis from feexng ‘Tho potential fr the detrimental effects of coplany Hw fe union of si type ad the depth to tho water tab "The velaity offer through the ol vide refered ta a sepagevlasty (0) which 4s alwaye goatr than dicharge volts (0). The aw af water in hel estes steeone ‘alle oops presses) wha equal te Us hyaaliegeedlont tines the unit weight of ter =p In vertical anion ina soil the seepage pena execs the utimenged weight ofthe soln the sl celomn sulted Tae paswmonon ie referzed tows qusk condition Going lgueaction Thue the most dangerocs arene fr ligueio- Llonaretheesnhere tho upwsgaadiontin igs and he counterbalamingrwuightie sal ‘Sunk nunceptile ase ano slang the fos of aslo op Entom af an ekewation ‘The analysis of flow through ole be performed weng a Now not. A. low ne is 8 _eephical pronntation flo contetingof ctf low nes aed aguiotential ines which Ersn vel toa to dotormino tho vataof flow roepage pressure, pore vate pressures nd {pation In general to flaw conditions ate encountered ve, cond ew and uncon Fined flow, Canine fw vars ete cace where tho phroatie warfare x know whereas {hunontne ow rls oacodtion which the ation a phetiesuriceinnct known,« rou mowenerT eG 33, FILTER REQUIREMENTS: nary desinageayrem perforata pions conditeofpefortedpipes or ipelines “wth opon ents sre usually provided Te epacebatween tho tara ail an Hs pipe Tea with conveegeined maior known are filer. Tehe wodsf flr ae ager than he nce aio ft njiing sl here ea peniity ftheso fine petites to i he (Masand seulate al bos the Row Om the othr handif tho widen the ler ae TEENS ehane inthe vol hom thar sa peesfity of he lor tara washed int the ‘MathuitsanpipestathosIeadingtocrosionofthe tural Both hese areundosirble ‘Sraltfone A Tiler matovil that eeeromes tho abovo io condiins Is reered a fier ‘itors are alo used in omthdams,offerdames and sheet ile structures teanomitsnn seo prevent piping. To prevent piping the flr material should ev MUkte weight Ure lor extends aero s toondary boweon conte and i 0 Aifcenmatevile have to bo use “Thonirgonerl iter ordain nate shoulda he te requirement from adding woight, ciz., = the pudntan a ior alr shuld cpaet tring pes hat she mignon prio gh he en preente. ‘Gi he gradation af the Giller aerial sho bo such that tallow ail deinnge without developing large sepa ces "The above requirements ove tia by adopting «aula raise dntrtbation forthalitor torn bane onthe materia tbe preted The fllowng lor ritoria are te be adapted Bertram, 1510, Dg ites) Dieta "Thi citerion emphases hat Une Dyan ofthe rei sould mat be more than four orf Himes the Dy ise ofthe prose ai The secon exiteion Dagon) : Desorotcted si) ‘Thacritorign emphacies thi the Dg sin f the tsi ehould he oe than our ‘i tiesto Dyes of he protects “the additonal requirement which has to be sla as regards t opnings inthe sesh seroon x perforate pps atthe sito sa ofthe iter material sould bo ak [ast twee Ul of tho openings in the mah eereen or perforated pipe ine mesh provide ‘As the los of hand dt pretation thous the iter shoe b smallest pes fiers ere usally mle op of enveral layers Bach af ther lars ehoul wt Us Craiemento th rospods tothe poseding ayer: Suck composi ters ar sald to {eigratel Ava rah suidelin the gonietee detebution curva ofthe ine a conta [rained aie shoul be oughly parle. <4ta5 on shee eo 8.4. GROUNDWATER Groundwater can bs ensoantoved in vaviows mods f assure. Th trm water love, water table or phveute surface hae boon fined ae the fvel within a body of “subeurfoce wala whieh watrproesarvr ae oqual to tmasphore poteure. The neat ‘ion on thie wrfac a zra, Th water sat oropies tha olde ofthewolevewator abl, led upper son, conte sol rsatre "Ta water ry be found ms gravy eter Iygroscope maitre, perbed Water en the capillary fringe. This zee may bo fly oF puitlally ttarated, he sone tlw tho wate tbl ie aatated andl pron im nate [ermal such a ager, aqiterds and aqushudes. ‘Aviles are rll prvi ail and sk ormalionthugh nich oundvater ‘tow induct hygeine ts! amar atone waite ore sand {nich imposter suren oon fae itt change in woth dncargr a cane th ae fn ind sir enn ie ikl to sope nw are dren a he gro urface Further {fo slop af water tae a generly air sl more veil Pig 31). A velatel Spal ea a ns Foren arene ‘Finger to an lada may onan 10:1, Tan router pstien oe cmp, {tomas that cit cf aleats aifenn a gaia, Aagging aque bl it ago ernie basin rests Gig Sih When a atl fanning ‘watr onder preset Insel situation, ho siraianot mr presne ie abot tho por afaceo the wate ap the gounater reid tbe uno vara promt Artacan fPrsnats are uly dela by ping meio eran age ay extend sr ‘several hundred square maters of areus. hen . ‘acme Fig 31, Watiraeand again nyinsers ate prtarilyonsetned with aquifers, mitra he sapllary zon Yorexamplawatr fom aquifer fowingintooxavations has tobe costeliod to maintain ‘iy working condition ore roduceproarares on strataren Tf agaiereare under artesian@ can namo CHOU conditions coal eaussbolingor pipnand uplift he kettomofexcavations Arsdaquitas {epresentd ly antratd sit, can allow seepage into exeavatons and eause weakness "Thus the engineers should be nue that growswatr conditions ave tnnsient and thst hoe eneuntned during investigation wil not neossrily be thaw existing during {onetvution ora sometime later a eundergoneq argeremsoal and evade variations. "Tho water table postion hae a sigifeant impact neil nginearngconerustione number ef way or example Ue leeng wor tale positions may Es of conn to ielenginoots {exevaton blow the wale table ngranolar sil equ dewatering Gi) aan water table in ea auto upto basoment Moors of iver isi, Gi) action in-water tab posiin alts tho astive zon in eelling mls nd Go excoe groundwater punpig may result in ground wubsidence or even ground cone a 8 GROUNDWATER AND SEEPAGE CONTROL Groundwater and seepage contra neods a est signitieant onseration in many of evil erincerng works such ont stability of tral slopes and ens, dams na {bvean omni for mines, opp ioe, npele and haf, buivied truce, pvoryents and sil il Panther, Ube cote should be ensred during constroction ‘evi aan wal ar ‘To nosey entcle regud davingonetractin eet (Hunt 1886) ‘pro a diy enevation and permit onstruction to proc ein (Gi ede nerl leat on sheting ad trasngineaeaatons. id stdin uch bottom ceniins atl present heaving and ging Ge) improve spotngcharsctariten of uation mater (0) ncreote tabi of weneatonslops ad ideal ils (ext pillar vse al prevent piping ond fast hearing in pvemonts (ui) sadace sir prea tunnalling aeration "Tho following onto re requited after eonetrsation to (unt, 1986). ‘rede or liminat pli prsssores on ott labs and poet osoramics fom ‘heseduction ofalaathieneere fr besrenta, boeostractoreseaallinings, spillway, dy docks oe (ay rod a dey bosoment Gi) rete ater peseurson retainingteetaren control enankaentsxpugs in all dams ‘conte eepig atone pressures baal pavements ld il il et open (ct) provetsurlae and groundwater contamination rom plats ‘Themajer conta methods ne) Dowaering patems, i) Deine ana i) Catt snd harrior The devntringystoms and drains are deal subsequertly and eto an Theier are dealt in tho Chapter on Grating meth, 8.6, METHODS OF DEWATERING SYSTEMS: Groundater can be controled hy adoptingana or mors types owateringeyetms ox desina approprints ts the size and depth ef exenvatlon,gealegel sondions sl ‘havoateriaties of Uses Ineatie days tho contil of groundwater in construstion war, pre teeta Sy A i i | { ig 32 Dewatcing pens appt eect iy Mop rom I 67108.«4 enorme yen TCHS wom ascompanid ty near acombinstiono th llowingmetheds: )oontructingsis eae ree rempage femtheslaprs combined witha controled ratsofextarstion, Hance eeaerpimed wt pumping from oun, am iH) pumping from dap ebotad ‘Sp deta ofthe working ar. “ates the advent a suitable well atllation oguipmant, techniques an romping nach see contol st graundwatet hot uch ispred, Various types of drainaas machine hs ay be considered yet lable bce on the encie derbullon ofl Fe eg one.) in Fog 22. Dilernt dewatering eetans and Sine are tubseqantly deserted, cprormv amen omens Tape tegen ee cactematiie st et Sie peters segregate tite age snalema ganna ens a inpetist eetirsimneoe Chanaed waver Tene |... ig 92.000 ving toe snes. ‘thin is tho moat widely se ofl thede af roupdates lowering I the most conn td fo neat aed naitennnce which cou be applied to most ait cera e pion. This methodic also mere appropiate in itrtios where boulders er sk or ee atom ae et te nthe grou. The greatest depth to which the aoa ga be orn ths rete aboot 8m bol the pam. This tod ha aan eae cdenatagn thal groundwater ls toward the exavation witha igh hod aang ops and hence thor ea risk or ellase ofthe shes. In opon or timbered eae ee ye Not nately of Ue based to pad expage towards pumping snp. 362, WELLPOINT SYSTEMS Titer wellsorvallpoint re smaltwell-reons of ize 60100 nmin diamster nd ‘ote L micas Wellets ao sin with ase or tanlesstee sereans and are made Oikbar ced onde or caf flling’spee Whore wellpintse required to remain inthe anton EDD s round fora Jong pid efor dewatering a dySock xenon, ay be economical cel sonable eats welipainta which ave of nlon mes seresns sarrounding exile eens ater drawn through te sareonantore the space batweon the gauze eet catel a he ac pipa toes dled nthe bola this ibe an then roaches Haan tints itll ty jotting thom inte the roand. A dingrammats sare ota wells in chown in Fg. 34 A typical layout of « wlpoit aystom Ghownin Fg 35. st spe te React mala i [= iter ensth ater all alae wen penned i Serrotes Seg nora Fig A Dagan npr of pital amen, 1660. ‘The capacity of acinglewollpsnt with» 60mm ize i about 10 iter Spacing of swtiplatsdepenge on the permet of Uh salad on the avait of tet fect The dromdow Tine to cones aarge or sandy gravels a spacing of 18 tom ie Eni cecny spacing LS m may be neoerey nity snc of ily ow permeability Tetighty permeate conse gravelethey may need tobe neo 8 0 mconiros. Tm general liplcting equipment comprise of to welpoints toa single 10 or 200 mm pum ‘theparateetngpanp. Ts welloin pump hasan sivatereeparatorandvaciery jmp as walla he nara entsfupl pe, llpoinayatem ia the most commonly wrod method fr cestrction purpoeen. \ellplge Satom ieultale wun thesit [o acceshl, ad where water bearing stratum UNIPIRLSS Whac to deap, Wellpoint system acts met fetal in cai and eon ‘eo maderate perme ity, Purther nth wellpointsystemntha water iedrawn aayMig. Sage tgs wept sala from the exzavation Eh atblising tho sides and ther perming steep alpen sale inopeneeump pumping. The inetalltion af wellplntsylor every capil wl requires ‘easonaby spl and heap equipment. In this there fo an advantage tha! the water is Fitered and earres Ite ot no all pails. eens of thi thoes Tose ang of ‘ubeidonee ofthe saroundng sreund than with opamp pumping {heaton teagh joint n tho pes, valve, ea, resating in ons of ping iin 1 the ground i cooulating mainly of arg gravel, af clay oral containing chbles or bolere ee nat prsbl to instal welipointe For dewatering despor oxeavations Uh wellpints mat be installed in te of more stages as shown in Fig. 26 Tare ena iit the depth of drawdown nts way, but tn ‘vorll width of exceation at ground lovel becomes very Inge. On the other hand tie posibloto eid wnu-valpsint tages by excavating downto water lve fro inataling {he pump and hoor ‘ion wellpeint ars ured in braced excavations Fg. 8.7) thay ar placaesto the tot ofthese lee. Thi done inorder to ennire loweringthe water lve btwn he toot pile res. Wallpints ar provided in erjunetion with tho sbec ils unde tho {allowing condition 0) ta prevent gute condiion ofthe ttiom when the aes piles are af ited pontration and Gi to lina ydrontti prone on the back fm soetile Colfer tho allowing higher bracing to bo wed Asan alterats to the eonontonslwelipoint systom with surface pumps, ons ean ee ajet-edustor wllpint eaten. A jeeoducor wallet epstom colts of wallpint ‘yarerLever,arTEn IL WATER TOKE thst Suce . 'SecoWD STAGE WELLPOMNTS ~ Operamion iy 3. aiatag en oeatin Pig 81. Waites xen ‘tteched to the tlt of jotaduetor pomp, with one pressure pipe and lightly larger ott pg Thee to pipe lng th the well nd abet pump are instaed ina capo ola and surourced with w filter eand, necessary. This method hae the i ‘_nvantage ta th drawn ft grounder ent ied indepth ution ‘tapamp trond level Phescousdinadvantas with seat that ho eestor pune uel mee owt. orleag xevaisnor whore dt of anevatin blow he waa ile mare ‘hon nim theein tomy eh en pea oma ar ido to ue depots ea ashen thor ithoat wep ‘Walenta aa either hy the progressive stm othe ring ton. Inthe progesite sat the hod on ne th a fi steven ig 3.8) “pomamgncn’ | conta OtBae vest ae Tey aie Fig. 58 Sige atge wtp talon _megrnive gem ha om Toten 160 F pr te f EPEPOP PE CEL iy, 88. Watpsit iaation ty he sen Wop os Toe, 1959, nana eons » Pumpingisdonecontinuotsl inonelength ss furor points arated ahead ofthepamped lowe sotion and pulled ot rm He compote ant backing, Only ane ender “ehtlent for narrow exvetione whereas fore exonetins or el containing aera [tion pormentle tril, the Render mort be placed on boids ofthe excavation. In heen ayer af isan (Pig 319) Uae bead mai i ploed copay ose {tnenatation ie prgreesivosystern i stitablefor trench work shorea the ingayatom PSN or etonguler onenations ouch afr ple of Lesomont and fr long tranches, 368, DREPAVELL DRAINAGE ‘enp-alldrainageayetem consists of deep-vells nd aubmerxbleoe turbine paris vehich can bo intaedbuteide the none af eonstrtin opratons and tho water table lowered othe doit lvel Deopoells are usally spaced fom to 80 m spending upon {i lve to whi watar table mnt te loses, permonbty of hy sand atta, sree ‘fscepap and amount of ebeergoncs avalible. ‘Deey-el eyatein in alto for lowering Uhe grouna wor tale wha the ail formation is pervioos with depth, the excavation extands through or i underlain by ‘onrsegrnined ole This method le uitablo when a grot dosth of wator looting it Squire or where e head du ta aterianpraree hast te lowered in permeable trata [eccomeraue dept below to cnaevaton isl Desp-velle my bo combined with the Soliant peter on orain fl anton for lowering the grounhweter table ig. 8.10 ‘Thejnstllation ofa eop-vole done sinking aasedtnvebul having adinmstor of about 200 to 500 mn larger than the wel easing which dapents on th za of the ubnoosile yam, The inner wel easing ineantd after the completion ofthe borehole ‘Rpertratedveren toiled esr te lng of ell whieh reqeed dowateing nes terminated in to 6 m long of unpoforted pips to nt as asamp tn ole ay fine ‘otorial which ight be drawn rough Use ter mesh, Geede itr material spacedSeta the wel sg thar tree cra rn ang oe ing orn ang tt eat ‘hon the we esi i a stg sh Ht petra nel he ee ti samene bec wt ny seas ml Tees shee ‘sweet a bang nal t promse ow ck neh nape eae ee ey etl fv ch al aces ae ed ae ‘chmesle pp eat tie ete ln eraioe se ee te aie Simin Fg ses be ftsncracoesa na owners ‘LoneneD waTeR LEVEL son prone Bt Sour Pig 511 Deasi ef depot, cents pumps are salina dopenell eyten, the tops ofthe sexeons should ‘bosot slow the computed watar surfac in Use wel TE the malls ate pormpes tyeepel pumps, the batons ofthe walls shouldbe set to provide vlicient length of submerged ‘even to adit Uh Now uth enseesiv brad ce As hear letng plant i sed nth wll in very rere formations Sexes, rae oun tes fal enn eoereaat ‘satay ih Tn tend to mest the th ie oa Hee ‘Sretreionpeo sh Sy tate msn age a 2.04. VACUURLDEWATEUNG SySTENS Gvity methods such as welpsnte and deopavell, avo not much sete inthe Sine grained oils with pormesbiityin th vangeof Ut 10x 10° mle Suche canbe rant Menino . ovaterd atieticoriy by applying a vaeuum othe pipingsytem vacuum dewatering {puta oqion that welll poet ersone, aioe pipes srzeunSed With ‘ind etendingto within few meee of tho ground sua. Thtp fe porlion af he hale ie vealad ox eapped with sh Sniparvious sol or athe sitablo spatial. BY having the ‘pumping main vacuum Presave, the hydraulic gradint for flow tothe welpints ie Tnerenced, Thin eto’ in ost auable flavored or atatfed ele vith elicit of porteability ofthe range Otto 10 10-temae.A type vacuum cowntoring stom in ratified nil eehown in Fig 3.12. In tis yatom the wellpints haul be place le than the eonventienal sytem Iti common to usa aedin pump inthis atom and the prostical maximum height of i i bout 806m, amosmene. sen Ene Pl 38, ctu dewaeing tn, 1.65, DEWATERING BY RLECTRO-OSMOSIS ‘When an extemal elestromotive fre le apeliad sorou meliiqa intortoc tho movable dre daub layer daplced tangs wl roapect tthe fed layer. hie inoloetrosnoris Anthe wsnaseoffrerraine soilprtilercatnes ot negativochares, pesltve lane fenton) in ealtion ave attract towards th cil parlos and concent ‘eat their surfaces. Upon spplientian of on elactromative fre betwen 9 eletredee ‘oil medium the positive tons adjsont to tho soil partiles and the water mosses stashed tothe ons ar attracted ta Us cathode and are pled by no anode Pi 8.18). ‘The free water nthe intarir ofthe void spaces i eatied lon to the eathose hy viscous ‘ow, By making the entheds a wel, war ean be elected in the wall aud thon pomped ‘out Hypatheticaldtibution of oa between external ad internal phase malay pore {euhown in Fg. .14, Acomprizan of eletw-anmatie Mow with iyd-auie Dow throws "ile npllary in ehown in Pig. 8.16 Tho olodeo-oxnatie Now (2) pd hyn api “let lipo by ah expression vile to hydra Now () a»ig 318 Mesh colton Me Gry and Mth 1857, noamet ounaKD suneAce St Oana ‘enya Sour Passe) ] ° . ° . 4 © GUTERAG PSE al we Fi 3.4 Hyphae dain tin baton oxra at "sla assay prefer Grey end a, 57 Qehid a2 el sla spray, tn bing ser he coatane rie petit tore Sly Dill trae Oi a Sea ‘ad, Gt Gay aad al 1969 hae ton pnts olin he dec ‘aif Whether content erent and thereat cae pnd on Uso stn eal nd tase nthe gana, warns ‘lent fst prety sol ate tes sete Nw ae {Sipe cg ornate Cosine of04 108% ee (GCasngrande, 1849, 1952). Feist FORCE fesistp renee 7 ne if ae some. gee ‘re, he | a ES ae ResistinG Fonce ‘esis Force 1) Betomate git sete | Ry 28. Gamporeon ofeach Br ‘anda gute eet see aa pee | Se eee Er Race a gate arh anette oes ight Dieu Herat trent sya et Re eons toca uipiah alee ena denies nee Tate etna cc ipbauiecnimnatacttentinenae ome eoonaitians Waiitaiay per es ta aon eho insti Le te ne ssirenamate ‘ht pe mst ney ‘Practical case, Ia Figs, 3.16 nd 3.17 there are shown fora common example where itis the Thine dain oanenSodarieet teens isonet scutes asin maltese rman ee neat Racecar! Soothe Sette sai ai evap ee layers sn pickets of sat which are fedquvntly present in sity aolls and which othervine| Sun cdr erie tinea ag ele titties Tinned cpg aces “Shalt nts sha ay# ap30 . e + wa . e ie 81 hte iagpmenta ep i ° SHEET PNG AS ANODE Fig 247. Bestode rang fr shad neato Incaccofeathodosombeded in porvisus filter, a cso in Fg 2.18.) th pore svator entering int the iin wal ose practically all af i electial contact with the strana dus sedcing the cesta armas ranoprt of water to a action of fll “npc this thd "The well are cece crane into one boi Pig. 8.1809 consist af a metal vid SeMoted pipe inthe nee spp nue survourng it and x jute or ston aie in Daannos e005 “ Jeon poe @ ® ig 328, Combltn eaten al. toon The copper guess cores ax ethos anda tobe pace ts nmodiat contact tee al heh is blngsatjorteda clestresnrase Au aval, tho anodes arutenthodes Ta Sethe equa pte: Anodes and cathodes should exiend indepth est 6 m TOE St ecuomat th lop or encavtion (8: O7E0-108), the chetrodes are orrenged alos tnd Standard G3; 8760-1981 commands thatthe eaten to be plnced in Shacrmotelinesartopacedon 7.6 to 10 Smeoirey, with anes insted iway between Ue sethode, he catoduowalls ahould have daar not len than 100m ‘Safety Menaures. Tho fllowing simple ules shouldbe made known to overybedy con tho ite 4) Ont perens wating rbbet ost eho te edt inthe naghbourhonot the etre, Ui) White working teen enado edcatho thr thelr oc the wingsheuld ‘betoushed naurh a nampa that while oe and son theletodechoother gt nt contee Sash ietgwondor mt ether lesteds, Sorisuserm could be th emraguone, ven with Tene han 10 vate ‘Gi Wave the exciton lncersed ot hy machina pial altntion has to bop ‘he operator tomes the peaurrnce of sort ict This may emdange he operator self {tue atpace No pareuar prosatins are necessary tho acineepartes within asp tsloced by anodes each a utd eneavations ofthe type shown a Fi 38. ‘Cate bstorie of electro ormesistoatmont of sot ays are presenta in Table 32 {ios abi) Acomparative say of demataringrytems dacussed above is presented in ‘uble8.3 48: 9760-1983),6 mou nove acRNOUES oe a ‘oie Cave torino esto omosie “Tle 2.8. Comparative Stain ot Deyatorag Sytem “hte Pt 98 "Ricyl on en ah Tatinand” [Oita] Balint | Pre | Reon Si aad | ae ‘ow | —Albrngs Ba once com Ea ‘ect wn ciane aera, Bring tity ye 7 [Rime [thenernds | Obata [Baptandne rd Powe ei Scowraint” aceite Ses. [estate ott sin |sctnsoe™” | etn” [tec ‘es mee, Stina om 8 ty eae sekoe sae vee, vin |reanunee [raryeensiy |rcrodanag: [stuns tong] [> [2 [tetzint Jenny el ope er | 2 Disa Baecsain, | etre pan [Sariemauce. [Staven sea [menetessonom’| | poet [Siem "ame | See indus cpa ge einen one cuts an om] | fe” fade oie] tg ie Stake vu oth. fearon | | ee |S) eee ee 7 | aalysandsh ‘enlders sya Chg Tatoo — Sine mae Soren i tts eae [eens | wet eatacra SETA Evtas fiend tom 83] | Fapnores setaitern” [eth pais ins doe Eikeparee o sad neon, ro thst per ete ik tn ot mae cen an" [enn ia oe | cate | Tunnin,Tmisia, | Pounsations Very softciay, 15m Blestroainjection > | Satifostery iu Sn eos | maaan etn ie EL oe" [emer See” mt sean. uss. |reatnntctine-(Sitty | rent: te ‘ety! wp cme {Geared | Etim ws nd Crp pap | Hes, wh Vi 3 [Om ayaa cemecetiy| em, cee Srmariéeh [Sintra [opting [Wendie ie ns |Suearng| sao Aatrorn losin prey dh Rese droge [Sta ce te fats ee ‘aaa tac" |Ssza ae a aa Se toe ay pa ees ise en fens pe Sue ioceoare [mimcmenst [tbs [Revie |omaaany i fesecttare fewer [fen tnc"™ |aeeit |e come eomasen, [apace ibn] ae thai ia 2 smn | hn sity (Noten waters oy undsned arena able Cond‘Table (Contd) erate Tan ity cl > FS ml 6 fom [sande ote oa Ne tintin |) titi na ie | ferred meron | tae peo [malate wed cay inst neae| jo Hae ot aig naa) create i Tigh" ese Una ee ‘te a sree ‘ote Ee © Optima by =n oo 3.7, DESIGN STEPS FOR DEWATERING SYSTEMS “Acompletedowtoring nate sould be epabl flowering the roundvater table ‘upto required depth, shoul ibtreop eapage into the excavation aa che same tine ‘Hould remove the scrface water which would thatwine effet tho operation of the ‘owateringeyetom or onstruction Ths thcaleatonot an appeopiato dawatoringystom fond it design depende on esloie, esl and watertable conditions atthe ste, the Inoguitude of the excavation, aunfacocwater ror? and contruction requirements. The ‘ential stepe in digning a daataringsystom is presented belo. a 1. SUBSOILINVESTIOATION "Pann impress snd be velo Kao the carat fate and bnonth an eenrtinn ve dap an spacing fring hoe tbs propel planed tomas th thicket fst so ond oo wi sigan vation, Spon “ould be ikon at feqoont ino wo on to Mtiy ech sil tye, peresblity eller oly ony other ipevius atria Te positon Ieulfatam pres shec we emefilly coded: Caimi dh thn a peel at th enya or tbe etre. ramon Tans a ‘Table 34. Permenbility Valeesof Pewious Statin “haope fa 1397801981), sm eae Send Got of aay Ea lee 8. | Pintemmdin rnd zor st0 4. | Medinet a1 000 Permenilityofthe ard teat to bo dowaioad orn whish the lydrotaic posture In to be veld should be determined Ton Standard (= 97601381) recommends = Feld poping tet for thie era, However varaus meltads ay beaut a determie {ln ponmeatlit. A rough approximation of poreabiity may bo obtained from Tabla 8a {G8 9760-2081) A blter estimate co be from w eomparion of geese dlstelbution ‘Strveu fom th Hosen’ mpiieal relationship, =, beO,Di an where Bo « Diameter of patil (em) = Coeficiont of peraeabilty ems), ix Constant varying otteon 100 an 160 in envo of pumping test isnot cone ‘ducted Thin approximate expeston willl for fsieyunformeands noosa with {nifty eefcont net grntar than 2 Laboratory determination of yall rable its for uniform sane ut tha elt wil be misenlng in aus of Well graded a ratified or gully eas, Te is warranted to anare Us permesbilit by asutubl elt npg tse mca of arg dvetarng prac 872, SOUROR. AND WATER TABLE DETAILS ‘Spute of cepage and knowlodgoof tho wator abl and any sutizatm preset ‘site aro ost important fasta ts bo conasered hile dolgning a slowatring or 2 prose ligeyeiem, Thesaure of separ depands onthe gealagealonturevafUss rea, ‘ons steams or othr bois of water onthe dopreeo perviousnes of tho stratum, a ‘mountofdramdown Sireameclaetn thewellonay ee ine rouronseepage depending fn the distance ofthe well fiom tho festive roan of sxpage- A fow may bs fet an tiie being denied th stones o whichis commonly known ae he radix of flan. ‘The rads of infec maybe astinated rm adem corve abled Com ak pumping tect. An empirical equation (Bg, 6) bated on Sich equation (a recom ‘nen by 15 9769-1981) ray bo Wed to atimate the rediue ef iaanse Ral hE an where K = radius ofinuenc (md 9 or rats Rows) C= constant =|= dopth of nates wator aon) dn bend a the wll) clint af otmanbilty (20+ ence. 11th wl cated elie to a ier, the tron of epg mi be conaione a he "vor, provide tho datanc fam the well the ver ata 2 ‘Generally te intial eovation of the water tabla in soraered in sing tho “slevation nt whch the rat stag of wellpintpoels wld ave tobe nae eae eater {slo orartsian pressure mnay be fected fregusely due ta sesronal variations r with ths ‘stags of ejecont ator eoure:Tnorde to eneuo dy WerMlny coulis ding contrac: tiem its protorale im mt sist maintnn the water tla Ito 2m baw the ttt of the excavation, Somme groundwaters may contain ir er dseted alts which avo an ‘stent plod af ime nay patil ofall clog the serena, filers on astroingsll fd cored tho azeene or metalic parts ruling in the redselion of eiianey of ‘owatoring stam, Phos dao ensideration shuld bo shown Uh mil propertie af froundwatorin the design, operation ond maintenance of watering sytem 78, DISTANCE OP WELLPOINTSMVELLS PROM SOUNCE Gy SEEPAGE Basedonthe ei condition the valo oo Z shuld be moet. kath regan, the following consideration boul be taken eae af OS 9760-1981). (e) fh aitasl div ofinfoene Ings compared with th adios the well oly anapproximats stinatlon of may be afin singe th dicharge i mat mach enelive tothe valuset R (@ An accurate etithtion of shld be mide or a piteaar dewatering sytem, ‘inc tho diehargo i imvereey ptopartional othe vale of $2.4, BPFECTIVE WELL RADIUS “Tho fetive well radius ry for 2 walpinivel ie dsided band on the intalation ‘twollswithor without iter Ifa welloint rll i iitlld without « gravel or ean filter the alecivo wall sai che taken ae one Hlth outside diematy of tho wel scream. ‘Whan a geavel or sand reused around the Well eteen the wel yale Eskon one halftheoutide demote ofthe ite If wel sere in indalled without iar inthe ‘orvousstrstuin but anata lfm rating the tree det srging the effective ‘rll adie wil eaaeedanelnlfofthe asic ametarof the will aceon Ax toate the dovelopod filter due to ergingisindefnite ie generally adequate med conroretiva foure vals ofr, corrospondingto the ease dimotr af howell seeen $2.5, DISGHARGE ComPuTArIONS fore desgninga dewatering andr reese slip iit neceaney to know he rat at whish rear nat bo rmoved en the pervious tata in onde to bers the "oqutod round\torIwering oF presnure rae awe iy hi, hs esi sel decks the mombr ste spacing andpenetationofthewelpsnttvela nnd thesized eapacity eller and pansp ths mandatoy ootablish the ndnsentlYelationepe etweon dacharge for wells and wellpsings andthe cotreponding emlowh ein {a perviow stat, This fs donot fllowingthedssien prin napotesbetetagieee fs entingous flow throughs porous med, Ina dewatering aatom with «single ine of elsely spaced vl, a approxiate ‘sltin the drawdown produced by thre walls can bo obtaind by ensiering the ing ‘tovls equivalant tom deninage sls Te validity of this aaumptin depends Spo te pacing ofthe well ae well are more closely spaod thay tod to approach connsony sink or alt. Tei pasing ea determined hat the head slants ine of Welly "eventilly the eames Would exit at alt Tho fllowing proelare i recommeded { Indinn Standard (S /9760-1051) tab lowed in thin veapect. (IE iethahoad corresponing to the natara water tab and hy 5 the heed a the sl then ha heed reduction fh at nfl vegule te pre Ue died rsa hond ig ‘Should ompute fom equations given Taine to. along withthe factorainPigy 819 nt 20. Cj AE Bee i 939. Fr Ye cto {i Assuming that hy = an that (hh) the heed fren Gh bong he a he wl fama sued 00 7D, ho wnt pang can tha be compte om Ie {Slowing equations (@) Por artesian ote: hoche ayy Tig "Bb er 188) ‘whore. 1-=distanovef wllpins frm the Hino zoure6 paving of wellponts sud y= adionof wellpinescho As Tine a act Feet | fo cans tue maby n sete) ig. 40, Computtion ator ye. (0) Por geasity on at mo Tag BL" ts, Wellpcint pacing nn ak be daar fm 8 No net Gear ray vee 08 180-981) Anapprevimatecpecingofwelipain reed pedase gion Brunswatr an sPAcN OF WELL PONS om. POLES PAC OF WELL POTS xO, HRS neous Py 3.21, lipid pacing rn des eandand gale ‘Apadtoen 800-000) | lowarngin various sls oan al be setimatod fom the monograph chown Fig. 8.21 ang ig 122. As thwemonograpis are based on empiiel data and ae fer average eonitons thay eho bo sed with cation, ‘ ng ren SPANO OF WELL PONTE NOAM pes Fig 828 Walsint pang adage m ‘Table 28, Flow ton Slo froma Single Line Source (Gakpted rom 8 9789:1981) Peston Mon Goon Pay petal Aten resi Bicharge Porro Tears 19 oe gz teens, Brice ttt oraiy De bso prvi Sauer (abe Canty” oto mamovenen Points ‘Table 85 (Coma) Pesan Mg AE comity a(orosoar lg) is oaeh Bs ttt tetas oe ct mein sda, hy dwotrarrom sacn be compute om th long UrPatoimcue: ta Ny, dnrcnwstyome: — hoa [ Borman} fonslas aaa mob _ "T9ble 31. Plow to Two Partially Penetrating Slots Mlikeny Between ‘ind Pavalo two Line Seavene Adepedfrom :0789 1981) Fin Cotton | —__Dichorerorta mY Fins tm on suet te td en estho may btacnsltsinetane avy fren fam alter alti eterna fo | ncn tid em Fig 820, aes " ‘th Read syle the tie jay snake HBar-taes] “Table 20 Flow to Slot fron Tro Line Saree (Aeopted fn 1807601081. “Table, Mond Reduction fr Finite Langth of lot ‘Caepted fm 1897801081) Pencrinn Plow Coon Diane Foe Teme Pastiniy Aton ea Ge for tatina acta aD 5 efter wi ia pena he feeb = 7004291 ta te ye 4,g, Wo peatraon a oe PSE ha Tein pe estes Teeter Fai Pay downtimes Not, a i | Note tite om bs dl ease ota 1. tha oe hie iy ay icin ohevttt-ta ZB, fod od Tatieate erg in ae reer fat” ha aa Bi ora Wind Bi Sen rainy atean oae re Aeaf(Eoa) cy ebesentr ty pansngament Posner a spat No d- doshas ara oe, it ter or tai: Noted = font the ol {i Atri walling pacingand the heady atthe wellpsnt veer compte, he tow po welling cn ba pat om the uation penn Tall 3, (Go) The above value af hy sold he equal to or rat than Hh value of hy eomputed Geom ig otal ea Ina nmap commestion aol be elimaed ales Ie oV OHH oo nie. Mts from base of pervious efratum, = vacuin at pap nt, y= vorngn ad loa in header plpo up to pun take, Loven vo at ok,% noi niger TNOLES 1H, ~head oes ds to steon entrance (Hf) +fetion lars dot low through the ‘wal ssren )#fstion loedf ow inthe eer pipe (Hf) + vlad Ge. DESIGN OF FILTERS Based onthe ier erierin, diecsaned in Station 3.2 he fit rouivements for fle vnaterial aba bo a unr ‘Character of Fltor Materials Ratio Ryy ‘Reto Uniform gainsizedistebution(C,=8tod) / 6t010 = ‘Well graded opeoly graded (onvanif); 12068, 1240 browned grein ‘Well grad to oony graded (romsnifrm); 9100 seis sanguin patties of ise material hore Roa Dy afmatova to bo potato 7 of files mee - 8 Dg of mata be protetad 1.72, DESIGN AND SELECTION OF WELL SCREENS ‘Tha design wale and wellpints mnt onus Chat ther wil bo ite eine to water Bowing through tho sowen and aor pips, prevent nitration of sed during ‘Purmping. aed reas coreion by water and asl Commerily availabe wllponts ae of {rua ot suinecestaltreens mounted over gnvanized, tipped, or sxileestest ttcionpipe, A highsapscy test wellpcuta shouts word when argafiowe ar frocoon inthe tl Te tah or atte o's cen should be sale than tho 60% sve Dy) or Os aie Dy eopocsicly, ofthe sand im which th wep wl iatalled, coe to trod intationefsend. While draining iy si, Uh walpaint sould be povided with {reed ites, Scr commonly fo ptr wl eid oer wane pipe or perforata to! ith galvanized, tnpeoidlshnped wire, Slt ed or beaten cen ecommerce il vatoos wiih fate Irie fo “hans tho fitincy oto wll ra he aio Ut preven intention fat ts ‘Tetrobotowso a gated itor areund the sesont, heise pipe oul conta ithet estar wood "Ax pr Indian tana (8: 9769-1981) the fllowing rts haul be obsorvedin dosing ad lating al arson or Wells Slot width « Dy itera aqui ssn) ole canst or width < Dye or aqifr sand), 4,78, SELALCTION OF PUMPS AND ACCESSORIES Pumps, hstdens, discarg® line apd power nit must bo of aufientenpacity to remove th required ow fot the wells of wellpointa and conduct it away from the owatered ese, Th eslestion of pnp aid power unit depends on various fete ouch rama wenio08 az requlted dacharg, auction Kf plas positive head insluding yds head loses, sivhandlingeapacity, power avalaiefuleconoryanddaraiisyof nits, When elstng ‘2 pump and motor un, Iie nocasnny to adop a enanvative apprise elite ‘ow ero exact en ho ofeiony may bo reduced in lang ine pumeing Contig! pumps are ued to pup water in sllstor pips eonnestd to walle or ‘wallpoint yatem aradremovingawrface wate from supe, Theeslcted pure shuld have tient aie handling eapasty, and thay should beable to produ high-racuinn. A ‘wellpont pump enssting of el rinsing conviugl pam with altashed vacuum p> Sngonerallyadoquatoand ovals 607.6 mot vacuum the Jepthatwatertable loosing Selarg 5m bat the rateat pumpage fer onchwalcine inlay sal 108 13 qn, inotallation of single stage Wellpoint system a he top ofthe exomation of wat tas, ‘ith attachodjoedctor pump may prove tobe advantagsoue then autintags elit yet, Water table upto 30m canto lowered aang a joer wallpaper, Insolectng the power nit tobe used for desing the pumps, onsdorstion shouldbe vent the initial eos ofthe wit snd tho out of operation Incuding maintenance ant {ual Th eapecty ofa pump required fora dewateringyetom dase by tha hoes power _eoblaned rom he formalin Horan Power Sor kifenay fhe pomp andengine where total dynanis oad = operating vacuum at tho pump in tke + ascharge tion nts, Header pipes araof 15 to JO om damstor ao slatively fight wight tel psc pips. Hendrs for wllpot stem aro provided wth inet eonneton of wellpan at {koe intervals Tho comnactian of eller lines to the esr pipes shouldbe through ‘noneretuen valves, Disehargeline may be asta, sluinkim 7 paste pipos Which shold ‘ond the how with latively small Bond oe, 4.78. WELLPOINTING IN DEEP EXCAVATIONS fhe waar tle could noth lowers ethan 6m or if dep excavation has to De mado, tis advantages to se mull-stage wollpoints ax diesel earlier, The owest hsidr of tho mallstage aytam should bo leated not mere thar abot 4.5 m abe subgrade to ensure that propor dauown ofthe groundwater level a be aehioved with ‘he vacuum avalalein the line, Olervations shold bo made at eray stage of operation for deeharge and goundweter lowering 08) £3.40, DEEP BORED WELL "The procodare for designing a deop-well system i siiar to tat of wllpoint. The ‘wall should be auficonly Inge t acaramodete pump and to exp Uhe ea lose lo Deoprwalls te usually f 16 to a6 om diameter ithesreons of © to226 m lonsth, Pemping hom welle ean be dan using surface pumps with thelr auction pias installed in bored ‘wales could beefetively ued oly up to doth of 7. It ential purnpe se‘wedina doep-vellaystem, the pompscen be lratedonthaexcrestonslopesridconnested LES Sone header pio, Pou doup seavations eubmarelle purpo ebult be installs, ‘oth a iaing main tothe surace, Safe dpth of pervious material shouldbe thoes Weise nel ahh tho wat abl nto be vere, for adequata subeegens of well, [sreom and porn. For lsgedisantar ripen 160 mn arbi or submersible pumps are iat 5:14. CONTROL OF SURFACE WATER. Ta laying ota dewatering epsom, proper slope shold be tne to contol surface water covay ta prevent Haing of pump Fouling i falar ofthe eyter. Purthot, nontrcted wowoft may cause sous evsion of slopes, The required messes, ore ‘Roving diker aches, eumpe, pumps sad nus end seeding to minimise elope sion ne fllowing factors hous considered while Sexigningandeeectingmneareres focontel wator dS: 8768-1881) (a) dation of onstration (@fhequeney af sna neurons {© intensity of rainfall andthe resulting rom (sae of aro ob protected aed (available eump storage. 1 dike ean bo built around he top ofthe excavation to inate run-off into the excovaton from thesurrunsing ten Dikes oul be large enough o prevent ater rom ‘Stertoping thom. stp ofthe dk shoeta be feast 30cm above the level of suraze Stata (ot mpourded, enely di eof widths 40 to 160 em a with ie lps of| Yon dor2.. Water estalned bythe dies canto purnyed eat or condtd to wumpsin the [ttomef th excavation ty pipe or Hine shanna and hen pomp tof the excavation, Ditches should be dsignsd with adequate allowance for slling, fhe bowed and ie Vlei of ow should ts lw enough to reduce the entot of maintenance, 38. DRAINS. ‘complete dein consas of dhivecompanants, ue, ter, cond collector, a ispael stam. “As icared ela filter eexental fo ontinued afiioney ofthe dein and te prove seepage resin duinghigh iraule gradints The wateriscllestedjn the dein ‘init rr to fir and is eavted way Ordinarily, Us cori i to 10 shes bar ‘ham its vali tat to aloe for variation in sol permit and to acormodte Same ating. Commonil pipe have poforatins oft mm in diameter and regs & {Gow lor with « maximum sige of 12 to 16 nm, The permanent and simple dispoeal ‘Satem is ravty. Doing adverte conditions such as wel weather, high watct tele and ‘Ritcutetoposrpiy, gravity ester ofalsponalemnnet fanetin Znsuchsituations punying ths tobe ror ohh il bs costlier aera lng pried. rane xerioos » 39.1. OPEN DRAINS. Treo athot ding enern ron by apn en oxasomp.Asump nary esonth eich coated yw ed iD Batson mata dase a Bee go oruonerppingistroublezomor whese a permarentainie dered, san bo Iaid ata required depth in ditches and the dts is back filled with ‘tsvitabl tee material Pig. 8.29) As faraspossblpiperahoul ela in stig ie, ‘Openings should bo provided fur ovary a0 lo 80 m fash out the pipe asain Ao esha proved changer nit on intrvle 001 60 along compacts ‘a Fig. 2. Pipa with dele ager ‘3.85. HORIZONTAT-DRAINS It field situations warrant to avoid open-aut work or nonavalabilty of adequate submerge, he groundwater an be lowered by means ofa Rann dsinage system This ‘jstom const of reinfred concrete sha or welle om which nmbor of hoveontel evra ipen at fae. Then pee hy be eon fo avr lng direction, Water collected in the well is wat mee Te system may not be ftv in lewering {18.4 DRAINAGE AFTER CONSTRUCTION Povonting grounder fm seaping into an structure or tough tore may bo necesary inarderto obtain proper we ofthe structure o's protest I om the scl shang inthe ntrpartil frees, change in shearing resistance displacement tthe oil maan Conasdering thasondition hat achapgoinstresqystotesltsinavotame ‘estore, will onur campreceian or ellemont ofthe boundaries, ‘All cls underg'elaatidatortion almost inmdiataly ltr the appliation of load Including aabrated cia under no dra ‘Leonards, 1952), Comprossionnusnduototheveproctsis termed initia rimmed ‘compression Fig 4) le 48. Coonmisof oa pei, ‘When sc assis ubjectedta tron in uth a mannor Uti volume is deerosed ‘thor re tveo pone acore fo which thie dearense night bo alteibutsd: @)compressen tuolid matter, Gl eompression of water and st within thavoide and Gl) escape of watar “tndair fom thevoie, The sald matter snd he pore water, beingveltvalyinsompresl rot undergo appreciable volume change when subjctd to compressive Lond wssally ‘neutered insu mnsee. Ifthe ei atturated, the decease in volume of the 2H may Uniti conmidened a onively due ton cea of ator rom te velds Ina patily real eal rue tho station ie mch more empl snc prunes of compressible {as within the ods may tmderg appreciable compression, even though there may be Ro {eape af water from the vide The ine dependent compression in a prtaly sakura {ell is beyond the tope of earront knowledge. The two-pendent compression in = karte soil i dinsed forthe‘As majority ofthe natural dopoite ate eturated, tho eompeestiiy of ell mast may bn atribated fall th vg of wil skeleton whish in turn depend om the eushural arrangonint of pails and tho bonding frees botwosn the pile, This ataraed eslwater aye the ompreesiity of mineelokelton fo gunerally eo eg ompeved ith thocompresibility of water Iesuchaayrtemialonded, te applod prossure ie ntialytranatoeed to pone ator se excess pressure ant once drainage f permitted, a portion ofthe applied pressure transfered to the raneralekalaton ening reduction In oneese pore wer prosoura flowed by a compression, This process of gradual load ttonsfor ro pore water to ell skeleton and the corresponding gradual compression ie {arned consoldation. That par of consldation which i ompletly controled ty the Teibtanee to low of water under the induced hydraulic gradient, i called primary ‘consolidation. The othor part called soconudary consolidation Creep), i 2b to the Plastic deformationofthesollat eroexcespare wntrprossur. Theprimary consolidation {spor more than Ue scondary consolidation 42.8, ONEDIMENSIONAL,CONSOLIDATION Figuto4 shonsatfelituation wherein a stratum afelaycandvihod btwoon two oors-gained strata, This station loads tom Doe only i tho vertialdection, The oarsegrained strstm which are llr then the clay and eonssliate instantaneoesy empaved toh eay lager Hens, th acer pore pressive develops only in the elay Iyer ‘tndif drainage allowed atlaent orourein tha verialdveation, Further the thik ofthe consolidating statin Islas compared tothe horizontal dimension, Hence the “tribationetporapeestuewietiessetniform otal erin sections, Tas Nowa water ‘occursonly inthe versea dinetin flawed by cttemortand there ic no horizontalatain, ‘Sch esiftation i efersed kone dnnnsinal consoldation vanes ie sample te sonoldatign may bam otiontal and verde diection, when an tank {placed ons elaysteatum having a thickness greates tha th dameter ofthe tank, at {er long embankment In exbymmetreoaing sueh ab under acinar tank the Rwy ‘nls in vstoa and rail dieetions an aeordingly the conalation wil be in tho eit an available {orcatcuate the tine soqured fr conslidatine Easct elution to fo and Uee-dmene ‘Sonal consolidation probe nt tallate. Howover, most avaiable two and three Simona sltions sr tae nth aura tthe tatel tees remain anstart FRECOMIESSON AND VERTICAL DRANG s 423, COMPRESSIBILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL DEPOSIYS Tin the netucal proces of depesiton, fine grained oils undergo the proces of| ontlidation unr ther mn weigh of ventana passe. Afra slap of eve {earn ateo of equllieium i reached and the compresion essa Tri eioian +e eotabishod only in horizontal grou uefaen whores insloping san uefa cen 29 bo taking pls. Sooson aftr senso, the proses eontins felled eomotimes by frotion or rumavel of overburden pressures Sometimes duc Io frequent dapeition the proses of conidation may bacontinousl taking plee Sofie grenade depeit ost. {nthe feld under difoent conditions and thar stro ity shoul Fo known Normally.Conselidated Salle Sis of low to mtdatst plasty inlade clay, organic asl mleeeous ite with peste Indotes up a3 ae well we sade, gravels Sind poroue ros) Such mail dopa esd tobe oral eeldatd ie hae newer ‘eanaclad on nila Meter by effertive overburden premtregretar inn thowe existing rer Th charters log xref narvalyonealdoted el ie hon ng 430). {ae greater pat af the corve ie apeaimately straight and the sepa in exprented ax compression index. Exprienco har revealed Us the abura water aman of tee eile {s ammoniy ovo to tho quid Fit If tho water ent elawor tha gl lt, the rally amansure of the sositensy of aca thecal el an reat than ghd it tho eli aid to be highly sonata. Tn any event Uwe dl ate alaya elo & ‘onederabln depth Over-Consolldated Sotle A sll dopa, flow to rein plasticity, which har ‘nen fly conoidated under a pressure, reat than the prevent nerburden presse, ‘Pa in mito be overconanidted (presonsadnted or prosmprensed) Most wnat {ils are oveeconelidated ta aome dogroe and exhibit the chaensterisic log pcurve af Fig 4.8). Th ratio, Pah rrr toon the oversonecldatior ratio (OCH) ane, the prezonmalidation prose ‘The preconoldaton pressure can bo estimated fom th elogpeurve Ig. 4.8) "Pangonta aro awe tothe ini lat edion st oh leap eagle portion fae carve and the interaction is approxmatlytho prsonaliatien press, Ovetoonolida: Lion my sso be exused ly 3 variety of factors (Leonards, 1062): (@) presaure dt orarburdon that was subecquontyoxede, (i) doszcation duo to expesuro of tho surface, fen accompanied by ltraion ofthe slay minal, i) tesanie free ds ta meversente inthe ont rus, i) tomporary overfoutng nd (o)eostlnadeoopge oreo Some of th star factors (Soar, 1679) such as @ changing tbo physieochomia! tnd bbe the clay patie ory introducing trees by the expandondcontsection of the grains daring the alteration proces may show fxs af precnsolation. For exemple esidual oil, weathorod eke and eemeparlly indurated rek exit preconclidalion ‘fom this otc, Remoral of high consontaton ‘sme efect in wm clay depelid ude call water. All hers are rearee fo we pore: preconcoldation Sowers, 1979) Precontolidated lays have wntercontntsmach Ios thei iid its, Has overeonoldatd clay ahi ator contents le than late limits, soll wil et sto6 ono move ous “stein 4 (eoniey ent cay (engemant sot artaty Ley ai tay ‘soe amiheat ig. 2. Sar ld cat cave pce trl spricably until tha atten fapared by Uh atrctut ie goaterthan tho preconslidation | Sensitive Clays, The consistency af slaye and: othor cohesive soils is usually Aeserbed ae a0, median ei or td, Tho torm sonsitvity jest the effect sf {ematlding onthe comlatney of day. "Phe degre frst, Sof clay i oxprese [pte ati bet the undrained strength af en undisturbed specnan and the stengt, ‘tthe sama specimen a he osu water content bt ina remoulded stato. Th dag of entity iferont fr dort els and it may alo be dffrot fr the same ely at ‘literon rater ston, vation fon fo 16 withthe lowest vale fr incr lind with the highest value forthe exracanitive lags Tn some ‘eetions, bocauee of {ormetion ofa well-developed ox honayeom store ort loncing a sf glatal lays Alposited incall wera eubnequwntiyupltes, te alge may bill highor and they {is ko a clays Saniive lye aro prevoncolated to ore agree. The vater ‘Sontenta af highly sonst clay e general higher than dts Hou Unite Pare 4.3) ‘hows ths logpeaves fo sonatve clayeandothar sale witha fos ontor wel daveloped Shela stature ‘The curve le Nat upto th prsinsliation preetare dep ship and ‘hen gradually Matene ta eppreximate traight Kno. The sharp de> fara vatiomay be ‘tilted toa stcetorl Bronk down in which Uh bond boiwoon te paris re bcclen ‘tel the patsoe rearrange theinselovs nto emer dene eriantation Sow, X57). ‘Ceniented Soll. Catt si ars oft rock dpiete-logp eaves sinilae to preconliated sole, The proconsslidation effect may bo eet to the boing tbc the pails If the de teal sudenly dn to inerossed prscure, tho eg > furve will be snl to tht of senitivaclaga Par such materials With waler-sonsitve ‘ing two prome-oid ratio curves may bo viuaload (Sowers 1979): undisturbed (Gonaally raat bat not aturated) and inandated, a sheen in Fig. The dep from ‘he hghar valve (ondsturbed wale) may accu dus to Indation ander smal pressure {ena td to elf sight of ni) Duet his bhavione srw euiden settlements may ‘cco in day ogions where emote sale have boon iat due to ematraction ntti (Sowers, 1970) [Expanslve Sols. Patilly surat highly plaatcexpansivelays and rome highly ‘nienionn sila maybe subjetod to hig preconsliation dvs to descttion, Thee sis ‘ho hig incor and absvb war ifthe hae aca oweler and oxpands IF. 19 (into elong pearves may be davelaped for auch eile = Undsturbd bat partially saturated, and inant (Sowers, 179) ‘and Reclaimed Soils, Pes and highly organie sale ao extromsly compress dapanding an the inital veld rat. The ela curves il be similar to thot ‘Stelay depot ht with Ise procosidation The virgin curv eine peti eeldam a Soaight ino he comprosiltyefresiaimed eis cannot be mansre in he laboratory Tncauss ofthe nonhomegonty of tho mtari However the compres characteristics ‘nimi to that of organi sie Bll of da compression serushingof helo esa ‘istortion of resilient matrils Soars, 1579, ‘Sand. Sanyal ompross lacs undor stati ons state ond induces compresion in san iy for Use oy ‘olen shang caused by lateral ling ot sho train that tn place IntheIvy faded ates large, thacompresionngoeornod bythe contact pressure function ofthe modus of subgrade reaction a diferent point. In euch tuations, “ompresin vero prvaiy cure ay be wed, He curve beingobtained hy le testing Sry use of asimple sompresson tes nth abr tary in hich ho eral deformations re pravented. Hevever, te laboatery curve souls ued witheauton tn noncohesive fis the mor cmmen eed prderhesttement iy adopingsomi-empiial ules ‘lating eompression fo the results of ol penetration tet, 424, MENHIODS OF BVALUATING COMPRESSIBILITY ‘Av dsaissd oral masse said-berotielyt bo flly consolidated under sven pressure mh th excns pore weterpretro i ato, dpicting Ue termination of [ria conwliatgn, The slo continued compression hat connie ft ho excess pore trate pressures have estantlydaeipated i oto secondary compression Fig. 40, [As the secondary compression Is tne dopondent, the longer the elay vmaine under a ‘natant effete sirens Une denser i becomes. Prctcal evidence show that resp cence (or becores ental tha i snot moararable. The relative importance of rconery ae prima empenson vases with the typ of ar ala with bert stexs nerement {onal stress, Both primary and secondary compressions ar ine-dependent emprese sion which aredostbelor, Immediate compressa whichic generally ss orcohosive fay be cmnpted from alae properties ois Primary Compression, Iho sol boeath stustre contain Ieyrs af sand oe tifelayaternativly pit agers a wl ela, the comprar f deca nd ila Sate can be diregordd. ertght an Perk, 1000, "The sample of layers of ela depend pees experianced hy the depot anh gai the maid ofthe greater th lay." priery compre on, So tha morally ost lay of tions with nil wid natin, de toa ‘hungeinprowturep ie computed from By (1) Cog Pate? : ls tet a un 8.0 lone an white. th compression dex fom ld sog eve The el mop cave has to sxtrapelatod fem th reste ofthe Iabenatry og p carve by 4 stable procedure (Gohmeetmann, 1055) Cconbecatnstedvoughy fom aang it (Toranght ah eck, 1867) ae ©, 0.000 tu, 1059) an or sols of very low pleticty and porous vesk, Sowers (1958) has found the compression indox obo rlntad tothe unditurbed wid ratio, ey, C.9 015%,-3) a9 whore isa constant whote valu ie fom 0: fo porous eet 0.8 for highly mieeeans tila Both the oxprosions ne appoints a he best snd conadersalevvintion sould Ibe expected. guation (2) maybe erring inthe unsafe de If be lg lit f roster ‘han 100% ifthe natural water content at dept of Tt 10m is goate than th gl Iimit rif contains s high pereontage of pnt atrial (Teragh and Peck, 1007). ‘Thacompreeiility ofa protompresa clay dopendeon liquid limit ancdanthostreee ‘iodine where Api the presere added yet ta the prevent averbutden ‘rarer, andy isthe maximum prenure that hor ever sated on he clay If the above stress ratio is less han 60%, then the primaty empeeesion i abou 10 to 6% of thet & ‘Sinilar normally enaidato ely. For stone rato gente than 100% the niuenes ofthe ‘recomprersion onthe ellen ofthe structs enn be dined’ Torznh and Pes, 1987). ‘Thecompreaiility of homily precomprented baa af clay fray erelavant. tgs sand heavy structures on euch wif clay may be damaged due to moderate diferenta seamen. However aterm computation my be made rom x carefully eanahcted ‘onslidtion tet els on a undstured sampls Vorsenitive lays comonted anil nd expansivo ail conolidtion tat yesults may ‘beused evaluating priory smpression Th corprenin dex fr pat cas beetle from th intial wid tio, Sowers, 1979). : C= 0500.6, aa “For elaimed scl the compression index may beatimated fram B14), th value fe aris fom 0.15 for rigid oan to 0. or ollow Foien a antag ‘sed onthe abave dineutsion it coud! fm relied the prinaey conspronsion i rahotad based on ajutifiable vane of Its quite resonable to ezpoct Cy te dopant on Init vid vate stroctare nnd the esount and (ype of elay minerals an the indo | propertics. Based on theo factor, diferent equations are stgoatl by vations authors ‘nd reported (Table 4.1) by Bowes (2088).* nono wsovensr rst avalon inrgoatng i andere plots resold ell sa Ise reuonle to akan steage vig of ©, be onthe ae equation nd the ‘alors nage Chose tot fom he onesie tt ols Bewley, 08 Secondary Comprenlo. Its diel a ealat wandarycompreson How: onetan rene ona ong eneurh pt he pine rier me may baie, rove tn the rng Ft ceantary comport eee oem coafient fecnary empresa ad ‘apoved ash ape Cra tefl orn th Une ompresion carve ie 4 ‘vit Co Tog, +817) whore. fy= tne whan prin comaiatin a alts AL tn inresent roi aT =the abortny sale ‘Terr, th svondary empress, S, =A, for he te nema 8 oe & strata afthshoes Hie as teat 82 HO cte 7, th) ‘table 41. Equations fr the Compression Index trom Different Sources "Gusptd om Bel, 1085) Gonpranon doeOo Connie Zara 0 n= om 0 dag ootaato) | esahiond Pod 86 987%¢000%en 490704054) | Sutin agin asus ot at 07) (ete) 08 Bowate 88) an Rendon (a) en nasor v.00. 000% sy | 194s onabend ope) Sania + atiebe v coM6C, oats, . agra and Moh ca, iss cabin +0806, = Keppanc986) ‘Not, dp an acetate din se Scio panty tet ei rar) ain aera nee cz le Seondary somprossion may be sigifeat in hight Pati wails and special in coxgnni wl, yea value or ths coolfniant of exenary compression for ome nls 9 (Gen nTatie 42 Lads 1987, ‘Tabled.2-Typial Value of ‘jer Lad, 1867) Bread Vales Revly wool Boosie bon ‘er phen Orgaresie ros Prope iy ah OCHS 2 oot 425. RATE OF CONSOLIDATION ‘The consolidation of lay andor Joa in m anzalidatlon tat doos not tke place instantansanay, Ashe lays hav nes permeability, al tho ontrapped water in the vids Cannot esenpeleunedutelywhon sloadieaypied However, the ow oat tskeplacerapil lithe, as itcontinues the presure dope ad tho ra of flow desenee. As the water evening satin nt the mula thaspesimen-The "no of ottemont is rapid a st ad than desreanes tema fay constant vals ‘The progress of eontliatian esate a the dlferent rates in diferent pats ofthe pectmen, As the desinage File ae betiar atthe upper an lower boundaries the Drogres of consalidtion erp than at Us idl of he spt, A theory, knoira as theory af eonalidatian, (Torzaghiy 125, 1848) ss ben evolopl for sompating the rte ef onaldatnn based on th asamptin tat tho laws ‘othydrulin goverthedestoaeofporewater pressure Thefcllowingtelatonshipbeteen the deste feascidation Wand time os v-nry 40 where nS ae 8 ha “ 7 ee 1, tea dimensionless number called ths tine fet, Rnown aseanfcent of eonsclida- lone th deine path hal the hikes of sania) the tm eorrenponing (0 Us mae couent of volume compess2uiy, i cefcent of preity and D ie the ‘Snetnined madlun, Figite 45a graphical representation ef Bg (7). In otdoe to eatinnta the dogres of eonsoldation or tho rato oe atllerent, the pene {actor the eoffisint of conzlidation cy hes t be eenkutad propos. Tha ceffeient of ‘Conslidation ean be valved by means of consolidation tary Fein the experimental {Seformationtime curve to the theoretical eure for Ba (7 To popular maths av A CCarngrando’ (096) lo-ime filing meted an Tepln's (1948) Ease ing method "Thess mathe ye ome what diffrent valuee The Vms mmthod usally gies larger value of, han the loge method, andthe method ie wsvally preferred2 oun moves EBNOUES 46. fat nsdn bah Te 60g dstlbuton ef svensor fore satan drsnad oo Sietdnttinns ditto toro Anesimationof sf ithe ostained edalaD ekownfoholoa lve trom he sapecion ‘The beat wry te determine DC ind pram aso can be estimated by inet methods fem ‘ ‘antes cone ponetaton es sander pnetaton ete, Valurs fem net metiode Sdn oaks osrtetenrtetetonat “Tre eahw of Dwhih m tnporeant in iy evaluation of tenet ealeaation ete su ate nthoress ange ttn th natal srr ies OS) nthe ‘Sevbeal tes un to nasral oceourden tte end the stroesaflereurfoe fading). vniated But Atm gnerly unknown. However i ment jee ican bo asad tobe on the orderof 1 MNIn? ard nee the Wil be oughtyeqol so OS + C05 MAte# Tho val oD at thi pati ‘potimtereat and has boon elo epee constained modula, Bhs pare [Set greatly inuencedty mederntsveriations ny, andheeror volved in axcopling Dts AN i all Sarmatapoon ae Kotsans, 1880), "Te parame: D canbeeatnated fom the pie elelationa fom Fig. 4. for anit cays ae merely organic sails For sols tow to water table Day be {timated fom ester content anor sail above wnt tale, D, maybe estimated her ‘om she macs dy dona ortho natural vl at or coheioles eile, has bor cota with the standard penetration roi tance), Paty 410) ay where. in unite of kaon? RECNPRESION AN VERTIN ORAM 2 ‘The value aD, has ales bean corsated with cone ponetrstion existent ‘Dison Sa whose. 2for anda Sehaestmsnn, 1970) 4 for oft to medium sf silts (OBC, 1878) 1 1 paty sila and peat (BCD, 1970) rola) [thy PALUE GF og omit) ony sae oa Ar sauaaon 9 Pig 46. Ratatat, Frm dy aay) Pram wtoconet atetaation ank) Prom wik ‘att lorry itn the im watered Sayan ad (Seent of alton #03" 024 strand tarda es se Ob aod Fa ‘Sntasepeealy ter Staton sts, 1 “Tho paramoterD, has slo been corsated with Gas (Gonos, 1979) Tree Pas Gitte, 49) whore os the fective consldaton strate and underinit tres sonitons thi will Tooqunl to tho ormal overburden ares. ‘As cvaies ham ad increment loading nd unloading end ferenteamls ofthe sams snl is extremely diffiettoealect a value oe, for use ina paticlarenginceting [problem Thus the taorvd rato of astlemnentor how ofa stuctrel several ine falar {han thatestnited forma saleetde,valusfrom.cansalidtin fet ears and Lame, 1988. Thin anamrly mayo de fo vatete sasngtons made inthe anedivensanal onelidation theary Howover,preditina of ate onslidation ts eel oy to Know inadvance the approximate tine required for concalsttion, 426, ACCELERATING CONSOLIDATION _Acclortingtherateafeonsoidation canbe wef incetain cil ongingerng wok, such as highway snd aeildembankroenta on compreaiie soln heroin ii sso Ut te major portion ofthe attlomant should have eecurred dusingeanstration a ot ‘after onstruction (Rutledge end Jehnson, 1958) Also in order to increase Uae shearstrong of dam fu fecorte to Gano, 1548) Prcloaing slo or along with vortial drains have toon used. Evidently, more ttanont will eur uadar © heavy wineharge, provided tho sll has alegate shear rcnath than wor a light utchange, Whon a schorgo tere anotbor etd of [sclonatng the eonaidation pros to shoriom to longi oft dnage pat forthe ‘orewater taping rm dh chealidatingull Tit isacheved iy proviingverical drains Errwols at aequte spacing such thst more shore dstanc dranage pathe aro een ‘tiled tention on prolaaiing end verti! drain are maton ho subsequent section, lotion te permit more rapid consiaation assleation has been. 4, PRELOADING AND SURCHARGE FILLS Pralonding of iin ite simpentintont, is mecly applying an external loading or atone durationts cause desirable changers the sol Conventionally prlaetingiustally need out before somstucion of any sre, However, Uincanbe atid ven undo [Snufinehedsondionandeven aftr completion atshas inthe eneoeiquidtorage tanks. th thks offi placed for pelosdinggrentor han thot voquited rth final ground thvlaeclveton, Urs ences fil terme a sureharg l 1 haa bron reported (Stnnntoouls and Kotsas, 165) that peloding has boon ‘sed in many sll engiering work ish a road ebankinents big abutments ae iceteertnwerahouse, gravy qu wall, using coment, nage storage ak, ‘olitrednruetutes anal nd indies, Prong maths ny mera vig ncaa ihe et lope for improving ground supper, aseh a0) the ext invsved ie compartivoly oss, “Indvnny between 10 90% wath orien drain and 20 to 40% with he ues of ‘eta drsns i epetally attractive wine fil tater aftr completion of rloed- Ituinutmoquentiy wad nth sone pint an il natal ofr te propre eiple Conventional sortetion equipment owded for enth moving job i efficent for the Prelonting works, Go ost of monitoring ntrumenta ate cheap at htm nee for Thsttlaton in nly toto treo wosks elect prelonngen be ober vedperialy om the fla nuramentaton ana makes posse fatorepreiions about thebehovaur, nde provda uniform improved proportes othe grou ‘he decision oadop preloading echiquo wil be quite masonble and eucestel only when te fllowingcordtions aw eae Stamatopoulbs and Kosar 198): 0) thee Sout not be anjbas flat ding prelondingar dur the operation final tustre, ‘the duralomefprelonding willbe nih th imo alatnd by tha coneraction eked, {i toy lb ne damage taining atracre, Go) re wilt nb undveatareane to envi semi, elements fine coneruction wil bu within the rang of {otraner, ad he con ssn empaved Water mths. 431, PRECOMPRESSION PRINCIPLES Prolong inereasce the pore war prossurin tho soil and asthe consoldation proces acura nanos Inthe ofwtive zee Ele ple inthe soll accompanied by $nvfae eottlomont. The preloading matevil placed over the ground tobe improved in ‘mount suffient lo produce a stress the ai equal that anticipated from the final ACCOMERESHOW AND VERE. BAAS tructutes, The timo vyuited fr attainment of fll onsliaton vt dey the quaroof te agor-hikaees and invoroly the permet. Tm losing sons ca Ieulflant nly whon the thieknar of ari lean and more onatuion ins allowed in tho dovelopmant othe projstotherwen xshangy fil ay sont ed, ‘Tho ratio ofthe weight wd for prelaingto the weight af the fal stuture tobe ‘conatrvtad ont improved oli enle nefcentof earch) Tha he the vale ‘Stim, th ee in egule for conealiation ar all preload ant higher the proven, ptprelanding actor of aety agin bo fit, Om the ether hand higher vale of ‘pron heap and rove atzation be 02.0 und the ores oie a jmapont Mil in eombinalion witha eurcharge ll ean eae more ‘moti ofsettlement in shorter tine. Using convortional thoores ef coneldaton, the smn of sucharge fl equi tnd tho loting pvid ean bo elimatad. Suscharg file gonerliy enable to emne bat primary and rte ofthe ssoniary compression. Inhighly erganicdepaitoandennitary Indi the soconary compression wll be preaminatng. While sompting the the required for fll consolation, itp fo bo omsrmbored that the ovrnge degree of ‘onsaidtion throughout the consolidating lay and te vale ak each depts yxy Hence tho amelie has to ielude the poesia eastane of residual exzene rove water Preis fer emoval of surcharg In eo rosidnl eases yore wala xt, a ellen eu ‘cour under the pormanent fl To avoid tie tie desirable to bas heveqned nascar lending duration on to conelidation tne required fr points most dant from drainage boundaioe Mitcell 076). Tho rte of prolol and eutehorge Gl placomant maybe ‘ontoled depending on the ste at which the sil ie griningettongty There should be ‘hosked during the Bil placement by moans of pezometars aa releasing eta 4.32, PRELOADING ETHODS eaping of fil materiale the moat common method of pivlaaing. In sntecasee ‘ho material is ok eompltaly or pay and th remed materi maybe retina jn the ‘sume pnjet fr another preload ot fo embankmentennstuction Three meer ofc Tauro in hoping atari, sil Use md a generally adopt nin sect fot all types of srwetaree apd Jsations nated of Reaping fl, the reqsied weight for ‘reloading eam ale bo appli to the pound by contracting perpheral dyke nnd Fling Ue anload avn with water innova practice the oat frequent method of proloaing is ombanknont loading. ‘most eases tines to ight month are tequied fom tho beginning of embsnent placement tothe end when the lond i tonowed Th ight of pel sal heap in net {xis nd to8 m above cipal rade ad the nnima ad ann bight bg LS tnd 18. respectively Tho uel rango of sttlement carved i rm OS to Liman it “neuptonaleasesthiemaylendto2e Peleg Jllatste somecaushistorieneptlonding tel ot, 1980. In ancther metho of prloading, the fina structure Te-ueed ss vehicle fo lat pplication This method har been extensively appiod for liquid stemgo tanks, Pele to96 rouvo nenoveserrecosauss | ving aim kal nt le i ee iinet marae | ih. Seaiietearainestcenieaettireriemetenmnts | se ee tat cenisiehilord cae hed ‘cael ete Ecce ria i a sehnnana eth emda ase ie etna Sse seRly toe Bestar cet Tteisha re ttctean ya ta a a rea - Per [ Sun | Pimeto | Town | Howe | Adil = ‘manent | charge | over- | settle | om | tonal | Ee | | Se [ate we | AR || oe oe aa |r| Se, S|) se ia] | an esis : fam Waeeae| ow | | + [om fom | o | | : : a [ocean | eon : sis | igh | seem |ozaamest | | ae [oe |e > | fie [chet cine ste = : sora) - tc _ [mt a | (Sinonend |s=10t0Dmfa || ee 2 0.06 es eon RET nt oN AN VERTICAL DAS ” Another mst effective method of pelodingie by lowering th waa table provided ‘he sll conditions pert In highly permonbla oil thw effect wil be mare As the wate Labloistowered the offic ofbuoyangy elotand these abovewator tabs pwns nl seght by about 10 kN. Asan apreximation every nyte lorering of wale ttle wil proce about the snme lading es half ameter depth aE Tha lwerngof wator tables dona ay 2 ouitable dewatering eater. Tho rate af stUemont roy be inereend satel by Combining tho methed of lowering the wate abe with hat of epg ily ‘Another appoach is inundstingo preroding Lowering of watt table ie applicable wham te yk table is high; Whan tho War table lo, soe wan be appli to eames rails by opposite actin! ke, by nurdating ot preparing the auace Tis effect oP prepondingiebreakingleosebons atom aves, ierossingertestansin ogee ae {he weight of water. Tho combined eft depending onthe ype of sl enue adequate Aonsifeiton of sit This techniquels slo refereed tax hydoeompstion. ijetiman (1962) proposed a vacuum preloading mnthod. In this «160 mms layer of sand iv placed on the wurlace af 28 clay, the layer a ower with at imperious semana An application of «veut of 60 to 8 KPa ie indo inh sand which aca fan equivalent eveeoad. For better prfarmaneo, itis hua piston to a vertical Asin i conjuetin with the math. Th meted dives the elvantages Pt 181) forthe ling reasons: © thee are no problems ofembanknent stability to conse. ia ‘unavailable, Joule th nee fr ackil tril which ie ueully expansive and efen Gi tho installation un romoval of the mesne a applynn &h plead ae readily accomplished. ‘Tube 44 showe our enzo historia of vasun polosing Po, 1081. Jeong is another procedure adapted in prloading Tis method ie molly apis {individual fotings of eithor new buildings a which extra storie rato aed Jacking lnmatandard method of raleading fing and pile In undespinng. Jn lrg arene if only moderato improvement is neded on wpe area when ‘heavy lounge planned its adeableto wee proloning in combination with pling I thos approach, preloading ner th ios must a complot frst eoastoprovent dorm lag {orca om piles are minimised. In guneral, mand mate provide insrosed eat le ‘rusts that ave sense or atlement, ad Iw ent of mprowanent for pavements, lite and eal building,‘Tole 4 Cae Histor ot Vacuuns Prelosding ea ra cocgaem | mttrven [man | Rar me ee ferwsleitae, |) 404990 WPa or 4 day om Estee Bice) 0 tei nnn, tn Siieaieceeen| we cease nn ny ge fog mato ee mat sete lan easel meee fon a ea . ia ee acon ‘Seer setceee sine ping. over pid fe eat 90 dap 448.8, CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS nord to abiov a beet penermaneo ly to praoadng technique various fctrs ‘nave tobe coalated nd tho sllent fctor aro explained blow. ‘Ground Investigation. Ground instigation has tobe plano with treat care snd the eubratfaceeonitione shoul be investigated thoroughly. Two asports hve tobe “ued afore sclectne this method, eye round shoal be ble to sppon the waht SERS aoe for whish Un stl shox avo ndaquato gear srength and the tt | ae tte celments sneha fe aad proven ke eonet PaUEite ecules high wectigtian fe thm tho mato whinge how tecniqus nthe milf peation se abe Prliingey investigation ming bo dehy gpa meth lw ying ana nrtng Ie gece tre ea te re ose pt 000k Po season ae minimum marin ings how te pr ene ry 100 selene Sih Sera ie of ra en reo bgt ee ene oer Soll Types. Prectialyprlonding tachrique hasbeen applied eetvaly on every fn tan eden Uor hua sean act ay cere ieeci eser il like peat have been | Bejtnzaneetcr aera Soporte odes uel ene Mee cently. However nek dyno lst oly 2 ey ile ate oti © ef aclu vgs | pmdontis the initalcomprescion a os sould be talen for about Sm a anda oubtflto trent satsfaceorly. Poloading can be applied tome above alow tho ear table. ‘Space, Materials and Acoots dont sacs seguir pling Ab 0m or mute af tee ots the peimetar ofthe planned urastare ie teced pesfran the felon operations, Evidently the space eqisement tay net be apoblm ns pets {otinextensons to existing intallatir space may boc, ‘Anotha important equitement athe avalabiliyaf a aitale fil material Among ‘0 fil materia eunular materiale a tho mgt desirable since they da nat tn to mud ada We roused ata he Produce are als satiety aed. Income Sees finegeaned materia lik lay als, havo ls bon wed In preticocuowetly ‘ith th constant thet ial bo poeible to contrac onl during dry weather. ‘Tho othoraapst the acon f the fill materi, The transport of lage quantities sffilmaterias threvgh inhabited reas, my causinconveniane to pudlcky way of dust, ‘sie aburdenontvatie. Transprtafilmaterial yn lke on iver nay acsptabl, ‘posally i dregings quired for daeporing the water Ue preloading obo do trator, thor soaldbe adequate eaten of watne nar tae site Site Preparation, Daf ataring the preload operation th site must be cleared by sorface vegetation, the tps up toa depth of about 0. m must bo vemved and thon the “orfae must be covered y bass ayer affee devising matoral The namo for vena sto provent fart sotloment du to a larger daca set ala to {ucltate tho placoment of bave layer Tho be npr io lst 0 thn ad mat be 3 ron-ahesive nme of gravel al sa, Phe bute lager page tv ld sole) to fecnve and charge the water tha eases th ance of cnpeessble sails during tho eonatetion procor,and (i to provide s orfrtabe working surface of hich equipment enn ove in einy weather without hinderance. Inarcne wher the sadravel Sxporaive or not aval condi and consider iadvanbe tous, ooayntheticn as thay offer jsstength 44, MONITORING OF COMPRESSION thas boon aacuzzd in Seton 4.2; hatte sompossoneaeed by sen onde vided into te eafogeis, vie, timo-ndapondent and Uine-deponen. The Une inde Cini setenv Thstine-dopendent wpa “th socondary compressions Fold tnereitlemont observations rd that seetloments " soolZoceur over periods of overal monte to many year Ie nectar lo prod the time [tate ond the duration and amount of eeltloment fr proper movteing of he preloding _—tperation. In preload proklons ettementline prions are of the fllowing IyPe® -TBeamatopoutes and Katia, 1966 (i Predation of tho bahavour of erge-seal prelandinge tot il from Use vaults of orn on test. i) Prodition of the bchavour of large eal proloding fom thal ofa est il i) Prediction eb bohavioa of tha permanent sfsustue ota Eat fhe plone“tho frat ofthese preietione ae fll dependent on the rel of borings al tsts oniaborlary samples which are oon theoviesofonsolation fr neceseay podetlon. ‘Tieetortwo prions atebeerdonemplricel mthodsbssedon feldobscrvationsrether rrecthenretical mths Hewover, the tend end third math shoo in consider to Treacle than te Ret as they are ase on Sek asorvations rather han fom ‘hooey ane oma sel ats. : dsl PREDICTIONS FROMHORINGS AND TESTS "time prediction of iil compan i vil since to eterninations take | place inmedintay afte the lao sppietin. Th it predstion ofecondany compression aaa ta llarnised appeximatel rom (0), Ths eiy the ime fr pirary compres: sonia be detoreed unig the well xtablahed TerzghsUheoryofconolidation, } igation (8) ie reoiten | jm TNT a ; Fig AP. Aomasbining water vine the ‘oF theve three approche the fis the most convenient bosausehy-rtaning ‘ory of cosaidtin, prions may be mao using » PE. the asco and tind © esronchos summasly rect che theory ae comsaliation and flly bas en empiicl | Sppressh Fave 48 shows a compare rfl are and preiatons, tso on saan [te eminem etry tn dear ing mined em ed 14.14) | permobilsy ad teking D equal to the laborstnry datormined D, Gtamatpoutos and | Rosny 1986) Tecould be realised that tho sarod prdotion ir else tothe tone _Adktereination of fra goon tie etn Eg (414) ill onabe to determine the |] degree consolation U fom Pig 48. Oresoyean be obtined fom Pig 4 for known seeee Sr omotdation and Sho covreponding/ ean b obtained om By 1) fn thor ce Sed and dang with soul bo Rove The ceisient of enaclidtion cam be SEA oa om a laboratory consliation feet dats or the values of D and have to be. dared." fr a simple st rele oly acomprosin vera time curve fom | Ti inaeory tet Thelatnr omer complextocaut twas bebaced on both the boratory eeerSvon teat Ga dotormine D) sd the field pormenblity test (to daterine {Rovover it more appropriate to prodict the rate of ettemnt om el data, D san be Howerati esting ty trkingit qual to specie constrained mods, (Sematopouls | Ta Fae, L885). Th rent enn aed D, . Th tho fil tho oil oun im a atorogenecs cond pocketed layers, decayed rats ant eer relatively peri aang and cera ein, teva offre) when mensared nena lboratry plo may be mislending Honca itis appropriate to se #fom eld moarsrerints, "The td canton i nolthat spe to datrmined a ina lsborntory onion ajomenencous so uithdacbl winage I eendo highly pormeble layer rosa wit ‘tense in Fig 4.7 @) the doninage pall rey be mach diferent from the convenes ial condition 47 3 ‘Tho the uncertainties in or) anda an approaches (Stematopoulos and Koti, 1986) Ti di known omaborings cok stale be masured inthe eld inorieroinet Uefa of pervs mate (iy hie known froma il tate, bude not abso known. Gi fat dis nt known aie _statins whore ssp i aap oii Seataian adel pment sh ‘cayenne thaeld corn (Ar Boman so His 108, "Th thoory of conection sony applinbla fo uly aatorate sis Tn pally ‘compuossionmay one du toburace ou wwonvrithont expulsion of water ind the theory Bootes relevant In ho fold partly saturated mils ave encountered ecatons whee the water tabla ha bon lowered, ad fed practi to tao sempes, ‘shnrever pons, aad tly the compreein-time behwviu® ty Iboratory teste In could not be tlen da to ovraiae mati, Geld plato boring ty dtd net th cng propre Sartre ed tn2 ‘oun oven THM 44. PREDICTION FROM THs FILLS Arelahoeatmato of tise rato a the magnitude of total settlement of the asta preloading ean be made Tram tee fl. ‘Th width of tex il must be wide enough (or ae ‘wie as tho large-scale proloading) such thatthe ond isexetedto the depeat compressible ‘sil tho angels peloaingienet gong experimen abasefallarearexcessiveereep, {honthedevelopmentofeetlementwllbein the eume way asin theta il Thelagerscale profoadng subjsetod tothe fil load is expested to sett ty an amount equal tothe fetilemont of th ttl, corenponding Use same ti, mulled ly the ratio af prloalng fo tnt pressures, Figure 49 shoe compariron between ellementtime srvos for tast fil and tho laeo-ealo porlouing Stamatopotes and Koei, 1880). Tt ‘ul boobserved bathe eurvesaerimile nshope and hosoilement of tho lerge-scale loadings tow! neste setlment ofthe tet ill and th antlemente are very nearly propational to tho Iaighleof fil ce, hm: 34 m. | | | Pg 42. Compurnon atone tne eve ‘AncrSanatpoe oe tan, 128) 443, MONITORING TIME RATE OF SETTLESNENT _svorage daily at of sttloment snd tine dating the lod aesumtlaton. Tho tne rate of etme dating fl bald up e predictably rlatod fo he nt of low! nppientin, One ‘uch coreation is chown in Fig. 410 for ¢coestal area underlald by sreti depesits (Gtematopouls nd Kotatas, 198) Simiary tha tims rat of etlement ring Bl til ‘upean berolnted to pore pressure inducidinthe ai bath quantita reflating the intonsiy ‘tthe proce of consolidation. One uth oration ie shown in Fig. 4-11 Stamatopoulos and Kotries; 1985) High vats of cttemant may demend a ll dacatinuston 2 a ‘void fale, 4 bbe 4 ig. 430th inet mle aa wth he ie fini (Gensel een nerdy arate dopa er Staaten sa 18. i i 3 FP hudlwigrey | iu 4.21; inclement daa wa ih he era \hntcten otra una fer Sonate wt ea 180 444 INSTRUMENTATION Tondo to alr the poptess af erento of proou ei eran inte nents totalled Intraments ave uly of Sopa, aetlerent pate ad ien metore eed the former Ine omer ton Sure silent and th ater “sed to ease tho pre water prsaure. Sometimes fo weavure ti ide movernents ot {hs compression between epeiiscovations inelinmeter are use,vo ‘oon neacrsaer exes Seitlomnt pat sonia steal plate whieh ie installed ona prepared surface at anoloration st which fh aetlements delve. Ato cane ofthe pate atelier pipe rol connostd: As the pelo ils bu up, the ae extn with he fop Rept ‘Cfow cuntimetne above o below th ralaco ofthe il, depending onthe wor, [prevent damags to he se by eqaipment. Initial lovlions of the plate nd of the tp of [ewe iter are cbsined. French aatian a cor tho clovation of the tp ofthe reer isalucobtaied afer afte elton, Based onthe taervatlons tmtsellement Tecord ofthe plate i bain, Stterient plats are generally prefered becnute the ‘honvations cbtained fom them ate he ast to ator nels in cst Piezomotorsare locate terial lesions within he surface, Thow help a ist tho development and lair tie isiatin of yore water prosure: Measurement of pore ‘water promures ave used to evlaatn the progress of consolidation of emfankinent or of “on ouncntion sila apa blpin the evaluation of shan trl whieh in asm het ‘eters Une posit of bre fre Tha most common type the open stand pipe piosrmates wih ia instaled in a boring Otho type of pizametere may be wel ander [posal conditions sush ax when thor ie @) en excee timo lng due fo law permentilty of isa Gf) anced tocol fom aconraleoom, or i) adestebiliyt avoid boring. For {lala of diferent typ af posometar oforenge maybe mle to USDR (1970, Tnolinometors, alo known st slope indators er borholo doflstomsto stallod to measure the avezogeinsinaion longeendapth intervals vida the boreholes. [Brom the insinaions Go heneantal movement snd ho eonnestad time rae ean bo fccesed, Ty re inaled only in esr wher intensive sree i antivipated under a reload, Whore itineseonl to gesture the arspresson ot pes layers in tesubeurace Japenese taal veteran, veel! deronta sottoment measuring inate ine have te tall a §. VERTICAL DRAINS “The prolonding Sechnigues ia ial to be inefiant when used alono in vory thik soft chat inal withenseptionll low permeability Because sn inordinaely long erat Stine wil o nto sngatoat sigifeacompresions. Arte longth of to ding ‘ethncantalethe tine for soneaidtion, hisxboal bene sor x pecible Par thisporpeee nly layer of sand alledand ane placed on thetopafthoilo priori cosiructing {he il By thie provision wy ater squene fem Gh underlying sll wil reach the sand Tayor an Mow fae erally tot ledge ae the permeated much ager than {io underlyng ol Boned onthe enme concep, rial mprovemants ny preouing tre ‘hn bn affected by th fatallaton of worse eins to shorten the drainage path der ‘hich dhe ely wil coneliate, 45:1. GENERAL PRINCIPLE “Yeti drains arg continuoue vertical phumns.of porvious andor ros) material iota in clay sal Tene denn rode he pathray forthe perewatertoeseape from the soneclidating ely traveling m shorter detance thon would be naeveary without {hoon Furth, Uy allow the Now inside ths alto take place slong the horizontal which RSME AN VERN AE o Inthe airetin af lasrexstance, Ths iterve the paroae feseting ana discharge the expelled water ostar during the presse oconsdation : “nsallation of vortial drains in conjuction with preloading bring abut Uh rap Aisipatin of enone pov watorproseare ae theraly nzlerling he primetyconcatin: in. Veta! Sains have no dives effect on te eae of seondary compression. Howere, {he ent eompltion of primary compreson lads io he varlo csutrone of rohan ‘ompresvion ad ths amoung to toa edu In hone conection Tmordrto sig tho relevance ov oor wie of tho wep af vote drains cequanoe otevente that may lad aus of vertical dain ie astated in Fig 412 (Stematopeug id Katia, 1086, Figure 4.12 (a) represents labratorycosaidation et rol on £220 mm thick spinon rom the te-emprosion curva, tho tine requird or pray ‘onuaidation i 8.7 bre Figure 4.12 () ropresante the time prodetion fr veal problan, ‘without wrtcldeuns-Extapolating rom the labratory wlohe zeal prelim of « {lay strat of 8.3m thik, with double dinego timo roquzed fr 7 aod BBP conta. tomar been eelimatad ae 18 and 4 year seapstively Ax euch long ne sn not be sscomnodaled in aconstrucion proj, vricel drains have been planted. Figure 412 (0) ‘epesenta the tine prediction forthe same rel problem with wet! desis: videnly Satna coe amore new nha apart fr he a of vet aan Sees Fig. 432. Comparten Dye ine cove et Seamatpue on Kets, 88,‘The i a important allay in thi oseoning mel thatthe tine requled foe comolidatina has bsnevated bacon tha laboratary elle The sssumptionsinvelved {nthe eraaghie theory my not be absolutely rs the i. The assumption of 29 mn [peas ave rade up of He came cnatituent and behave in exactly to sme fashion tethatof thik ed lager may be twa. Parte, has bon pointed at that tha time rate ‘St eonalidaton canbe 10, 100 ar even 1000 ties faster than thot eetatad feom Inbovateryrecull (Simons; 1074; Stamatapouln ard Ketase, 1880). ti, Uhece ie 2 {reinguepcion tht therg are eases where verti ais hve been usd without being ‘ced (ovie sl 949). Vera Seana ert eld eniione may’ bo wnnaessary ‘Srovon tira rexanpl,inpestall th permeability ishighonough eo that primary ‘hnuoldaton evo rand hat voroal dainasrenneccerery and verted dine my bo {nottecive in shye with stant pervious Ineluninns. Porcher 3 eonstive sla ent ‘iturianoe toy tesa high nil pore watorpresure and w zona of low permeity {round the drain Serpties, tho Ene required fo ho instalation of eal drains may ‘So oner ta te ine ave fom he proses of eoneeidtion, Varia drainemay rise {cot f sil improvement, im eetain casos, bya much as n factor of or mone ‘Gematopoin std Kotla, i088), Thoofrs, the desision to provide vortieal drains to ‘sooner the conoidation shaold be suppotéd ty strong fd conditions rather than, etnatos ade based on parameters dried rom ebortary teeta 452, DESIGN OF VERTICAL DRAINS. Many theories have en prposod overthe year based upon various assumptions bout the hemogenely af the soi, thovatiatlnm with Une of the permesbiiy and Cecfficient of sonsalilaon, the appropriate hydraulic flow te, ain effects (mont, ‘Eetarbance and el resistance Touding rate art crexp efets. Majority of publestons hhave considered Instniancoun Ya application ot a homegeneods ei without drain tecta A toview on vein! dine ao made by Richart (1980 and Johnson (1870) Tho ‘pt theory of vertical desing which has bon noel teday i afer Roude (1886) na Barron (1518) Inthe anaes of thoories we canons preva ne, (i Fvee-Stesin Condition, Application of Noxibo eurchangs la wil cise an lanoveneitenent a thence ned hs condition i rfered te frewstrain condition (i) Eqwal-Strain Condition. Application ofa rig surcharge fn wil enose an equal sitlomant at te ture sed his condition i ffareto ae qualstrain sation, ‘The theoretio| desgnof verte drains isbased upon theindepandent behaviour of aie! sell mate Pig 13) conederng a sloment of ng Uh govern oqsatinne salar to one “Leona, (1802), we hate Lite). ate # (4.18) snd c= NGS) isthe oon frail orhorzntlensliatin wha ky and ee ees _ solutions of By. (10) end Bg (4:17) and accordingly wha, quaton (18) is the governing iferentatequetion far thee dimnionalcon- solidatian ad may be consiene to consis of to pare ‘Ono dimensional low: 19) ary Fig. Then afore cosa ‘seth drain wl ae aoe, 148 A solution of. 6) as boon conadered by Cav (1942) combination of a-n2d-u)u-u) 638) whee U7= degree of consolidation fr thes dimensions ow Us = dagre of sonscidation for one dinesonal ow Uy = degre of consolidation for rail fw‘The tmo fet for sail Sow = ut oF ee waters the don fens "Tatneft for or-dimensionsl consolidation given by a (4.8) Solutions to Ba, (4.16) i esd disuse and solution for Ba, (417) ws von by Rendle (1085) for feeatrain condition ad Wy Barron (1948) for egualsean eoniin, [ens Hoon reported by Richart (195) fr values af = 7) greater than vs both the rolutione give lover values, Henco fr al prasinl purposes Fig. 418 (6) Barton, 188) ‘may be uae regards ofthe imposed bundy eran contin. "The sbove diecused theory based on instantaneous Iaing, But in pretch the toning is on of gradual loading athe predation of ye aman of eoneldaton ding sEaebaih Celet coo 8 A-One Fi 4.4: Nome ht ued th din sve eine der rpmesteaodgconatiane ler Chapa Toma 16, "tsltion bihinprosntedinFig.4 14 the avnrageGogieaomolidton edie he ato of th stoma a ine # when hela echee pl Pi. ote ‘timate atemont Hat would rust one 2 eplod nstanty, On ding a spnintion One") U=t-Bmicoben,n 1420) ‘whores Bs and Care preci in igs (Fig 414 (9 andi 4 eepstaly ‘hone ttl lend hes bom apie a1 -Bin COG 9D RHE, 19 (8, —R aa Band C ao obtained fort = ai gen in Fig. 4.160 Ali dosign proceduros for vetieal drain roquiy a propo etna of tho coalficiont of radial conzliasion "This parameter links oti! comprossitiy nnd hovel [etmoability nd eontrole the vedial ow ef wator into the dra Hesce, the accurate 2. fenestrae romano mene oo + Ee eaan mess sree, ea meanest ig 410. Newnerat fr cotati ithaca desing rt sanddrin Aer NAVAS Ietceminaion of thie paramore assontal, Concent af eal consolidation vases two {oten sins that of safe of vertialeosoidation Both Inboratory nd eh methods Fav teen proposed for dstersinstion of In Ue laboratory oti a coneslcametr ie {esd in which the olay speci laced with a Verte! dean at contre. Conventions ‘Sonsoldaton tent psrture I fallownd with this set up and the conwlideion nto ‘esd This Ibinatrymetiod hasbeen extensively teed (Hama, 1080; Shield al How, 1965; Rowe and Bardon, 1985; Rowo, 1958; Botry aud Wilkinson 1863; Pato, 1913), Te has beon veported (Pst, 1981) that the Inbortory moncuroment of ee quite teotonable nad however Inrgeepecmens boul bo Usd to acount fr stetieton of ‘irtum. nity measurements are bated on permoantotae tests (ovstonseany 1978 ; 2Msaesons and Ducasse, 187. A monograph fr erimating tho average degre of percent ‘consolidation for variate values ofc, drain damotar ahd spacing end time is given in Big 5 4.5 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERTICAT.DRAINS sing verily of columnar types) ane deans na i) prefab ad desine ata made by ling endrel ole wit eae, Prefabricated arose Kaown a wckdran ot wicks wii sand spoked in filter sacking they ca abo be of fanble orvgated paste pipe, wept {idea illar The fa tp of Uh atllation procodre Isto place working ator {he ealjnent. "Thief lone by placing x fresdrsinage aol which even sha dealnage Llasetwhenconneste tothe drrina The Mane! thiara must Be adaguate to lew fr Jour of rade ui consolidation Sand Drains, They havo been widoly wed for ovr ity yoots. They range ia lamar from 160 to 460 mm. The lee require for and desi inatallaton should be ‘nado with lee eest There aro three etads of ead disins constuction fe, @) Whe preecure ater jlting (i) daplasmoot of th natural ground ad Gi wash boeing Tal "see mathode tel pipe neared in the ground and ater witdea as sands pou fiom tho top toil hs hole. All ho metheds ae labour intensive, To spacing of din tvtis fro 2.596 an Highpressae water jtting proven forcing water Uau tho bottom af x tel joing rod wt abot a rate of 60 Vee more The fare of Water jt Tecees up thecal the Uttrn ef the hols al then the lczoned ni alongwith weatr fe awed to flow upwards mud ths pting ro Asta pipe inane tthe gro inks ‘hy teow Wagan tho ole pogreoesdowravar Tio mthod rquiras args quantity ‘toate, and oratesa dapoal problem of terol sty whichnayeauee an eneronmer falliaenta However thie mated provides very len ol ntrbance."Typinl eahd deaina Installation with eurcharge shown in Fig 4.16 Th the displacement matod a lone tatdelcnsiting of «aoe tbe clase a the lowar end by « loneo exp ie vee The mandil ie driven by perousion or ibratin or ometimos jetted int the pass, Whan Uh pipe hae rnched the desired depth eam aa ‘water ar atodaced atthe top and ho pip withdrew. Dao tothe fing af the pips {es seilisdaplced pwnd and sideways shear ance Aistrbanee, The disturbance exes high intial por prssur, low permasbity mound te le and decrees in shen atongth. However hi ‘whichis sry popes ig 4.6 pia ain alain with ce Inthe wath bring math tho hole is mvancod by ieuating at Into Ue halo at ‘roof Lo less. Motel lary rom the holon alowed taetle nd fom which lean ers sphotied back nto the event. The maths eases lee tl daturbanee and itean ‘bo performed with simple subsurface investigation equipment. This method i slower ana ‘oro expansive than the previous two methods Silt has provided tobe qlte ef small projets, Tublo 4.5 shows the disturbance affects fom sand drain installations Gane, 1958, "Tho sand use for filing ths Hoes shuld not contain ines ane snore. ‘Thosand shoud not be cares leo to over flit tho migrtione no particles frm ‘hn sol into tho dein, For thi reason patsne larger than 4 mm should not ba ed. However belofe using necaeary teats the mavsland nist Ls compatible wi the ‘xrroundingsoil The vos neand created by filing the hale shoul eufcently porviews {oallow the unobstructed flow of ator fom thecal nt the dean an fom the lower par ofthe drain theo, ‘Table 4. Disturbance Effects fom Sand Drain Installation ‘ter Johnson 1088) Diner Terie eee [So cacy ay mah tlio vin sp Trew nhs ey faidanesniatnniwanidie [Osta dilconen cumy ho dvond asa pact eg em ting malar throat fo tm pe ther stadia sl daaintny rm re Tuller slen agen pring te aion sa ‘valve ue ‘able Canta)‘Table 45 (Come) Disarbacfon = [Gres hinsndlogire food Wy natal ling wfc yt wad "Toc f muon aden at dain [Coord ntl etn md freeing notte ‘Coaminton fund bel” Posen jing tds washing ving inane ‘rio ‘nts anion wnowngaetmane ans Skiomanael fet ily with sien al web poaia vith i | Tn agen may seer ey ed | ont Profabricatod Drains Kelman (1848) was tho fet to uggs the ues of dren and rains vplaes sand Sen, Lally the earned dan eto 100 ra wide Sint mn thik (gsc 12) and variod see have boon in uae eaequenty. Thay are Inotlld in tho ground using aspecally made mindiel Channels havo been provided in the cardhrd (about 10% of ths crosesetlonal ate) whi feta the water to espe {tom the siy tothe grou ausiae, A100 mans 8 tm cardharea fansion equal. [50mm dametar sand drain. Cardoarddeana ar easy natal with aso dctrbance. Socially proceed sardtonrd has lang lett cannot ustin large dafermations Py. 4, Comantin fxr ei dato mal CCardiward denis have boon replaced by plastic drain (alse Anown as peste ‘band-shapea denis and as been maneetord in larg eae Tho wo known brandi {Geoirain which consist of 100 am wide and 3 mm thick paporcovored polythene strip ‘which contains channels along both sides Boman, 1973; Toenfigy 1970). Th onigur Unis choson such that x drainage camel of nore than 706 of the total drain area is svalable. In oder to give a long lie the exterior iter paper chem impregnated ‘The eoss-secton of patie Geodain std Inertion mandrel sre shown in Fig 18, The este drainshavebeon wily usd Glansho an Tetonsson, O77 an showedeltiely Tittle claturbanee and could sustain lange aeloment mthost Donk of din entry. {Geecrains hae bee cane to vet owing advantges (cs ast install ‘lon Gi) enaured din continuity, clam sits) lightweight installation equipment, (Gi) high permeability, (oi) negli sb bya lance about LA tm in cross aetlon, Opan {riving of upto four wk ‘lsturbanee, an oi) poiive drainage {Conamon typos plastiedrain (0 to 100mm wide by Stamm thick) are usualy stalled closed mado ae ited t the igs A ‘Aer foes of 200 HN ean bo exerted bythe isan they provide forthe aimless time. Inatelation spond Se af the ode of 0.8 100.8 at Pig 41, Cronin of pote inaton ni and aiving depth could be wp to 4.m (shall nd Rasy, 198) Plastic dine are woe ‘stound rein and asthe mance ie loaned int the feound, the Dead ie released he Sting apace ommort inc dr tame sneha weft vd drain, od todied vs rina ee at oa nay in apelin tata i 108; Som, 10) Bandas ne dye Sect tae OS en Shute which te conan ng itr asking, Sami ely thrice ned earns Thapar ence hs Anoop dun ead ope nnn on dead adn soe be Ly Cut! Bane each Inet, Tne Ohana TTT Sona eo Se ‘Te ap ania se fmt ne su ae sr Insc ae te eiage ‘somo tenor cote ‘454. BPPICIPNCY OF VERTICAL DRAINS ‘Tha ofiioney sate of etial dain is mspaed wih refeeo to the peimarye ‘2renidetin altnned with ad without iatllton af esial Galles ben expssed tyra (197) ae sient te nt mnie cent nin psi Vira ented ron 438 fang Sera ta sails nen tan a aig arin ene tee atone sgig sensi en ccd pian rm te ye 4jmenred dus to remeulding. Both ation reduces the soil permeabil onthe fs icon nell nn iS era Rk swage et at Espen cane oe lee ene sake winning torre ea Resonant aa tr tas sion at Naps itn otivoID RATIO al toe : Fig 41, Deion ei in lls A Born PD. aching or laingafeand drains or prefabricated the perfarmange othe dine owen fra prlonge serve pod (avabo, 085; Sinelaie eal 1989), Clye enhibiing oriental steaication wth eam of wand orale may Sitectotfest in the lowing snonnar Glowo, 1968) () thin Tentelar strats of igh ‘ermenbity erty ineeaae the efelency of dine ine thay ast ax hurizontal dra ‘Nenchel to main trie, G2) continu lc soa of high peranesity material ‘hrfieyty lore pacing ten rondor vera! deine weseesaty or goat reduce hele ‘lal efecGvoneee In ondor to souentaly eats the elftney of x Arainaystom it fs ‘enecay Chat an adequate gecteshnieallavestigation fas tobe plans which should Include continuous coe sanptngof tho strat, iit permeability measurement bw, ule head at Idberatorysonsalidaion tats os Large dnmoter specimens (Rowe, 188). 455, APPLICATIONS, ‘The concept of vertical dvs was known mao than a centr ng, Bui has ben applitaniy after 1960s, Uni ebaut 1960 mont tlle erin drains were ane] drains ‘Since 1080 prfabicaed deine have hosrie popula Boone of tel los cost an fat. installation It hoa been roprerd thatthe cot ef prefabrientd drains about one hid itm cotstannd drain, Hoover, inbudisonly sane drains have beon widely used (Daye, {tad Negara, 1976, 1270) Dae (1962) has eported that ip Tin ove 10,000 caine of £200 to 400 mm amters have bron euseeanully stalled a spacings of 206m pling ‘onventinelequipmant ned fo ile diving ‘Jhneon(1870)ardRjerrom (1972) Stematopoulos and Kasia (1686)haveveported anuniter feos histavieinvalvingtno ute oferta deans. compilation ofcae stories ‘epoted ty Dist 1081 is preserted in Tae 4B Bs fo dana flowing sonata ‘Tle 49, CasoHlstorle of Vertlont Dein Applicaton dtd ram Pitot) Tato fre bron "Paksot depen ads |nike 2m ak tik amr pat ant et cay [Susldninn 04 salon a Asi sad Somos igh cn st 8 fy carne [a0 Fila it mane wh sn 08 dm ‘Ghar bore an, rin ds nt generally affect ‘han fe 42m sping seve inns fen ted date te or ert ein ten rate thon in thee [Sax Frenscy, USA, Entonteot ty Ga tp: aera te [sal ar sein 08 ws lam a3 te conte ei cyt || Schonitn US| poncho 19 vo at baer yeat fon the coped data Pt C081) eset (abe ane)16 HNO nenovReN Tee ‘Table 6 (Conta) iat ane Drain pom “Ganmatson berormance cd sent, Osiy (iemtetob 1979. nan hh nce ar scat 515, iat oo a ism ft alc seo recreate amgtan aaa UGA | Posprion owe [nd cad ane wit | Gol seat «fl etal ono ‘Seen Fini ay ment 3a) fa emtennen, on mice Devine io Sana roast stot sn roe. fours at iy venhed wi poasye Fiabesknont AA ghee mony [OP Daron’ aan J. Brine rtomace fe aay wih eso "Sain Inbrty tating ase mu Reaferal ser. gion 2m da Jar tet wn wah om ‘rane edn, ex Ren a le enim aoa eclargewctina rane Swe wih indice mete ian, Frame Pas isa face stat 3m igh, Seely, [ad 1m dp 0 ae rae one ees sein pe abe Goned) acournsox 0 W ATEN os ‘Tablo.46 Conta "7 aston and rece “ivrntion Drain Ganon fpermanse Faison Prana daoeeseto 1 noha am ay lage toro sos, [Siered tae Bond inn Ged ‘poner Oa rt dye 5 intapanet 10'm A fects one Iixonrhont ner ‘arin, Pann [Aliens doc ie anime igh Aine Gelade Jassosta stan tte “sane ae ecioin, ame {Garett of 3079 atasimn nia Sy. Oberon Reenter saad ei, ete dare atS mane’ aint, Prien son anatase lane ease, [hon mt ly. Jobeeed or ase Satna 09 ‘at to rea (Vertical dina oe gu ly wary ofetve exsopt where they ate ital in organi ell in highly seated soe or where calous staiity prem vit (4) Th tal ‘isontdesna than dace te closed manil athon, { Plste deans nv inereasngly being ute, ies of sand dains by the apen-mandeal method results in more 4.6, DYNAMIC CONSOLIDATION ‘The derifetion of soils by aynamle eonslidatin, (ynawie compaction, hoy tasnping) haa boen sorbed in an evr ston, Te also been diceused thatthe ean for mprovingalls a elag to lo boon note tha {he ocondary compression ie lea rodured, Th time vequted fo ratmane i Tee han, ‘hat fr sstcharge loading andus coc mnovener Tens "Tho wppicaion his thon ame that nsdedforcsheionat els bt maro time in reuited. Sven blows are applied at sash ovation flowed by an to fur mec, [ect pov, then the prosaeeeenpeted Sovealreptitnns may be edd a i eaeh ‘opeliion famed vtilomant scours followed Wy drainage f pore war. Drainage is {bulitted by natal sunset form aru past pines andy tha uae af hain fi yoriheral dics, shat la ns for time lope basween secs opaitions of fone tamping whan cating aes, a minima rote roof 15000 $0000 m8 {novesary breconomicl oe ofthe mutiod Olchel, 1979), Menard and Brive 0975) ‘Sopested that thi tchniqn i elestive intl lao fr th long ronwene (@ Mag sot lay sre not ally eaturated a tho smal porcontage af goin the sed inthe pre watt under the haanne pas, Ue recite {8 Softclag oan quay undo impact. iy‘ personaly ly Insteated doing host taping Yecaute of liquefaction, {issuing andl seating and api deipation of th pre pressure o== G9 Thinotzopie atvongth in lle the shear eteongth docreaso caused by compas ‘Tho comprcerion of a eft clay diving dvnamie compaction snd ls eubsequont _sonsoidatoncherscteristies und sala lode havo eon ersonatrated inthe labenatory {py Magnan and Dang (1977), Cace bstorer on the applietion af thi method far eat le clayey silts of ow shea strongth has boon cotnwed and reported (Tela 47 an next ps) ky Plt (1081, Ost ofthe ae exon hintorine reported thre dealt an oft lay and Shree onlay sis flow shee strongth 4.7. CONSOLIDATION BY ELECTRO.OSMOSIS Becro-onmose han been uned at means for consoldation of eartain eal, The “eats-atosin proces, by which the pore water moves undar the influence fen lotic! potential, effect inthe deoroaee of water etent im Bn grained sil ae therchy brings the senecidation ofthe eo Thin x yonible andor certain sol conditinns and Brite ‘clue of lt be ansaid. The flow of watr fom aed to eathado ceases when & ‘yd gradient indeed hy water content variation tending eume ve hom cathode eat amide eaetyhalsnees the eletinly induced hyaaulle gradient easing Nw ftom anode taward cathedn AL this condition there wil bean ietones in efletive strane (ai) dua to pe pense dnspation. avi (1958) showed Ut the pore preesurevevioa Tinea between the elatedor afar long pte of te nasil ndegsnglestronmatc alidation. Tho ringni¢udaof tho por pressuredfernco (a) between th two claerodes wettey AB) hots de = coffin! ofeleceoonmatl permenbilty om Pe, 982) ‘Table 47, Case Histories of Dymamse Consolidation a Reef Taina (Fobie Contd) i seas i ee [seagate dietee Fae i pane iat siaican |e a lie [) os edi] * : a re a 3 ev |e fe ti i ie a re a Pea fe | = F Aes ile lis ql i iF dle jaits lie‘Table 47.(Comta,) gece s0n A Ye DRAM a = coffin of dalle permeability som eit weight of tor ‘Vx yoltag diferone nppliedasrnn the electrodes (a fonstion of psition). ‘thus the nerean in offectiasrvesnequal to poe pressure diferancebatwoen the clestode Hones, Po aos hte am ‘Ths amountofsonsaliaion sssiated with this effctivestreaincreas isctainet from voi alia versus prose rlationeip for tho sll determined inthe weaal manner. ‘Tho rate of eonclidation ix governed by tho samo olin e tha for conventional Iosding. Ths tne for a given dagteo of eqnsciatin Is et 429) ‘hare ean faster, dopodent onthe degree of eomslidation and boundary conii+ tiene = slestode spacing = coolant ofeonscidation Values of far difront degrone of eosaidation forthe ete of parallel plate lestudea are given in Table 48 Mitel, 1970. e ‘able 48. ‘Time Pacts for Various Dogroos of Consolidation toy Blecteo Demonisbetweon Parle! Plate Blecwodes ‘Alterac ta S18 Ha] «ele EE ie [eraniale 5 adie |2 H a | dein o L : Taree Geen | Fite | Te tr F ° = a sco =” ca = os Ticctecdc eve gonvally laced na pasicular pallor, es shown inFlig 420 nant ‘aspavill plates Thin he i feta given in Tale histo eat a approxi ‘Veloce. Ithns Bena reported Gitehall, 107) theta hexagonal arrangement eleseodee is “ttoiont in terme of power soneumption,avorage voltage and anode cathode rai. Wel, pnts are gonovally weed for cahads and oxen bts o alumino rds fo ano [Gh cost fee thar wel points Purther iron and smi anodes decompose during {ontmentanpartiipetemcleiecemien hardening Thus for thesboveroson neeast ng ne mumber ef enon ellie to ated goneelly beneficial ‘Becrsometiscasadation wil bo eetivo and osonomisel unser the flowing ‘ovations st) saat stor sly cay sll Gi) normaly cenoldated eal, aa Gi) geass ‘Notation 7 ental soarsomgth p EB, = ears Pr$ ee IL PSE iil 93 i ' HA low pore wat lotta eonconteation. Tho offciony of tho mothod may be reduc it {ean guneration, drying and Geeuring atthe oletrdes ate taking place, Noman ‘hango in propane a eile between slstode is pombe Beene the duced anwar ‘on depends on Us veltags ad the veltaye variation Beton arote andeatheds, Tovder eS to attain amore unitorm stress condition, rover of ltd psa say be apt {Tig. 4.21 Gh. Elestrecnmeie tay ato be eortined with preoed our sceclerate consolidation : sens Pig... Canin smn ince iy daa nna cna dation, "nice andar setae od am cal 100Cuarrer 5 Vibration Methods 5.1. INTRODUCTION neti reesbacome sgnfinntincomparicontosatieforseswhontho applied ede ‘on the el oats changes sapily causing oxcstive deformation of the eal Ths chara tevaticbohavou could be aetin ay ground iaprovament fash by way of edopting ‘ame form of vibration which ead tring in defarmution and dieplasomontvouling ‘ensiiaton Theta techniques forcompactngcoleionees ol arrange ia ora ot ‘decreasing elfectivenas are vibration, watering end rolling In prastoesmbinetions ot {hor techniquas havo ben wed in fmprvingthepropettie of isu eile, Coheiolons ‘sil got dona inrgoly by fnetre nd vorentation ofthe rain, Sali nen are pk ‘eke in this rece. But bth bation and ahosk a ful in reducing tho medeing ‘and siding dansitieation in eobsooniss soll. Vibration avd ahee are Tas effective i ‘chesivesols as they arootetby thninsresel coherve eastanes dus todynati loading, ‘This Chapter deals with ground improvement techniques whish une the prnsiples of vibration 5.2. VIBRO.COMPACTION \Vibroompaction math Isa rapid denlfcstion techs whish coud bo usd ‘tftvelyineatortedcohesonees sin sh leas deposit sibtin or aback aes ‘uso oealied spontaneous liquefaction flowed iy denaifeatinandeatemnt Th load {Sua to shock tmmpoartytransforsed to th lig ans ul pails take «ach ‘ener pattern aided by the gol particles, Hyon indy sale de to sho a vibration the particles move from tho orignal positon ana take tote impact paliern, Once the partele are recor lonsenad du to Useshock, even asl rena enaugh pul them {0% me compact mate. Th nodes ot compdines seine is pnmnent ad at "he offectiveneesof exo methods dsrense with incenes inthe personage of Fines {in the roi, bestute th permestity ix tao low to povent rapid drainage llwing Tiquefacton Are than 20% oil or 8% olay ma reduce tha effentivanes ofthe method iteoll 1975. Frthee Ur application in patalyabarated golf resited tress fompressive rast rom tho presane of altoratormerian’ ato proven thecal pestle ‘movement necessary for denen, ‘Tn tres methods whieh aw in use are: Letng,wikratory probe atl vitatary ma 624. BLASTING. Inthietechnigue acertain amount of xplnive charg shaved at certain deptot sacohestonless ol require tobe ompacted anton detonated. As xpllned above the ‘hoc wan produced bythe lating enue nection ‘A pin of 76 to 10 om in driven tothe ruled dpth in tho ai rata. The ticks of Aaynomite and an electri detonator ave wrapped nthe water prot ound ad ered ‘rough the cosing Fig 6. The casing a withnin and a wadof paper or wood ie paced ‘nina tho charge ef explosives toprtec from mia, Tho ole sbckfilled with mand Sordor to oan tho al ofthe blast. The eectrcl creat eco to io the charge “Aceriesatisles ee thor md ond Esch ols dotnated inausceson andthe resslting Tasge dlametor ols farmed by lateral displacement. arbakfile, Tho eur attlement, fre measure by taking Tova or fam cow platen embed acral depth blow the round ourfae CONNECTING WIRE A Pek Pus {= oetonaToR DYNAMITE, ‘Sticks 4 ‘Usually the explsivos ave arranged inthe form of hortontal ri. The pacing of th cargoes decided ty tho depth of strata to ba denafed, tho ae of ehargs and the trerapping ef tho charges: A spacing oft 8m ie peal and spacing oe han 3m ‘Should be sae. Compaction in arrad etna single tor only ifthe depth af satu tobe densified is 10 mor lon, nach none he depth afeapouve chao should bo bslw hath depth br tho msec eratum to be denied (approximatly at 22 pln). Moro than one tarshould be planned ithe dapth stratum to bs demaified mar han 10m, Generali the ‘depth ofchatge should ba greater han the ove f eho of inuenee @D. ‘Soscessve Bast of small chargs at appropiate spacings aro likely to bo more neti tha sing largs blast (Hal, 1062; shell, 1970), Thott, one charge ‘ensifes the surrounding wijacont ell andthe ei beneath tha Bast. Charges should be {med to explode sush thatthe tats ofthe Igor bring dail pnt sein a wna, manner (Keer, 1986, Tho upper mos: portion othe stratum sy be leaded whish ‘may becompacted by wbratryrollor. he amount ofshargs tot nel eau be opal Such tht it est enough shatter the wil mass uniformly but na to este pranent surface craters Acaofull placd shargo with roquired ameuntend depth shall mt eeate ‘ surface heave more tan 0.18 (Mth, 1ST), Ar a tough guidance the weigh af ‘hargs required is computed frm the following relationship. Weteicr where We Wolght of expoive 0) (C= Coffins (0.002 fr 805% detonaten) = ado of neni) ‘Charge matuesof ies than 2gt0 mor then 30 kg hevs ben sod Mtchl, 1979, Atypical rng paleen (MGtehal, 197i sbown in Pig 52 oo boo 5oo _ topes i +t, ots te ae in + no ates + Senior ses onto sexcine rng PATTER ig 2.09 chacer spring rl ing M, 2E7 Blasting technique involves ee time, abou and expense, Thi techie eae no pécil equlpment and could bo tocsossully used Tor daring asl at sont depth. avourabis, the technique may prove matt cor fective. Invariably the blasting mark shoal be exeated ani by an eigerancedeentracoy anor cpa stporsision scons Although blasting one af tho most esenomizal ground improvement iecniqu, it sutfer he dsavantayor of non-uniformity, potential adveresefeca on ajoentstace thre andthe danger anosated with thee of explosives in ppulatod eens, Very ie {frained soils which have high cohesive forces cannot be compacted by this method, Misimarcompacioniscbtsined only when thsllis dey oremplooly satiated. Tease ‘ofr loos sad, goed results ae obainod de to feo fll af mali prtsles ints tho ‘oidabatwee tha sil gains than making a dene sail Te eave af ntatad xl shoe ‘raves eaube liquefaction lending to expalean of water vesting in batter arrangement ‘tportisles Bt inpertaly saturated cle to enpllary tena eaten teat gay lise dansitenton ie shiere, Pre Randi ofthe sla edenirable,bletingistoboreserted torr donation af povtilly apturatd and or ler. Thooctically theo ie no imi for te dpth of densifeation by this technique. Hoover, i the dept ie mace than 10, ‘onipestonehould be dane tn mare than oh at for which a cael panning it neoded 6 ‘chive tho rome ‘Too tin onphaizad that adequate dats orth sega to type of ell degree of enturalion depth of deport oe densified av degree of dnscatin required shot bo list A poininay tet may he nasosany to mscartain the spacing, depth, amount of ‘hares and sequence ct apesation, Tn overt eveluata the economia fanbiity af this technique, tho abavedatall ro neaded, 22, VIBRATORY PROBE Vibeatory probe, alo cll ae Terra Probe, consist of a wiradever (sil to ieatory plo deving coupled ta an openanded etl tubular proboo! 760 mm diametor {nd 16m lange. Vibrodiver seveos tho probe to vbrato inthe vertical drston ad limpants avert! imple nora at 15 Beith 10 to 25 mm amptade The vrata ‘ables the vertical pipe to penetrate he ose material, The probe sak to tho desived ‘pth and ld Jor 20 to 60 ease blare entation. A spacing af | 3m is generally ‘spteds A square pattern ie felled with Als rab tthe azo ofeach square to ‘Achieve increare of daneifcation intaad of adopting eedcod epacng In each Insertion the probe denies « lndar of wil of Lmadiametorandabout ‘Lan deep than the prot lation Bfstive treatment hae bean acompished bees Aepthe a 4m blow dhe gota aurfco and up ou depth of 0m. Tho poration is Very fffelent whan th groundator fe 2 03 m of tho curfees. Sometimes wal jot may bo ‘wed to help cosy panottasin oth probo for sites whore tho wala table is dog but the ‘peratonof ister tobestapped dating witha Pending ofthe sits may alco be adopt {2 allie thio technique Im'a betbor way. Saturted sll condition ato noweeary ae underlying ett lay ayers may, damp Vioratione thereby hamporng the dnsiestion reas TInordertocealatetheaffestivencesf thi technique and ta des teatacsionsoftneorderof 1020 may bili. this technique needs backing, the cot of dapaifintion ty thin metnod ie moderate, The thin ncngue x prefersed fot ‘Senalingafchoreloctins.Comparedtovilrfsatian louse ths nox ection) his technique needs a more closely spaced penetration to improve w gen erea uniformly a ‘nly alse lateral el one is improve by this tchnique Tho fea probe fechnigue isconsiderably faster than the vibtofotation procedure Although both the methods give a {airy good erly the vibration mathodwillecieve somewhat higher lative densities (OteCarthy, 1882). 152, VIBRATORY COMPACTORS "These compactors are aealale an vibrating drums, vibrating pneumatic, aad ‘vibrating pte aquipment They ave opsrted with « Requaneyrango betwen 1600 ard [2600 cpm which within the natural frequoey range of mart af hell. Compastng at alaral egueny gives the maxim effet beaueo of high amplitude resulting inamare ‘once exvangenent Good geal re aehieved when the compactor tale at sow speed 3 to 8 ihr Snaoth drm wn rber teed vibritory compactors have proven very sffetive in compatingcohesionleeedopsits of lite thicknee, eg, 2t0 9 mor where Cohtosionles ills are laced. he vibratory pte compactors generally havoalinited opts ‘of eflectivness, Dota of vibratory rollor ara dol in Chapter 2 oaviat vibrator olen san deny ebove2 depth Figure. hows il ests from surface ctmpactin ese Appoloniaet ol, 1008) Sell nearer to the ground eure trl have low domaity bon of verribaton and lack of eonfinarmonts Figure 6 hows ‘danity-dopth donsifaton fru il pared in successive ite teal, 970), om OeNsITY w/a? ‘Sa Looe uit or Natl pest of © Gy wo 7 RELATIVE OENSITY=¥, ig 89. Dey Ve yp iia nae sieaer pen er chal 131. sg wees OENSITY- noe N 7 Fa i : RELATIVE OBNSITV= ig 54. Daly Va Depth rata rine darian tea 8, In cador to achive test esl i geonta hat tienes roller pe na ell typo shouldbe mate High if hikes al owe density Inger wit high density {igen alternatively and lo it thiskorsee onsee waste of eners though repeated tvensompacton of ora otrface layers Relative densities ahigh as to 0% anda ator ‘Shrthpresaute confclantt ene or more sanbe achieved ith ystom imate properly. 5.3, VIBRO-DISPLACEMENT COMPACTION "Thess technique in thi groupar sila to hose deseibod inthe vibro-compastion technique exept Unt the vibrations are eapplemented Uy active elacement fri ned iy ektlingthe vanes thy asultble material em which th sal has been isle tn {emethada i, sftolotation andeand compaction piles baking undertaken slong ‘wih tn diplacement fs get another ated, stono eck, the vibration Teshnigue ured to make a borehole lls by backfiling and conrpacting. This atte tneligierefored fone foo tepincesent metiod. Wl vibvo-dgpasement ya method {improve te depaty of eohesionles ranelar sil viroropacemes suse to impno¥e here sale with deep vibratory mith Heayy taping method Menai Compaction) ‘linaimed in Chaptor ales ties basically the pines iration10 crcan gmovantn cH inon esos a 11.4. DISPLACEMENTPILES ‘Nebural round and exiting ean mothe compaciednlayers. Thosimplest method "y dev ple which fs vry ffsive in bl doptns Suh piles ero roorred to a8 ie dion tnt ooo sah the ground aera cn the pies commonly eid in spite ofthe dieplaeeaent of the and by seen Hammer vitrtion cone sith tho displacement foee of tha pl ea! For ahenonlre ne, but the method i ebow and expensive, ‘Compaston ples eon alo bo ed naan eis with some cobesion alin exiting cahesivo nha, Compaction in tue ells do pl ving is not eased bythe vibrations saan the driing, bu by stl peanarewesh decreases the aan of che wait cette ul cate above Uo water tblo andthe oda ae ergy Filled with oSpeeing atest ite deving x commonly. very estisfetory (forza and Pek, Sapir eet ofcompection of sash sil bel’ wate able acroes with decreasing 1ae Nig ofthe soll In cays capacement ple nay cmsns ein of to gro poets of tauve vole fla vlume is about SO for clas wd 90% fer ity slays Displacement piles cause densifinton af sand for distanens as large 08 wight diame recep trom tepiles Because oflateral dieplecement feo, che horizontal stress sismeet do lle icrense resulting in ire caso of ensthpresare rst vale of Hem Singcompastot: Timber piles sve catonsively wed fr compaction of ells 153.8, VIBROFLOPATION “Vibofotation an ofcen technique or despa shestnlss sls, with ima taneous ibaton nd sataaton Ti tehigue Was orgnated in Resin mid hitine | {wer apie 1859n Germany fr ipeeent abut oudaton st “The itroflattin equipment comprises fn vibiot probe, aceomanvig power sappy wel pump, stare and fons loner (ig, 5), Wibroiot probe cost of SUPPL Minette, abut 400mm diametar al about Zein et withan centre Sith fener developing arizona catia fore f abot 100KN a 1800 ret pel wrt i forme of wo pare Ta lower pat ie the hoczontal wating Try diol connect to tho upper pat, allow pie helene of which eu e ari se tnbg onthe compaction Sepn ig 8) ae devine provided fr water ve frm et depen soto a hereof 2 e000 Green ae preoure of rbout 400 G00 KP AERNS on th iho in the ground os loweced wth tho crane The fenton Tots a orto eoply te basil atari a the sty sis ao densi ’ * lcvunoer Ge couracren rei ese row re an Tne Loss oF voLOve Jessen ere cnet ox Stem ragDucco BY A SINGAE vibe COMPACTION Fg 55. Wheaton ern (Ae Brn, 1976, (Gi) Waterinevitehed fom thlowertothatopjts and thepreseurstreducedencugh {Salo wae oe turd tothe earac sian ny aching a tok ‘oor nd fitting ho oatinuns och ofboktl G0) Compostion takes pase dating the 03 1 per minute ie, whieh return the ‘Siac to Ui sunfacn Pist,the eibrtore allowed to opnato atthe beta of he erate: Ae the pees dans, thy saramo their mst compact frm. By : sin talnng the wbrtor book “The probes fen seepnded froma crane Rschcompecton eaten hia fourbate | ng Sop ty step and imaltoneesly backing is a, he stope (a epatel by Brown (1876) and Vibration Foundation Co, USAR They oe | ‘tv otf the nl x empated nta hard one sae Th ply saturated anda wator jt tthe topo vioot can be opened to 2 pt inosine overthe apt te compacte ands losstinthen ily | ita quan an dnieain fh sarong ground gion re bine ‘rail dlatane of 00 ta 600m ror the surface ofthe vif tn clan ard Gp Waters pumpin Faster than ea dein say Into the sbi This resto seatatcy "tui snitin tenon he et which permits the vibrofe te zfte [fit own weight ad vibration “| trsining sols baci emsumptin oa a of 05 to 1. per era computed ‘depth, Onanaveragebashleandaddedillbn equa 10%ef the tatclvolumosompacted001 SD J615 Gy Cons rou 68 SREB, omen, eae roomerese NT Fig 66.100 Viet hr Brown 197. In one ponetetion of vibrolt a elidel eahumon of 28 to 8 min diameter can be compacted ‘ensifceion relly should be verified by continuous monitoring (auch to cont ponatationoaiatane retell panetetion renotanco) or daereta moniter ch a Peticar muted A typical sontinioos moniaring reels fom a prj, Davis tay 108) ehown in Mg. 88 "Tho sconsil application of thie technique depends an tho fllowing fastrs o couipmost capacity G probe spacing a pattern, (i) type of sil tobe compacted, (ao eka stoi, (5 vibeat witha! procedure, and) workmanship. Roragivea sree sven? sera sree ig 52, Viale onion rower Brow, ‘equipment and an excellent workmanship the ond result dopands cn the other facore thea. ensign the regent frelative deni tho pacnghas ob adept Figs {69 shows the eationship botwoen proto minima relative densiy between vibration entree and spacing Mitel, 3070. Arolationship between allowable bearing pesnure {olimitellont and pacing ported ty Mishel 2078 andthe sare gen in Fi. 6.0. "The pattern of epatings thay bo ine, tangle or oquare, Patterns nn spacings reuited {orn llawnbe soil pressur 300 Nit und aguaro footings are presnted in Table G1 itsbel 197). ‘Tuble 5.1. Vibroflotation Pattarnsand Spacing fr Toolated Footings iter thal 1970) ‘Serena | Matava iva niet Ge Fare ‘om "ton Pane ‘Spon asuae 4 is ates ‘ as fans +e entedbe rote gave Tc enn 7 cane nessun — i 68 Pry cree ade potato lone hutovrodaplaumant el cane Alesse of S88). 2 PROBABLE RELATIVE CENSITY-ne i 30 30 SPACINGS OF CENTERS OF viRATION- Fi 69, Rave dy a atin eat Tie apeig ere 109 Figore 6,11 showe the ange ofthe grins distribution ont si ‘vitonotation Brown, 1970) Th technique ean be used moat fictive fv very Tose nv below watoy tle tnt have geain-le disteibutons fling ately within zone B. ayer lags ani praconc of Fine paises comantation a organics the inst ite peas vanity of fteutes for compaction by tis meched. Iai as having qrain-ine isaibation falling entively within soo Care wery ileal to got ty this echnigue {mgsnetal ths atainmentef density and one of eompactiondeereate with increingsilt find cay contents The fines and ergniee npparentiy damp oat wbations,agogats the fine! paricles tpaher ar fl the wea eel ovormont of parties or devsieation, Presence af lay Inge ls oe Un tno of compaction. Zane A nstades gavel, dena sand andsemented sans, The rato of probe penetration eles in thes ens andthe offict {ecoene lessen tho water tables as restor dept Hongo, unier thee conditions this tshnigue may prove ts He uneonomiclCorse epee | me | : Z i & i 1 »| fe eet oT z ‘GRAIN SIZE. : ig 4. stein Aer rows 280, 1 “table 62. acl vataation Criteria : (Atte Brown, 1379) 3 Tair enn fing aa r os clint 2 ame fr daeetty oem : fenioneg same Hee oo ne ‘6 20) 30 20 Ursa Tea A eod “Vibroftaton scone throug the poor consumption afte vibrator within the ee pre anilby the ere with which wthdrwst of iota backing the cntel portion bled yan (Aer Me TE. ‘Tho sutabiley of «back material depends om the gradation. Brown (1978) has veloped rating spate to azsees Une eltaiity of the Becki metorial. Tho rating ajotom ie baced ona suitability nombsr dane as Ssitatiiy Numbers LYE eae ga where Di, Dey atl Day are the particle tes coeresponding to 10,20 and 507% Roar ofthe ‘ck material Tabl 6.2 presents ho rating deseription Brown, 1ST) [Sr the hla, Wihiraviesteof05t00.Gmmin are customary.Thisie3ffreatconcar since the density of tho bck none mur be assured Most vibroficttion aplcatians have Bean adopod to 9 dogth las than 20 m, though in aw ears dope up t 20m have Been densified eecesully Tho maxim {stimited manly det the enpnsty of Ua rane to pall Hi vibrelt out ofthe ground. Ik Fs ben reported in itaretare that ail woatod by vibttion relative denstin of ualy be obtained at ointa midway blweon wmpactons. By this | heatment beating capa of 260 to 400 KPa car baba Bovels, 868) "Th techni las ite mort based an the llowing: () na mtv cost except i) eomplate uniformity in dansty and forza better control am | sellomont, i ges high bearing cpacty, Go) fasir than ple ving, abd (0) much persion hh conventional mpacetype hammer.ne enone isobar Tecrmouts ‘This tshnique hasbeen ured in foe rained sis alo with stone aggregates as los tera Ins cane stra ln nb caida that any deep foundation stem (Kserne, 986} Ths ochniquo as also bon ted to stabilize slopes (ital and ats, 1081, ‘54.3, SAND COMPACTION PILES “This mothod consis of driving = below sel pip with «detachable batt pate ‘vento the died pth Ts driving con be doe etter by sang am impact hammer ‘vibeatony driver: Sandi introduced in Noth oneh it compacted concurrently with the witha af the pipe ile. Cmprened sii blown dese pn the ening ld Ube and in plac. ‘The insta soil densified while Uh pipe te being dvivan down Tho ompacie sand pile prevents cllosing ft sresndingsi as the pipe fe wiudasn, ‘Bavtog the procens of compaction, the compacted calm expand avril bolow tho pipe tip forming ones ple This techriquo io alo refoeed tous vibyo-somposer mathe (Gabi and Suemats, 1985). The installation process eechematielly shown in Fig .12. "Dhe req lovl of volatve donity can bw acbioved by varying tho Anaotar of tho Compaction pile andthe spacing, Fig 18 strates the off of eaation of spacing “inthe sro ofthe eompaction piles on olativodonsity Gupte, 1809), ig 61, re compaar mith (Ae Abe ond Smet, 66) (ASE 5 - SSI ig. nt angen penton ie ouelatve dei own (Aor Gop 180, SRO OAR . “The sil at shallow dept os thas to 2m may have lees denity than tha Bor dun to laser confnoment. Furthor the dni sil deceaee radial awa from the “ompaetian pile The inereato in density may bo computed bared on the average eure {stent and tho amount of backfill ued. Types! dnefiention of oe are xerround na ile fer dving and busking e shown n ig 6.14 (Meyn}o, LED). The density Sesame i eharactet ied in Figs 514i term otha vis of fa streard penetration ointance to inital pnetratin esstane. wr oF sot ‘EOMPACTION Luar o¢ son “conacrion sss GB, reneraarion nesisrance ——O) ae, (a) omen Pe (2) caisson Put i 61, saps lo ned ond compan ise Myer 150 “This method i eonomiel fr mora depths upto 18m, Aug this cehniaue ‘is online fr deeper depths eompaved 1 othr vibration metho, the treat ground [onerally hae unter properties 13 Intend to nreare Use wer age density af los Ea Fem ita oid vate of, fm final vl rauo# and i te anumed that theInstallation of apa eases compastion any inthe lateral anetin, the pile spacings tay be obtained fom (Mtl and Kat 1981. sand s-{*22] € orequnte patton i in whishal ia th damatr ofthe ple Pig 5:18 2&0). ae) 0 | Ob ane nesemurrne (o>: Sire arrangetet (9. Regar anger erongement Fe S16 Spang acre rane ies (Ate aan, 286. Cova pile spacing Sd <2) rny cause contraction diffs whens lags spacings Sid» &) may’ have no appreciable eect Honea = ple spacing SH hatwoan 2.5 ent 4 may be sopted with reason acearaay (ann, 108. ‘5944, STONE COLUMNS ‘Stone columns alo called an ranula ples are iatalled mostly sing vibration techincal ra ime rel el ue ht corns andompart edovie whichslmultaresiayUepacesthomatorisl radially, This rents n'a dsnonlyconpaced sone colomnf cert dapth ad diameter. Fomatinofstoncolurneusingavibrotisqutritable techniques forimprows sont ofechosive cits Gnglhard and Kinech, 1977; Thornburn ni Visa, 1968, The (6) Qa le foot (8) Beet mil (2) Arata ng 5 Bee ioe end trean fs ote pare Fenn stage cre Seotrgunase mpi ae ie. 66M vio apissnn car Rainn ond Bey, 870. ible allowed t snk into the ground duo to its own wight aslatd by water orale e's Bonhing medium tp to Bre veined depth, The eal auerounding the vibrofe i “itarbed or female apd ths eattened material can bo removed 7 jeting fi (eer Crsompsenee ai), Watora ured aa jtting uid lly saturated while sompreseed rie toed fr partially aturated soils Gngelnarde and Kitsch TEYD. By this pros Tnreboleoflegordametr than heist fomedoncathevibe ft wiharawa Fi, {E16}, S formed bora ix tackled vith grevel ef 12 to 76mm size or furnace sag (Thormbarm and Meviear, 1068) Withtherepenetationofthevibrohe boekll materi {rdeploat ine th sides ofthe Corhole and compacting Uerath ie ip, Whi Tackling Wie viral efalned and fered. Thin procdaro lo rpeatd til the hele i Compltly led ant eompated bik ores piel granule le wherln war jet rere, some dy proses ar alin use to nae the hale Aslone oi pips mandal in dive oa dese dt athe gr ‘allowed fitsReroponingtsip valve. Aramoe inca tpack to et Uhrough Use ips teieie withdrawn apd gravel adda ‘Apart for thous of iboft and blow pip, iret imp techie are being ‘esd fr constecing stone cennne, Dale and Nagarau (107, 1585) proposed a mciod ‘ich primarily ue hammer weighing 1 toZ0 KN lngthrougha ight of Io 1.6 fr ‘impacting stone aggragator placed in protora holes. The revltng stone colarn is ined tose rammed stone elun ad the ochniqa haa been clad tobe eanomica ‘hansibto compaction. simple hota using the eonvontional auger betingeasipment‘aaron rine G gs — ige=-=s=s._ss aie a Esha . 4 A. = cross-sectional area of the stone column avn nt ist sn cyst pts Then Botley pit i ond “Ingomar eon alt ed —.—rt—r—S——C—C(‘<;$wsrrs Toll en 6B loess nay range! ined ating, ip ing or ma [oun Mince Basten ceitecmt iat anf ‘cies than tea ttle set _RSHRSR SUA shader det lls eg ‘elegy sates snl tn pres ofthe | naten onasatntn attigng anon in gt ge ‘Seppe mala ihe sia Spay stem coe ety {Leen lagers poet alternatively with ager thickens of 200 fo 600 man and 60 {2 100mm reapetivay Bac two aor anit with end lager at tp is sormpata wth tho hulpota.coat rom haar of weight 12501 wie fee fal f 760 min. Diet he epack ‘of hammar the sand ils the vuis of th stone segregate followed by the Tatra sod ‘own daplncorant ofthe sharged materi il flection In achieved, Vaicus ‘tage of talation by this tecnigu shown in Fig 6.17. Thietochnique cn bo applied {uma bling foundations, Ranjan spl Han (1088) have indented hat granule peo {500mm dumstar atl 16m dep have Loc succesfull installed usng this technique. A Aetalled treatront of granular ples i dea by Hann (258). os Bleed ia where Ke tn 5 492) srelor 1 dined angle internal ation oetone eae — 7 “e naithor drained cohesion (guested for large areus) or he undrained shear teenth ig 627. Gras ition mut wing bow Aa Ran, 142, ‘The variation in ple diameter installed by vbr (iametor SOD t600 mn vane betwen Om lays and Ltn Gy soft ebwsio sells) Daye and Noga 1888) Ihave veported sono ealomns ranging om 400 to 760mm using summed process. Using the simple bring equipment and the fight hammer Rao (1282) arid Rana sd (1980) ‘epee granular ple dimers ranging fm 260 600 mon 3 ‘Th epasing of stanesohunns i daterined ben on th aattbmont tolerance for the loads to be applied (Greonwond, 1070) and the degree of inprevemant required (agethardt and Kieth, 1977) Stone columns are spaced from 12 ta ehout@ mom entra ‘ova tho site owes, 1988), Spacing ranges recommender sand ples ean bo alopted fhe grsnlar ples alse "Tho length ofthe stone clumns fe ouficint either to extend btw Ube dapth of sgesient stens incredse caused by tho oandation or should extend hough the aca SF = safety factor used shout 15 to? ‘As bearing capacity of stone alums ie generally high sotterant eth portant | stitoron. For want toortiel equations to prod etlamant ofstoraceluran,rmpleeal ‘methods are und, The eeltlement of atone celunnfrundation dependson clam sping. | Thesotilewentof single column ofa group ins load test may bein the rang of St 60m the desig ond Th stern of large group is wally about Bt 0 times the ain _ ‘olan eatlemnent (teal, 978), Fie 1 ahoen stated stmt i he tated ‘round as fonetion af soll tent ad column spacing (Gromsrood, 1970, ‘Stone columns arovory much suitblo fost inorganic ohana Thay lon can ‘bo used in lose sand depois fo Increase the desis Stone eslmone are eapable ofae <== i Sere Fi omit | fs 20 08/ i‘ 5 7 ele 2 oan ieee mega ‘sone COLMAN SPACING =m i, 824 Bet efter c ntseted ‘ston enignent tafe deenet 180. isipotingeccss poe wator pressure inthe insitusciland thereby vduingthe woiratio deren ct intuence Ae Uy aro contested on volume daplarerent bas herve rae are at Letroan tall and cola, Stone ealumns ean not be used efetively i ‘hk dopolte of pater highly organi silts o lass ‘Slane colin using ibrofo heen nstllodin India ini way for strenthon- sngsof cl ar foundatin afte end! straps tarks (or tn 100) al aroun the ne a fr sfinorne and hom plante rom soventiee(Varadarjala and Gupts, {rgy The tanks sites Yori fra 26 to 79 = in diameter and up eo 16 moh Te har co sapartod that th subeol condi around coast tartng from Hala to Kandla he Madras onthe i Cochin on i wes coat eel of depot of hick ee aed clayey ail avery high compro. Table 6 Pt, 1081) gives «few ese intor of stang cohimn appetions, Ths vesultsrovea! tho fellowing lot 1981): (Stone columns are goeraly employed in thisedepasits of oil of very Tow shear | rong : iyThw andesioe sar trent haa nero hie notte into acount at the design ste. is Sotlomonts ae reduced anata ofembankments and slopes are insrosed (G0) A go intllation tarhnique i esportant to ensae fcent aneioning ofthe Solemn. 3 | ae acon oo 4s 5.3.5, HEAVY TAMPING ‘Ts techniquesi salle a Dynamiacempactionoe Dynamieconlidation hasan eat in Sesion 2.48 The techni biealyatliaes tho brian ar tock caused by Ue damppingof «heavy sight videnty the daneifention tks place by daplacoment of ‘slyraine. Ax explained caer ecniquo can Do ated falls. ‘Table 62. Caro Histories of Stone Coasan Apploatin (Ado rom Plt, 18) Dalngsie | _Pomatoet Can de ea asey nd, [vcard Landon tet opto inno 00H mas ‘and age tetany "| stn sO 020m [wm mtanane = t bara) Tea tel [Sim Age af iernal (01 mae DH Yay Sinfonia) gpd" qpecment beter | cine tne Se al losin vapeingaat, [am niyeiy. Clune ene tune France Bachy, | (Menard presmure- [tions “gnc |e After isnprover te ae A Sarees, [onan ara ra pens = Bo baeereae roses srt ancy | Cans under ean foeciovostiPa,” |ranenopessmisngs | meant ann pe canst, | 20m say [Canina ner vind avraell coon in Semana [estes (Seba SS" gnats |e ommoaaete ‘riormant 18 ang vie ont tt rston, | stmaatandiow [earn ith enn | at een {scraany. | anastigcy, { in Soe mt ore niet ciated [ate coma prt fo san ee oe entre, |: atten ene stn | don nett Frcs” | Setaauay on Staines, Tt m ce ae we proms veel or mrs ng x08 mm) ht do i [Sitacpertted = *| einen iy mud eoen Proms, | Abt 10 messes Csnruntcrinice: [Gratien mo| [vases iain | Sayyaneautcae |enthembninot 10 sro =04 (09 wt ‘naan Seen sate Fon szpcetpeint at svnatimae tetthee prmhiy: oh ition inn hinds en ne: Res eat otproe Bonin sh yng non ing at doafenon _- of suituble soils hy displacement. . ee In goutngditferor typeof gost edie rv tins hav sist and ion nce fee toe sotto gonrafaton abet oueg | Sqoipment and methods enn be made, . nun itmay bo ato that moting today is an ble tel in iil engines prstio and whos mpartanse inconstanly increasing, Carrer 6 Grouting and Injection 6.1, INTRODUCTION Grotingisaprocosot groundimprovemantattsined by njetng ud ike material inn sabato tsk to esol of etng ot no yt conta {Etetopine wlth Innovation of ew materials atl coretraction totus. ae modern 5 deere nat ctaed ning rks or enrelingoepags andtrenethninginciil 50% Pansing Nn ADTS. sieve, > 10% Psing 758. sve<80% Phat < 19%. in gunera the Len results ave ebsined with welded wile ving loss tin 60% fit parila finer han .074 mm and plastid ess than 2%. ‘142, AMOUNT OF CEMENT Seikzemont has bom made with cement entont varying fom 6 te 204 for atic: tory stbiliaton, the flloing aman aermart eo usually equzed (Lambe, 195) Por gavel, n cement ev of to 105 by weight ‘For sands, a coment lovel of to 12% by weight ‘Porat, mcomont lve f 12 to 65 by eight For gym cament level ef 12 208 by waight ‘shen tha coment aydeatingantiafstriyin aint, en neeasenstronghis abled {hth incronsog seman content igure 7-1 ilusttes the more the mest ned to api {rongor the routing slbcoment, Tho erent content reguted i erualydotemined kyig 14. Compan omeenie nahh ith no pe eet eg econ er Foe smearing the sxmenive arent of specimens made wih deront proportion a ae ie nee rtompriv ae stay eng mets antontd varios ellaoment mitre: dingo whee pln nage are ‘unin Fe 1 lecon he sborved mt hen irene nthe cement conten wth Cho Ba jd ale egy sl Dy Produce sma nresne compreveiv rng Shan i ie io z ge Boe sted “| | seme, er i lo eeneat a ig 1. Prise netomat comet (lop fm HBO, 170, cave, ee AND CHEM STARUZATION 16 “eithanny exis og ot Pes alo chnervetho ete ofprenene ooh SEH naa lw cmpeniv sgt fr ean mie, Bute ln eS Cea al 9) rch, Prior, higeweipatrengercn (anual) more Sfestve tan normal coment (Pig, 7.1. pubteZl-Effect of Cemont Content on Soieemont Straneth “pt fom #80, 1970) ane | aati | amt | Somme | Byes | Meta Cit, | ocean | "Bitim’) | Cott (as 1. [seca 2. in Mae » 7 oe ast 2, |saycioy ry ma ie “ 8 Eo ms 7 ro a we [eae send 8 ee wan 2 i Bo 1808 a Peeanea 7 14 1 ‘cnitenly 1 ess whos » eon i Sa Bs 5 fermatcemiy| 38 thot ne » sie 1s eo mse ‘14a. NG vee uniform sitsoment wal mixars, provides strong and durable tener hn nyt annus net deat proportional to the mixing onary a ay ‘ho intimacy oe once ising enue eeean sto Ges of ming ar of act ier eemponont,Thnusconinasiningsonkb coup neces, de gar cmonthyraton ha guna hav eter fess rea yore mad the laboratory have highertrengin end ronter QO obesrend etre made inte fl, Saiteront ma by nein ese el ean rr vcakown aboot fear bof Ue length of «aorta mike ‘144. MOTSTURE CONTENT recreate content plays bo len sitcaent:)itnfuenons he compas Sa eeetarl el a fies water forced BITS, characteris oP tycoon. the qoaiy of scent Lael ee 99 tee erection, tat metre onan or smpeaion a EWEN ie nunc om t feompsizn Tow mtr reed for he Kyran oe Tiel bythe mare nomeney fr im epacin- The onsetof wnte.comant rato es uscd in conerle work flit value insoibeomont stabilization HET ales hemi cte’ otaang tes ode at eng ig. 1. ih ofan cnn en 28 ay comps nth (Aa Pal, 186. 1145. COMPACTION CONDITIONS. typical compressive sttengldey dent euvois shawn in Fig. 4 whih eaten wendy Sd eament finan teense ene ining he sa enone and gen the sm am fering ferent raieture contents, tho grontatstrongth ie obtained for Uh one earpasted at ‘pproimtaly the optimum rcatre contr: Publied Ulratre mug undead Samy ct a, nlp shy wt ft neler ne which gives maximum density, pelted . LU | ol 3 | rey LA i i Fig. Tye nnnhipeten dey dest and Setteesensina Dom scene kee ‘1A8, AGI AND CURING ihe with eonerst, the compresiveslzength of aoi-comontinreases with gw preci clleament cred after compaction under conditions tel prevent drying ofthe ara f contin under which e-nrnt fared inflenses the renting pod TREES reac nclamp environment yee sirable fr curing Seiherment eure apisly ‘ith incase in temperevre although el harden atl emperaares. ‘14:7. ADMIXTURES FOR SOIL-CEMENT Tondo to ecrlarto the set and to improve the propetief ssitoment, me oF alion Slenidoin wloed, Aion af woine of on chorea sown rsiparkable improve: SAA he ntengsh of eoitsement. Thee chee, ky incising the ofletivenoss of ‘oneness tables, prmit Lambe, 1060) “ Arodaction nthe amountofsemestrequize to treat aso responsive to cement. iy Sabiieation of tome ofthe ile (., cevtin organic soils) whieh are not responsive tcamont above Ccotain alate motal compounds especial sium enrbonte, suits most ofthe “oils The type of alate hich sould ba effet should be fant by tri, Uso of some ‘Remieas slong with coment important avantages see ae) educing the ave tansy nacied to perform e given ob thus simplifying the handling and mining, an fib reducing the ttl stabilizer st. 1148, CONSTRUCIION OF SO1L-CEMENT ‘Construction of soiecinontuaualy involves the following operations: @) Shaping ‘tocol to be rented G) Pavers tho al (i) Adhing water and ement, to) Mixing,(0) Compating (i) Finiching, and (i) Caring. Micin-pleeemathed, Tosllng plant ‘ethod, and Stationary plant mated (lacuoved in Soci 7.1) ae title to predee ‘oilstne stare nthe fl ‘Tho optimum zequenes er nding watar aed cement and mixing dopendson the ai pd site condone Cravulr sila are eay to nel compared to plas enla Hang Df pstie eile ean bo reduced by adding Limo (tt 8%, Tho fold eontol of eollsomant lation ie done by expensed person hace othe site vnual inspection, Mature ontont end ry density havo fo be eecked a por standards CConatneton of sitenmant in fost rons should bo dona wth wtnost oat, Prost susceptible dle Wealed with cement are not necessarily made hemos uccoptible Cambs, 1802, Conant the mast success ui tailise and exeaont resus ve giavantoed ed propery 17.5, BITUMINOUS (CEMENTING) STABILIZATION. Ditsminoss sol stabilization ie an ofetive method which in boing wily 2nd Bituminous meletlal ste: Utter, aplalt andar Bltuens ate nonguecus stems afhydrocarbons which are conplstalyolble incarondisuphids-Asphalis aro materiale {nvwhich the primary compooante are nara or refined petro bumene or emiing tions thaveot Tars vo bitminaus condensates preted ty ths destructive dtlation ot npc materiale sch an coal init, past and wend ‘ituriness maton tabilzes tho al either by binding the partsostgsther ce protecting Us sel fom tha daetrious elects of water (.e, waterprofing) or bth Une ‘tots may ons togthon ‘Th iret mehnien ales plein cbestnoe sol a he econ one in cohesive oi ‘Avon the bitamsinos materials, ost of Bitumen stsittion has ben with ‘asphalt Thole oll lage by aephalt may be reload loa sei aephalt.Aephal {ve produc hy three prenasen:()Vassum distillation pradacingstisighbram sepa, (G9 Higtemperstre proba of finery hei prodasing calad aphaly sn i) High Aomporatat air bowing staightun agphat reducing owe asphal ‘Acthostraightrun asphalt sow sotoningtomporsture an fow malt vies, it ‘ecommonly doe nei stablizaion Anphal un ol b directly odded to tha sol beatoe ite too vitae. Te uty cap be inoreaeed by @ heating, i) emi in water {emulsion} o i) cut beck wth rome esiont ike guslin uth) Bothemulions and ‘ithnsks are used inal etabileation Althaphao-aphale her wviedspoietans, ‘mostly use inbass for highway and alee pavemonte ‘784, NATURE OF SOIL All inorganic soils with which asphalt musi areata) ean bo mised ean bo ‘stabitized Sell antfyng the flowing requiements yield the best results (Lambe, 1962) 4 Meximom pasilealas os thanenehiedthe compact thickness of tho twat toile (i) Greater tha 60% ae than 4.70 mm ee, (Gy Thirty ito 1005 fr than 0.42 men ae, {Ge} Greater than 10%, ut Ins than 8% Bor than ©.074 mse. {@) Liquid iitews than 40%. (ea) Plast dens tan 195. “neo ater a id vgn dtmenta i ipl: Ab saiiation canna fein infeed ai th ih pM acl ei 1 ie ‘tule plates tesnars of iin een ‘18a, AMOUNT OF ASPHALT. ‘An inereat in ephalésontent gives bltr reals, In fineness ation af sephelt dows net incense the rrongth but tremendously faproves tho waterproofing propery and there yiskling biter atailzed ool, Asphalt als show Be aed Eptinalyetherwie resulta a guey migtro which cannot be propeny compacod ‘58. NnKING. ‘A thorough incoporaion of the ative with th ol yoke betr stabi asi igure shows ths feat of mixing on the strength of wasps ig. 16 Bos tnixing an tro Oe modi ack tailed aay tt Rerun ond Ponsa, 85,“14, COMPACTION CONDITIONS. ‘The density ofa mista seil ad sept governed by Ue allan contnt and ‘amount and §ype of compaction, In goteral wr the vaatleeeontet, the hi strength: Further, samploe which ero cored ed then imoreed In ‘avimumatrengthatamotlding vaatleseantantneereralighlysbove thet fr maxim ‘Sompaced denity andthe waster psp and thar seengh oe, eat at thie mosing ‘ellie content Lambe, 1052-13 plustiewlls the volatiles content whic gives maximum ‘cued atrongth and that sehich gies optimum density can bo ‘fernco can ving with ipo of eompection, “185, CURE CONDITIONS ‘Te flowing behaviour havebeon reperted to bo true (Lame, 1962): () the lane ho pid ot eae and wermor tho tanparatro of ere, the rota ho wats lst 0 the longer the period afimmersian the greater the waler pep Ths strong of sa-aapbalt in inversely proportional to the volatiles contont a the ime oftort‘Thie valle Property ‘eclanly reflected ing. 7.inwhicha ganeralebengle-volailes content eallnehip tse regadles of hs formation emlayed Een hn 5g. 14 Rea senha wil Vet cotet “Sencar! canon ie eas rd Psi 050, od mining in guoraly onside to bo toa? easly ead a - Ennoite fd nceanary, exept with ean lla paio or the toy 1188, CONSTRUCTION OF SOIL-ASPHALT "The conventional yequenc of enthicion operntlan ia olows (Lam, 1962) {Palvorsaion thsi ob rate (Ui) Aailin af tae prop wing. i) Aa ‘nd misingof the bissmen, a) aration to tho propor volte conte for compaction, Gh Campactan, (i) Fishing, i) Aorating and eaing, and i) Apieation of urfoce {over Te npantant ime tm ensue proper stbillation whieh need wntol ace mixing, cmpectings dng and apiying Ue surfs protection Th mix plans sed ft Eniemen¢can be sed fp silaep hal lo. Te neessary old con ests are moive “antent determination before snd dusng procesing, bitumen content determination after {niving and density determination ator emmpactinn. "The oftimiain mate sontant for stably ie wally Yaw that compacion As iy high mets {etweon the king posses and eompetin Tn practic, tetod cts ee placed at shout 5400 vlan content whereas eesiveralls aro plas at bya the optimum votes Content for sempaction, Compared to etek or tars emlnions proce moe ait in tho laileation fine-grained sil CHEMICAL STABILIZATION ‘Chemical ssbilizstion consist of Sanding hs sal partie with cementing azo (che primeny ative sachsen at x pron ty ashamica eceton wit the sl ‘The reaction dons not nacesaily etd thal pote afchough the bonding does {pelve ntorineleslae fovea af Che ei. ho was Of sherical aa seacy nitive to Inrveano the efectveies af coment und af bitumen (eephat) have boen alt In the ‘previnvs sections, The prin’ elves genorally in wido ua are ln salt ign ast {elpmors Agozante ae dieperannte ae alo nde under certain conditions, 76. LAME Lime has bono si ati fr vad from don days. Lime proud from natural linieston, The typo of Fine fred Is based upon the posent matin pratcton proses Ther refi basi pes of Br igh aalciom quieting x0 Dolomite quiklime G20 + 50 ydvatedbighvelaurs ime Caf08 ‘Nota! hydrated dloit ime ‘Ca(OFD, + 0 rerastecycratad damit Tne (Ca(OH, + MOI, “yrated lime (alo called else lime) i he moet commit aed lime fre stabilintion. Line's leo win combination wth ther admitare, Wz Oy aahy erent, ‘htumen frei stabiliaaton- ‘Two types of chemical reetians tl paso who Tmo nd wat ei: Th fat one occuring almost Iminedatsly fe clloalpe of rencuan involving sny of the‘etlowing : (ion exchange of cleom for th So natraly ened by ho sil 0 {epresson of the double lager on the soll leds because ofthe inerense in eation [enownutationin hops water, and Gi) anexpansion ofthe doubelayer of haei calles ‘Hom the igh pt of he oe. Ta eosnd reaction tke sansierabo tine nw ceroenting [cian Thetcomonting sell ale salledponelane sion, i ot completely understood, ‘Sea though to bo areastion baboon theealstum from to fimovrith Ue avaliable renstive, “tomina orice fom ha sil ham, 1962), ‘Sei plasticity, deneity ond atrength ato changed hy tho ation fie to ol. Lime snorallyinorones the pasty idan lw platy ols and decreases the plasty {dnc af highly plato mile, Boowe of reduction i the plant of plasters, du to {Ekon of lint sul besmes move finblo and on fe handling in the fl, Adan Sime enuecs a seduction in the maximus compacted density and an ineenes is Che ‘ptimummouldingwatorconon in goer ive smerensetho trangth of almost all ypen Peat ‘Constrvetion procedure ofline-tabilted esl bas ares to thes employe or sni-coment yithw difference that mora timo lowed fer placeren oprations fr line. ‘This vlexaion i pss Ue limos eomentation yonction i elativaly slow one. [hamuats cave shore tanto powonteatbonalionef the lime The normal consttion ‘eauonce br limstbiiaed bases ea follows: G) Sarl tho ase, i) Pulverse the 0 (Gibspread tole Ge) Mint inn ado (Add watarfecesary bring pina ‘holtare content Compote stra i) Shap tho sabilimabass,()Coehoep moist “tft fra eet Bday and Gs) Ad westing surfs. “16.2, CALCIUM AND SODIUM CHLORIDES “oth calsy an sodium sheridan eel tbiiars reac in eome what sian Sate has boon wee in recon’ youre a ave ip Ue conatustion of granola stable nd wontng ard bce sorsen The fst of elton ales ffs @ easing colloidal ‘Teac, al G) ltesing the charectersti af ol wat, Although elem an sodium, ‘Mori et ex el flgeuants, thoy ate no x effective as oor chemical uch a fore ‘hlorige, ‘Mort ofthe Lousiana salt nex aromalnly dus tothe changessale sakes inthe ehanstoiatin of the torn ho sil pose. Tae changes rein the lan of Imolsuve ftom the sll and ane explained by the fet thatthe ante Cepesally eae {Chior} are deiqueseont and hytecapi and lowe th vapon pressure of water, Prost JHoaws in sul retaced duo to addition of wl by Towering the fran pinkof wan. AP trostofthe haf font ae doo the presenesaf the salt nthe ol pre sid, ay ose ‘Stanle eonnntation may seduce he trent of Uo stb ei, Ths the performance CEEStectabiec! wal dope onthe amount of mound-watr movomont Sale alien Shows a slight ineroisn of mio compacted density rd aight reduction in She pti bulding water content 1183. LIGNIN “Lignin eval oth the power frm ann the form of slp hite Hii iin tn both the frm has bean in use set edie to he sl for many years ign fe lors hens it tbilsingatite reat permanent Inan atts improe the {slong ching ecm wo devolped acai y oath OED. ite lone when sm comet or eu ihromate med sure iat teteicnt ol rien rm Mon ofc tretd Light aca en ali ot neve e ae apo at lignin aleo reduces from heave, ae ‘164. WATERPROOVERS: Finorgrained soils show considerable etrongth whon thay are diy andloso the steongih when consume more waar. Walerproafrs chums wish prevent ot ete tho delterious ftck of water on ul havo proved bebighlyueful a tables tion techies. Waterproofs finetian ellos (abo, 1962)- oo end af tho water- gl chovestanes,sllsonates, mines, and qunternny amon salt Snipe estrone tt ator np thom ort otras in 10.5, NATURAL AND SENTHIETIC POLYAMERS "Polymers ara longehaited molecule formed ty the linking. fe, pobrmriaing of ‘ovtain organiesheminale called monomars: Natara polmorie mater ike resins) ae fyi pelymoce materials io plying acl (VAD have ben wed el tai re; There ar tw way of chert corporation In Uh teh, the mononee slog wil ctaat (Go esoopalyrerie sion raid whith ects tween the ol ad Innes Ith ss od, mere por mie hah ae fold acaticnoranennlsiancauingronctine betwen tho palymerand havo lamb (Gedy tas protenod afew efthoresine Goth natrslandeynthtsy wih have bem ued forsolatatiiztion, slong with sir appliaity andthe same een low: (9 Natural Resins (@ Vinwol Reatn,lmpartaalmoat na aeongth tsi, but appenis te witerproaf the Fincgrainot eal (G) Rosin, When ade to a aol an than rose with certain nba ells forme Ingots gs which aid taiietion, (68) Resin Stubitier 321 Avosin deivsiv reduce the rate nid anount of water sloepion and fishes sam on fo on eg i Sabin Arindam with plot water (NSP-121 and NEP-252, Matrils made ly National Southern Prodets Co; have given some water rpellnsy to cata ol (c) NVX.A protuet of tho Horelos Power Co has given como watr ropllany ta Sorain aie‘oi Shettne.Setchtainey evaporationofseshtonofanesterofshellacwithmallc feidoroy oroporationsfasivnt fom asoltionof slain aleohol Saat tested ‘hth cles uae high tang but practically al thin strength fs estoy ty aterinmerson. (ot) Natta Rosin from Tropical Areas. Namaer of esas hue been invests Forvwatorprealing Alanis Copal esi and Wales resin showod tight ffecive (8) Synthetic Resins (6) Aniline furfural: Watorprofe cna imparts strength to si i Polyvingl sleahol (PVA), Forme tough Noxibo fms when evaporated fom use alti, Flos at waterelubl, and to dae attempts to make ther involve boon unaioeeafl Ui Pokyvinyl Acetate Ges vory high strong io ead pratialy al of whichis Seutryed by ales inmersion oy esorcinol formaldehyde. Gives vome strongth to snd, but mush oft sot byoator immarion, (©) Others, Ures-usfusl and phenolfarural resin Phenol-ormaldstyde son ‘Seen; Urn ormaldshyte rosin; Cals sulfate formaldehyde reine; ‘thoel ; Methyl ureas a elem, ‘Among the vsti of eythotepelymers clam ecrlas i of nterest toi cngincors av ste eran a wabztion with waler-cnaitive polymers. 1188, AGGREGANTS AND DISPBRSANTS “Agereganta and Dieperaite are ruaterae that, ot [ow trata levels, sake saativel modest hanger inthe propertona fine-grained exls-Th fnstonof agents Td Uipreante i allretion of leciriealfooor between sol arts. Lake porland nent aguregnnis and iapersants do not comont edjecont particles, Thin structure “lcrngclatnctoraffact zany au properties such asplstity, permeability and atength- ‘Bitioush syregunts at dopersanta have be widely ued im differant industries its ot eguently made ae of ell stabilaton. Thess chemiese hve high penta ot “Gen neituetions whese aly amagest improvement ineiltehaviou needed Since nwo ‘Snala ae selatively cheap aw elfestive af reatment evel, ai ean be elatvely Snecnpoveey they canpuitenmparalitely lowest cstabiliaton Cesbe 1062) ‘Aujrowants. These ave the materials whish are sapslo of increasing tho net ctia!etreton txt faved sl partis Landing to aggregation o seul Ton of tho sul mane, Aggregasa oe of to typo, in eganie vals ave meal ‘iosidoor orrcchoste nd polymere materials euch Taian. In general teal ro ‘theapar than te polymer materials “When els ao disso the pote water fel, thoy gnorate cations an anions “which een pasticpat in ne or mor of to flowing reetions (Lambe, 163) (@ Bxchango with it ions Bocas adsorbed on the parties Gi) Puen ions tha cam lnk pasties (eas K* can fit within the Iatlees of to iy sheets upon drying te bond tho sheets permanonly togethon. ey nent th on cnn hry eng tle pin owen Using the shove restions, polymatie materials can slo nk the adjacont cil pasteles since tho ons ofthe long tam polymeric molecules ean become attached oct Dvtieler.Arthenctonof wn aggregated tomorethanane ofthe psbla mechan, ‘editicalt to ose te contrition ofeseh attraction bebweon si pails is invented, aggregate cause them to stick ant {orm anger pte. he sickng pales ten to aeangothamlesin madam loo "TEs nom arrangement of partite with «ows svoatare mace Use erga {ea nwienua silprmenbity. By Ue ngpraget testanent an increas fn prea in Uaangeof oto twony fold ean becasned By alteringtho pormoabitycharactesticn ‘ofall aggseganta an influence the front heaesbekawsur a hel ‘Aggzegts ypove sil strengths by redsing the eecve sepuin beteon coil pticlen Po ample leashed gia clay can regu stone by ths tration o {Gn aprsegnt ita th pores tha ela. "Dingersants, These ae the materiss which ae espable of redkcing tho cohesion betwen linegrsined so particles and tend fo cause tem to diaper by nerensing the tovticropalefon between nace paren. Ade waiety af materiel are vallable {ouso dn dispersant shi the most common oncs are the pharplalo. sulphonates an ‘voveaates, Prtcally theta ference inthe aetivonaes oth vrouedspersat, ‘ispoants onting with ils dept the Flowing hte meen (Lambe, 1962). (0) Seqpeateation. The palynioni pat afth dispreant removes ant insalbilizs ny menavaletexchnngeable ons (ton exchange. The apevsant frnishos monovalnt ins forsehange rsetion ‘with sei id Aion adsorption. The dspartantfernakesplyanionle woups for. ‘by tho sil pails. Ofte above theo meshanisms th Dapertt dao te pr ‘hott of asnlwater system, Ina dinpeteed soilaystn, aca partisies do nat tort tocchere to fon sitopte, at ipel each str aa they canto eal moved ollie to ‘ach then Ths by tocol ys, hey eam be eed inta a mn high sity. Danse oinont od sediments with particle ina mre sadly pa lea mar tortuoue path fr low f ater, ipereant suse retin nell permeability ‘Th parently tion vot the ardor of anesith to onesith af ho onal vale Disporsants am be aed tothe cil by physically mixing or hy reting Bessuse of sadtininperaiity dete dnernt eben ones rho he mostimportantA oncin menoves TCHMOUES “| cA, COMENTINO AND CHEMICAL STABLZAION 5 118.7, MISCELLANEOUS CHEMICAL STABILIZERS se sveral chneals wish re ued fo asi tabilzstion maely bas on the bonaentevilbity or bnoed om ott thesretieal principle. Among these material ro {ane 1993): 1) Tung iG newt oH) Cotten sed eGo) Castrol) Rubber {aco fi Pasiciood sup, of) Melanse, (it) Minerel oll) Sodium earn, (6) Galea carbonate a) Paraffin, fi Hour ci i lone detergent, Thesa ‘Gienizalenremowedayevory sparingly so Twaathereheress ve, edu aisle and Shespheric eid hve tone spell pupestinn od heya dees blow lal sleaten, erpeilly sum lcate, Belongs to «gragp af inexpennive and svetsaite compan. Pry ae et ine stiliation bath me adatves to eonventionel tains ee coment) anne primary stabilizers Slicates driv ii benefits bes tlh cementitious component, he most widely wed frm of eae stablantion iy injection zeae in Chaptor 8 Phospris aed has proved asa plontwabitver. The election sats only by he phone acid. Howse the asian ea be haprved by th aditian of forine ampourni tr cure nsslnstorao inorganic tals os wtorprsters. els contaningatrong ‘als componente dot respond ta phephorie acid relent igh apna wat. Somatinos eitoinous pining eat maybe wsedas acing agent byappiving soon ator eompection. Bafrs the appliaton af «surfacing the stabiiacd | sittou be pape ith pm cn The primingon wich prone ay the | eseacing, should be approprints to tho type of eurfaing materi "The rlcin-placenathod ean be effetively wed dependingon the poof plant used inthe xing process. Tha conventional ype plat sel er tho rotary hae, tho saan plvimixer, an single pe stabilizer (HMSO, 1974), ‘Thendvantagenofthomixitplacomsthad(appliabl tothe woof agricultural plant {aut targsinglpse machines) ae HMSO, 1972)-C) Ue platisimpl cheap and easily __ansported, i) the numbarefmachinesrequzed canbe ajestoa to thesia athe job, i) ‘he whole processed scion sro fr competion Use same Un, large average | htpat ay be rointanod, and () ima wot llate the be of water by evaporation many DDoadvantageouy, its the cnly way fretting it of eens oie ‘The daadvantagoe of thin mathdt are (HMSO, 197) =) iin no easy to obtains uniform this of testnan,bonunnaf the difealy of setting the machines toa given | depth the mixing i not au uniform oe with eavelingo attionsry mixers (Bowe | talline spoil whol section, and (on adie the water lst by evaporation Inala reps | 10.2. TRAVBLLING PLANT METHOD In thie mated, the procedive fr application of tho stabilar isthe same a tha of icine tuto Int nae ofeont the plored ali eapdinto a winery [Topecaly converted motorgrader a lao an the cemantisepreedo ap. Osean {ha coment inuprond bare windowing whieh nana i tense of Od oabilioes {ha all i windowed anal tho stabilizer ned by to travelling mer riya income ulinstion, maven alang the ine ofthe windeey. Two of tha conventional mixers whith {ns he Hartor-Grocne Miger atthe Gardener Type Mixer MSO, 1072 ‘The avantaguo of Traveling Plant Mothad rv (MSO, 194): @ aura proper oningat added wate, 6 eifrm mixing if share misng timo, a) uniform subgrade surface cant obinined and he dap of trestient con be ontoled an hao ehe Highactoutyot fra givon expoditoreof plant and labour. ‘Th dinadvantagon ave (HMSO, 197): 6) bighiniil orton) theconsequent nee fr the plant to work cneinaeusy at fl expat, and i) ware ay bo stopp for ‘ mioor breakdown on ane pine plant 1118, STATIONARY PLANT METHOD In the Stationary Mixing plant these ate two main types ME, 1974), vie, continuose mes and toh mixers 7.7; CONSTRUCTION METHODS: “Tho conetruston iatheds an pen of equipment which ar in se fr conaetion “otstabtiaea routs aro ncuses bolo. These thethede ay le be Used fr troatmentof foundation ils wherever applinble. Different compaction mthods are dlecused in Chapter’ 1724. MIXIN PLACE METHOD In this method of constuction «eal of machines is run over the ail to be proceed Tn det to bron up the ci which he est preceseipper, culivators or any tlere are une silt loosen the nl to uiform depth, ploughs o acaiirs are ‘Se. Water ie Hora othe ove ell fm a prayer to big to euitube moist Content for processing, Th necator stabilizer is then added, either by pray won, in he sate of eid atatlzer, or ty hand or rofraby fhm a bulk spreader inthe eas of ‘tlilver which inthe farmofa powder The mining of tailor into the os done by further pases ofthe rary blere oof speci) coil mare. Shaping of the loaen mine rntoral allowed compaction bya auitabl eller. No rms arsed todefine thee ‘trond enstcton Ite mre econcnial tn conmtrst th tall zd val slightly wider {han the planned width ofthe onsen wx tocut beak tthe derived wih when the stabilised ‘ovatuwelion is omplted. Fuster, he exsonr atbilied with can bo wed as foundation ferent, ‘Many stabilising ogpnts resuive a pani of ving ser mixing afore thy become fully etetive: Por neseeny curing to stn the surface ia coved wit layer of mist fall or si ax allernatively, the secs my bo kept damp by frequent appiestion of « | Thecontinuows mixer works under the eame piciploao that af tavelling mix In ‘his minor, an olveting londor supple material to hoppor with a measuring gat, bane | baltconsegor discharge tt. pagel whore-water of sid statibzer may best ‘through apreynozles, and mised ina the so. Tho xed materials then dechanged into lve Immobilized tnvlling pont may easly be aranged to servo ts central6 oncino nove TOUS mixing plant Depending the output raguiromant the ie ofthe central mixing pantie ‘Sesion " ‘Both ars mayb conerete nine, double pail mixers ee, which ate uso fr small obs nur ts for tsingcontsepraled ell ith tailizrs For many f tho jobs ‘Selnary titingedrai eonerete miners have bean used, However, the Dest resus ae Shratncl ty tring double peddle miners, pagills oral pal ypee machines in which sernanpravcenelly broke up. Thetis routed foresixing depend on thotype ofminar vad thotype fal Tepe to cisco ined aerials verily from the mina Intoleriaeand ered droll tothe site, ipped, apron and eompacted inthe norma annie ‘the edenutages ofthe Stationary Plant Mothed ave (HMSO, 1974): @) accurate proportioning ots inn i sny corto ft of treatment, i oneree mers can, Exviad, Gv) nosso halage ei hast bo ken fom a borrow (small lonees Cedi dering easing and tnnsport of materia ana th mothod ik walabefor vee Eakin work, fr instance when brave aerebitad to compact uniform sands cr when, Th nana layer nto form a sbnve to machined concrete. ‘The dlealvanlages av (HMSO, 1974): @) expansive if il site posted, and i) matcal ues be cmpacted as diored, and not x complet esto, ‘14, P1ELD CONTROL Tinotde to obtain an ffiiont result fom the above diecnsed construction methods, itisnoseauy ochekthobilloing ee MSO, 17) degreot palerisatin noite aaa dy. danstyimabstrocontentroltisnabi, Go) eto-scional atenof window, Bea, ar ebatinent or apraoing te quality af ined material (i) ry deveity of Cea tages en i sta eotone ll tesn tems ane toechickedexsep © which Pree fecaicin-placometod ony, and whi eed for travelingplant eth ip Mthads ot tot for staloed wile are provided by Indian Standards OS : 4882, Posts TtoX) Dogeoe of Palverization, The sil shoud bw pulverized. such Uns S05 of the pulveriaed mmr shol oss 45 tn eve This docs net apy to cars aggregates. The Poking t dans by sovng oprosentatve sample ving tho pabveriation poses ‘Motsture Content In tailed eostricti, mite content dstermination fe the conta tert oot frequently rouired. Sales fre taken for every 100 0 160 of he Dulvotact sil alo the contre-line of th it: Aflor dating the water contents Pett utinates may bo mado forthe requitement of ditional wate, ange that ‘Storing ean start a cm the stabilier partly oie wih the oil After mixing of Toland iobitaor once egan ssnple av akon at Che sareoeations fr farther checking. ‘Tvs decides the exact he fal amount of water rouirement, Check teat are made the sane lcatione towards the eid of mixing of any wate eed. Pusher during aa phoction thomoistrecontentiageinchickedts deternino the possiblity ofan drying Srike satfce Stage at which molstine entontdotorminatios are descoble daring Slatin ines In onstruction ie procentad in Table 12 (HMSO, 1874. Mh procedure f = chockingwnoiatoreconentie simile intravelling plant method Inetatouary plant method SAEMIRone contra tho moisavecontentof th icoming oo a the mined mati ee aey at hear inerets rom give nnchine Tho Hol dtermiratin of metre cree inistared in Chapter 2 Also roerenco may be mae to Inn Standard OS SSen alk 123080 or doterminaion of moisture onto of tiie’ ei mintares. ‘Table 72 Moisture Content Dutermination at Various ‘Sige lla: Placa Conatuction "Belpted from HMSO, 1979) Bias Wa ‘ies Fock vias vain idan topos Zanes layer icin appeninni niin aware “a |etisconpaon iin stat |) Toten Char amnan waar ser ery (oy Faia hn rte fearon “ [rok tne © [Dvngonrection de caus vrs ant ‘Dry Denslty/Moistare Content Relationslp. This test doperde onthe sil typo pdt gacnal ache for dry denaty and melstne content fom fe to ime daring Sin te wae allowance for any vataton fom Ue eel ofthe proinary tout inthe Inboraory (SS 4062, Past IE-1907) ‘GroseSiectlonal Arenof Windrow, Forth tavalling pant werkingon a window ts cocoa to measure thn erouratons] area of the window t aneure that &e ‘pepontonig of wlizr i corere and Ua the correct hicks wil be aie ‘Depth of Treatment of Spreading Inthe mixinplaeeeonatutin, the depth of tsetient mst beeontele from th bogining othe prosesing anithe piers at SSERET cpmant rust bo etefallyafjted Watationnry plant is uted, the tieknoe of ining eRE PT can be contelled hy spreading i with m buldover, the Bade boing Mette hon ratiners Tho thickness of compacted lager ean be ceed while choking fray dons. ‘Quality of Mixed Motovil. As the design ofa sposifie work is snr on the quality otto Satis’ peter preiuced in tho inboratory ie esontia to chook the Held pleat eld cpacinens aver sis to tha of ho laboratory specimen ana appropri te File is taced en the stebilgor used, For example, a corment-atabilzrl spocimen woul eee comprentvosttongthafter days andabieuminouvatabittedepasimen wou He eee ee eile aterption. Samples ave seul akon at ntrvals of $0 te 160 m. Some roa Inder to check uniform quay, samples hood beta also along the ‘ronson ofthe redDensity of the Competed Layer Dry deny the tin ei dated foray 10 to im anc apaceie tind sn dap mony SSC ely ator en ap cnsrton nae sists So cing ber oa Dry ey et than ta sea 0.80 kN/m?. * ad ‘Stier Contents mesa esto tbr tnt norng solo ti fst nbs ata enya th art ‘Suton pon Asana idly nteed i eure Stl cnn aay net Hwee onal pe ‘hon a pci ocpoe Ke tings mel ierng boty indian Standard hes rcpt 1 determing comes, a tS conn G80, WEG, Pe V0) Bre OOO Cuaprer 8 Geosynthetics 8,1, INTRODUCTION Geonyittion ae abil fabrce used inconjunetion with exilorrockas an integral pat of mamas pojsts The to tar ooupe in geanythatio new goo aa [Eromamiranes While qevtexe en permisbl srs, goomorirana san imperseabie (he Stresingpormeablty, orth lckol, sthodstinguishing eats help toceparate {hediferonrlan of thees to gos of morale A more products with light aiflarence Thos boon matuftstoved ned fr diferent fd appications, ay ave Wentifed ty ated blow Gan, 1987. ‘mpm pace wae within Gn drt ‘ss Amerian tne fr ocr goto: gostei alate poduets with arg wstangularaperaree {Gao corectly exe gota rs) or nanectongular lportaren or coree called poototle nets), stolen, georsrsbrane and goto related produst, ‘Batenshding thoes bot on natural Glee Goofbrion plana it set getetiles and goose elated products lig grote make Gooeynthatie ooprodats geonynthoties, grote rolled prduss mad rom natal ‘ben, poepacers, and metallic gail eaforcorent CGeocempenites —_cotposites sonsatingaf two or mate goprodusts CGeonyhalie have wide civil onginearng el apllatian. Tho min fanetions ‘which arsine er: separation, Gi ful eransmlsion, i reinforcement) alin, land) eantainment an bara. (Geoeyithatios have boon appli on gootechalel and costrionenginserng fr the past 15 to 20 years Gessynthetin Inno longer now bar tesnaogy, but is now ‘nfering amore mature ago with onstanty expanding apliations evan eutide of tho ‘traditional construction fel 8.2, GEOSYNTHETIC TYPES ‘There aze a latge numbar of ifront goonies produced, but forthe purposes ofelasfcation Uy san bo wb-ivded gunerall int the fllaving reap, es, ovens, Ps200 os nove TOUS ‘Non-Woven, ited, Bigendabl, Note and Grid, Three dimonsional Mats, Composites, ‘and Mena ‘82.4, RAWMATERIALS ‘The raw matorale wend inthe manner of geaspnthtis are thermoplastics owner for sects goayniietie ty ats Seoxportenithr stool wire er natal Ulosegradabio bres Enazplosoflsdgradable storie wed within geoayntheties are ‘dongs an peor ti Folin th pon ofthe row rater Polyande. There are tro mest important types of pelyemide (PA). The fron ie sn ligha polynnie taied by polymerization of the petroleum derivative reapolse. Tea Atphatepapaiies ar ompeve of china which do not conain rgetsped id ‘ructuren The other pee sles an sphate polyamide, eis obtnined by tho plymeiom: {lam of eal of ep asd sit horamotylonediamise are bth of them are petroleum eat The ero menuekared inte for of thread o tape which are cut info grams, Poljester-Polysiar (PEEP) mde polymers othpiene ea with imethy) erophthaace ith toaphthole eae All thes three materials ro desvatves of putatoum Delyatorispredused desotinaouslyintworecctos insrier inacontinuos Proven ui more rectors in er Palyethylene. Polyethylene PE) ean beproduce ina highly estan form, which is am entecnly important charsceratin i e-frming plymne, Three rain groupe of palyatiglane av availabe, i, LDPE — low donity polyethylene onsity 920-960 kan?) LDPE — tinea low density polatylene ont 925~6 ken’) HDPE — ighdimsity polethyone onsity 940-200 kgm. [UDPP ves he fine polythylens develop felled ty BDPE, LDPB is produced at sory high presureswherens HDPE proses are initiated by special eatlyota at elaivaly Tow preceuro and ienioratnes, HDPE tema ig stronger, tougher and ba a btior ‘hemical esstanco thon the lowe density types. However, LDPE ie sed in apliations ‘vhowits oitlty and wat wear barsar properties en be wtlied “LLDPRs «thea group of pelyetylnes mde ale yaw pressure proses. Iie uanufaetared by so-pelyneiaing ethylene with «mall ameuntofalphacefine whieh Tawra the denny forming aor chain ide branches on Us linoseplgrer esi, "HDPBie prefrcod forthe prition of PE laments end tooo fr aesingetextiles vehoteas LDPE and LLDPE ate seed more for the production of im. Pobythelee is {nla in geal oF powder em olypronylene, Palypropylene (PP) is a exstline thermoplastic prewed by polymnrsing propane monomers in the yesenee of steoospocfis etal syst Polyprorslone iste highest (900010 kp plaatiproduced tn date. Homopolyrints and Copaymers are the te type of palyprogylent, Hemopslymers sre used fr fibeond yore Upriiestons Polypreplane mat aval granular form econ a -Potyvinglehlove Pelyinyshlride (PVO) i mainly wedi gemambranas nd a thestnatiesouting nator brie a mata uted fe the pression of VCH ngtchorae, PUG ea rid polymers matorial ut can te converted, when ristiee wade nt highly Mexibe poets. PVCs avalebleintrenfiowingpovrder firm [Ethylenecopolymer Bitumen. Heyloncepplymer bitumen (ECB) membranes havo Ue sed in sl enginoring wake sealing atrial. or ECD production th ‘ao rnteaie ulin’ are etylots and bu] aerate (ogethe forming 0 to G0) and a Spesal btamon of 40 to 60%. Stritr apecifintons ae reysived when they aro sod a = Eerin connection with resiatanca ohydroeasbons acs and alkalies Chlorinated Polyothylone. Sesling membranes based er chlorinated pol shyla (CPE), me generally monvolréa from CPE, the main somponents ised with {uC orsometiuan PE The jreperiesof CPE depend onthe quality ofthe PE and tho dearee {redernatfon, CPP yomranes av avaiable roll of «maxon with of 8m and a {Bisa Oe range of 08 to 16 mm with ll ltt of abut 20m. ‘Apa othe ma maernlzexplainad above tre arte polymors vi ee el val, 1822, WOVENS "There ate «Ing numberof grospattioe produc which ea be abv nto cova diferent catego be pon ther eth of manufac wn ie ebown in Fig. 8. ‘Shnent page Ty may be banelly belong to stra fabrics orayatti fabrics. Under Sfathatie bes they ny be Eroaly laelfied gt eonventional gtx, gsptxtito ‘elated products nd geomombranes “Wovens wore Sh it to bo develope from sytote fibres Te type accounts for ut 29% ofthe gotetilos mart oem of wolume. As heir ne espe, they ste ‘Manufactured adopting tohwiqus similar fo went clothing axis. This typ has the “Shavnctavatis appearance af two ete of parallel threads or ashe Tw ye vunnin alone {helongthis nu nea wep an the ane porpendieular tit sell a wae Pi on next pag) "The majority flow to madam strength waren geosythotes ae manafactored fom potyprsvtons which cam be inthe for of exeaded apo, sit fils, menobilment, oF Taultement. Often corniation of yen typos i wed warp and wat dirctons to ‘Soiimise pevbrmontolent Higher permanbity are obtained sity monofilament ead Tpulilanent the it tap eopstrution only. .28,NON-WOVENS, ‘onsnovon geoayahotie canbe manfectured fom either shor staple fibre oF continu lament yarn The bees an bebnododtogathar by adopt ng thermalchemicl Srincchnniea!(novale punched tsskniquee oF w combination of tedhniquon, Whether ot hale iw oa onto five td has weg Heo infuenoe or tho properties ofthe ‘pomnowen gostei,m2 ‘nooo nesovinr Te ‘vosmenienes ™ it os i Byelejslejsla i. 82, Wore ith slap Cnt om Zin, 198 ‘bonds nonsnavens have peal hisknovs in the range of2to 6 mmand elie tend to be ‘comparatively heavy buena lngst quantity of pelymer lament enonted in order to abaiint number fentanged lien crossovers for adequatebonding Figure 88 Sivstatesa thermally bose ponswovon gooeyntbetic. ‘Fie 81, Gonna cvenion eupe Oatnd ndo, 188. Pig. 9.Baly maid sina nel tee rt om Jb, 88D. teLnim Chemically bonded thie Choma! ondingietheleartoommonmmathedorermingnon-wovons. Mechanical Nonwovens ars at lu reiting goomynthetinwinco thal ten atranath i limited, Nonswovens derive their bene by tho moshanieal interlocking amd or thechoricl bonding with the polymer ype sed" elgniieant difference between Wovens “inden yovene thatthe polymer filaments aroalignedintho directions of the warp ond Stufn the weaving prostate woven. The rele of thie aligmmant ie thatthe pelymnoe Uape cect effects the siscn-atrin rolatonship and as vest higher tensile strength ‘th lower sxtanaion are obtained Ie ie eported tha fo high strength, low extension ad Towereep gouy thetic forall inoresmant, the pljestat isthe optimum choice Rants, 1560) 8.04. KNITTED ritiodgosynthstice ate anufactiredalaganathor prose whichis adopted rom tho clothing tet nt, namely Uhl of sing. In this process interlocking x erin Stleoye of yen together ise There ar ifoent pos of knit weed the clothing tas ute. A example ofa hrtid ato elutes i Bg. 84. Only avery fr Keio type tte prevent Alla theknitd goneynthaticearefrmodty using the knitting {echmigueinconhetian with wane thor mated of gcsgnthetie manufactre, such 8 wwowving ig 84 Wapedia em Zain, 288 82.5, BIOGRADABLE "The main intenson of every geyathetis apliestion is lng fe apart fom the funetiontisinvnded te play. Incetsinssil reinforcement pplication, goxyathetics have toerve fr mora than 100 ears Bat gadablegeceythetics ae delbartaly maniac: tured to have sslatvly shor if, This onarally used for prevontion of ex eovion [prposee antl vegetation can bacome propel etalihod on tho ground surface. Natsral Fibres which ean bein he form of paper tip, uta nets, wood wool mle oer bee ate Doing use. ‘826. NETS AND GRIDS: ‘Geoepnthato nets cnet of to st of roughly round polyne strands that rosa constant angle to gve a very open material wth large diamond or retangle shaped “porte, Note with partes to 7S mm canbe ado, However the tpi size ofthe rvftho apertures ie mona un eapesony Unvaly Uh reand are patil Tneted and olled to produc Ghrmal bord where the cross. Nts are somtimes Tightty ‘rotshed during mamafatar to increase tho oastc meds. The atrengt of nets vata rors, 2 to 10 Nim. iis frm of genaymthelis He mainly used fo lw etrngth aol Foinfrcensenter for core material infin dein eoaytiti compet “Grids ate polymer laos made fom extruded cheats, The raw materials are potyponytone oe high density petite. The polymer sheate are fst gerorled the TEER? sie and diet bation often bing dtaranot by Un et predict. he perforated SELES then satchel in one divestion while te guaty heated, The scion oftrtching TRERISDARSR ti ples tone chain maoeen in he ection a tzetah, giving the atte gh tenet sitiace in thin cincton, A staca lati, chat a grid stretched in see Fvaton, Gace prot’ (lg 6). Tho tars unio aries fem the alignment of ‘heared pelymor rive wd ths pete stronth properties in onedrestion Am altxnative fore of eid maybe prose hy camping the uniaxial Iai on the stots ud applying secon etching onthe transverse drcton, This give & nal ged with a oquee aperture shape Fig. 25). Tho inxal gid is weed for gabions tele Che unexil one fuse fr reinforcing so straces, 8.24. TAREE-DIMENSIONAL MATS ‘inne mats have largo oponinge iar b hat fund in somo ofthe Mer oar ‘hetica nt The stinging ture betean mat, nts an grids that the mals have 1 isis heesmnstonelrucare wheres the forms of tho mt und rds smear tO that oa twonensional plana rule “Taecinansane! mats aro preduced by sxtring for otamplo monofilament om tom rotating profil ole fllowe hy sling Ae «aes the threads fuse together a “onsinge. The stuebure contain tpiealy Ise Chan 10% volume ofthe polymer Hilamenk. Mats san be prededl from any estuable pljmers, but the oneeally used one i=206 ve mewn TMU Paya. "The mata ara available in sin of Gm width with 6 to 26 mam tok. Thaso thvee-dimensional mats aie ots wed in the manache of ompests for drain, 8a18, COMPOSITES ‘Th in an are whi ha reduced from twe or mor ofthe goneyihatin dori in th previo seions. Alo i {s pomble to form somposite fom on or rave af the gacapntctie used gather with _meomembrane or gosptcer. Evidently the comperites have bata propertoe ts mest the needs of apesife apotettion, Pot example, a combination of woven ard non-woven ‘eoathotics azo ust al rinfrcement oro separates depending on which oe fe Used ae x prime conetituent If ononoven i the bsking material and woven ia prime ‘conattuont, thon tho Woven le manufetared detly ontop and thon atitched tothe ronpoven Thin produce aconpoate wth aligned wat efor sellrinforeement sppliestionsIfnonseoven na putaeconetiuent, then the waven shost acts as thin trong booking sheet to hich the nen-nnvon ean bs needled to produc a Uhick dene materia ‘This form of comps isusefal apm separatr in dif ae donne lod conditions Other forma of companion we: rofnerun shost wd wae oe composi, nat-aven ‘nd mat eompesies,nonwovon shest and net caposies and woven sheet nnd ne ore compositn, ‘82.9, MEMBRANES Membrane yt se eel fied eonerans wish ave ihin o-dimenunl shel of rte sith avery lew pei Teva Moxie tani ond cn recog wih a abe esi, Geometries ni eee {Saamallarmonte wopags aes erosion Prelit prone ny ay tonidredtobimpermenbs tooth anand Th hay outa ore ‘eter or pra bre tne nce ates of al oa on a ‘eotamane ar marta om yatta herplea) matrn och 8 HDPE, LDPE, PVC, CPN, ee obi prtn ache BCR, Gomenlytny eaPhar Prod a exe aeo lpm or av nempeia ‘Thorn adinntoneeen miner martian intone an the atm In ome nication of henna mumbo ym old som States ppd detox ntb mace hihi tof see. The teen nny be ‘pte pang te sng mln mec ns bee fwing techn sre son” wl nth try mfaaen a ele ‘omonkraes Gate) 6) nonin gomemtanon,oxtrord m aplyr ory ren ‘the polymer on « shest of paper which is xemaved at the end of the process. . Gi infor mbes o meron in mprmmatad or eveed yt the ‘iuunan-papmer misarealgiey soto ted optic Thal podoct Gi) veinfored lrsinsted gromembranes gomienbnene is combined with a abe comémbrane by ollinga eating. racemes | at ‘Viecoue manufstting ahs cn produce matoval with hens p25 mi ‘Mo yt is uray ot move than 2m th thlaae of 8 to 2 mm. Mame Pebreed with ime may be fo 00 wide with hlcnee of 18 8 rm, "Reinforced bitupninous membres ate bul up fom differnt olomants each with ite own apouticfalion stor In the prediction prossse ot In uve, The bass of the We Boe aTeetnbrane ie weableato of polyamide faniearpljotor memsraneroakedine ‘Sieuainous futur, eso on che portion proces omplosed, a glass membrane andor anaemia a substrde oraz ler oxn be fneloda, The plata i also Seam tothe ponetation of plants androsts through the membrane, Usually a {Bak ger af Utaminous mixes conted on thor side ofthe einfored membrane 8.8. PROPERTIES OF GEOSYNTHETICS ‘The properties which roto be raise by a geosynthaties dopnd on the ferstiont tins to fll. Gensgrttotes oon haven varaty of fonctions such at relnforcement, er, “eSbeagy separation lors ete, For exstpl, fr rinfrsomert purposes the mechanieal ‘fopenties ach ne movlus aes ad trong have tobe mphsied. On theater Fr! for tor the emphasis on hydewlie properties nich ae tye conductivity. [Arar hom hen, the duneiy and esistence against moana wear wd te havo bo ‘suntan, Cneideving al he aopets Uo propertis of yooxpnthatise can bo grouped ‘snd tho flowing eater (materia and bre peopertion ip gooretve expect (i) mecha proper Go) bpdealipropetie (6) drei chon] pripoties ss. yarnt AND FimyoroeTEs a erate pri manta sects a Se igiemeeretcn 2 Sa Coe eer ek 1 pa Bs er i crs ee ae ee en cnn eee a alee a meng =e Se ee ciel ne en a ay ae rf to near eee eee nme naaos cca nenover THN 8.3, GEOMETRICAL ASPECTS Ditlorant typo of goxythtin av deseibed in Section 82. Tho choice of patislar ‘ype sind constriction depand on the propatisrequted. Other aspect tobe considered Torbhouclstion are: old twundary sortie autathodsofexseation Width and length, thieknees, mas per tnt ara, ae the svaileblepreabrcation techniques all pay ola inthe definite cheewofgoogythotce and eostrution Zanton, 1880). “inprncil tho longthef gesyttie ix iit tt nliited by Ho tranoport {ove valved and the eace of banding on ste. Depending oh the mass per unit aren the long varies ron 0 to 200m Hor wevens a nonewovens the wit 80 55, {Thickness of goto isdafined se the distansebetmeon the Upper an lor sie of the material mensured under a patted pressure. The tickrase of most goteti es Setween 02 to 10 mm Tho thickness of 9 yuemorsbrane ie af more importanss hon {estetl forth lang earone Canten 1685): ()tenaureulicintimpormenbity {Ptiguide en gasce Gta enn thatthe geomemBrano ca adoquataly reat mechani force, expel inthe contrtion phar, (ito ensue relitletechniguas fr welling thomumbrane sheets ogee) to sllow tk posatsty of embocsng the oomembrane, tnnrey the tion betwen ivnrane ad ground en which its applied is inerased ‘Vaviathoninthisknessofgeomemiranan my have otromeefacteonstressattsinslaton- ‘hips Ineveae in hiskowse atts inthe membrane alto ond ioeoreontrationef tension, Tnotowwe in mersbrane hikes na of conor in oinfoeed membranes. Tn general the mas por unitare of ex-ovans and wovens ref he range 100 to 1000 eft and 100 2000 ga? respectively. Lighter gradi ho vangoof 10D to 200g are moat commonly used "Theres adiforonca is length hbwen staightoned yarns and tho yarnsin the wavy fon inthe fare, ‘Thi fren in long ie refereed to vip, a pavametor which is gnifleant lor the struste ofthe arc and ale fr the poeshape an sits, Crimpalests the meshanioal propetis of tho abi. 833, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ; Tithe ganocalsonso mechanical propativs a the load formation chaeetristce ot gecayntheticsIntarntho iachaniealpropertns a geosythotce depend on the mecha {al property of the fbr mates, Gre stractro he yarn struetureand the stk of the geouythetin The lective penformaner af oxyntic in evil ongneerng apie tions in general and ne atl snforsemunti patealar depends excusioly 0 the tensile stvassein characteris of th ao-geoeynelica norte fetion boas. In ad tion ta tenala teste in whioh tho geoyetbotc iy subjeted ola anor dieplaeoment feote have tab conden wish thea Ls pple perpendicular othe grosyatetee [veces in nay postin cin The evant properties tu burs andpuneture iret, Forexample, tet nuld oorur dua toa ga origi pressure ating on a meminane, The Interface fiction, fatigue seins, crop resistance, terstrongth, abrasion reitans> ‘and roam sirength ate the ether impostent rocanicalpropartis, For details of et ‘procedures rofeones shay be mato Zante (989) A yeforonce may alto He made ceases » ‘Chustopher (180) for neceseary tat standard to determine s partcaaepropenty of a {earynthctien, Fo eayrearence the geotoxtlepropetie and tating mathods seein (Christophe, 1966) roronted in Table 81, Role of propention and shavasesstio ax nolated to function of gusyathates be ‘tetrad in Fig 86 (Got end Prt, 1062). Ee] = ee) Gee Fig 86. et ropa eat a fain fer Catan Pree, ‘Table 8.1. Geosynthetics Proportios and Testing Methods Tor Geosynetles Selecta (for Christopher, 108, Pree Fava ‘irom maatinctares) ‘ype Oatsion Ma Elbe xa woe Margo FUNG) idee ‘Asti(popood EAA Nana) ai etn iieomes NAN ala Nee Hai Wee ieaoe al oor Nene Spec ry Density no cp Pua Manel Sean Coren xn Geter Na able Cota)210 ‘oem movavi reins | rates / : _ : fat | — Tar Tricia Soraya TT ran cae peraeltoler | tiem Saniora tee cote a eee ea presen sso smwacseme || fimtectortamertniny Sombie Sapna amg ‘Stes ha eee eee ee ee | tentnnccrene poate ee eee tao hen sos Jpnieerras neers secant =e ‘ EE ecco crn hart Spratt 7 ee eas Sienna Senin | omte Seujeseeuomas tae 23ers fet meumewen’ Ef Rilienucauoc enon fom watson iL Smut an arbor Seto oo en: sie (@)Seom Stent ‘epundingen werent it ovate somupsam | lomo ee (Bae Seng er cnt Rastnce {oPenatenton Resin (Gy Pai Cong Haan oP aes) Rdusonoe Properties 2) Aeon Renae (nas Resin sey (chamial and Bil Raeitace ay Wot ct Dey Sa eerie Sa yeme fe Opening Chareceitice {Agent Opening 01403) (Pare Gore ttn) (3) Parse Open Aes BORD apart 0 Man Baa ASD 3705 el. LION, Seo Moles ASTALI 4889 Neveenaré Dinas thy) ‘Moe ASTALD 188 ton Asie 28 1, epi PHWA ena S78, Matec pomp ‘evga aprile Pr een Fd. 82. "5v Wat onc somo 2080 Nesandard AST DATS HWA Manu ‘Yn 08 er 035045 9 Oe 2 IIA Manual Nestanderd able Coed) | Si etna ition Propet Behe HWA Mana 153.4, IYDRAULIC PROPERTIES Gconynthtios ar sed as erin bank protection work, downstream clus aed In ted protection works along eal Im three eilsations theft le id divectly on the ubsaitand guarantee th ell tghtnars of the atrcte. Further, to avoid unnscesaty ‘uildingupofexcens pre water possutes unde the protection th gepeythotes mie ol beautician wator permeable. Geoeynthetize used in onl constuction ary tall the sutsteuctur orava layer sspsratngte substrutre fom Uh tail Geanythatice srealzo ud inland drainage, in thie reps proving waa perma layer or a water Arsinage, In ll Chace folds geosythotiee must eatlafy certain reqnements for water Permeability and el ighiness. Thus toeatiy tho filtration and disoaga gules, fsongnthtis need to el twa fnportantcntons, sy (a Teshuld provide adequate hydralis constvy Tallow th fies Mow wale ot tthe murcanding lite the dein i) We sexta peovont pari movement the prea link he drainage mea ‘Thaeaconitone signify thal te gooey ant havea eed apeng eee eel om light fai structure The hyde prope of genptca ae coivled ty aie ‘pening chavactaitc,)wtor perma, and il clogging tans,a vowno rover TCHS ‘Fatale opening shnacerte include apparent openings, openingsizedieteibus sion, pnd apa ate, an oro. Tho bility of fabric canduct fis dependent. an arr charcorsties tthe antec. In orer tastes the pformance of aan eeeararry ther haltbs tse in combination withmnssned ermestty Fae aparing len (AOS) aang of the ana festive peningin | va peies The pote sa sotetbtin of fabri dtsrined by entanng te AOS Sate fonmverl fer be sin The pereantopan area i defined a Che rai of techie uel op atenn in given falc specimwon to the total ros of the fabric ce Ponty elt oho aii of water ol throug he bi ar defied whe nti volume of vids to total vom Tn genera prnesbiity egrets mst be usally gest than at ottno eked ac. Hig arc arms alenfer that patil Sagging ntreace aie iy, Derbyan stems av tho Lwoparsmatrs WA zprm es ene. Trnava guapins defined a tho volumetric Tinta Inmet or sorts, nthe plac ection of the fabric ‘clogging tine atte mevenent ky mechanical action or ye Now of si patio tn an faa retnton tern, Ur study sat and wyersing aaa pom fale cogsing or blinding ones a decease in var Dow rte snd roe eine neean n han hed Tose tong tho genset, The mechanisms sar arenas ot fl nereoed et, Th pextinnt tet deta aoe ic ropes ae given datilhy Reo al (1980) and Zant 1966) 845, DURABILITY ion tothe pyicomechanisl propertis the cemesl nature fe olen shone teh the gronynhetcs I mantra aloof great inpertanco principally A ich abe desired darability. Plymers have significant eharacteriatiy al Shatin nconso to tho atin of «grt uber of cermin a Oh tee naa lfc: Bvidotly this fan aed advantage compared to convention cree tasiamnatarals Nonetholos cach platihss amber of woah maton tho dengn ana apeaten Tabb 62 ilstraten the reset of vaviu® racers (anton, 1680). Many a he eynthee pega aro eemitve to ovidalon, rant ion ike machaneal popes such av stengt,sestiity ond ata ares or caparitydatcnrte and tho geoeythsti ultimately becomes brie and ae i ediives re avallable fo counteract thes pocese, Polymers wed it creda gonmemiwane differ conidaabl inthirintinioresistanceto ordain Freep metho cae to vali tho chemical tity of geeaynttin, "hn mator of ac i is vory iil fo predict darby through det testing oar re este to ans rai hough nde tating which lps wo ore eae ion ofthe prods, Abrasion rsitance and Ula Vielot (TV) rate tue ators which fle tho durability of goons. _Abeaslon Resitne. Gentoo my bt sy bo itd sain in ay wae vac snarl tin aed yin pes ore {inet ogi in urea bos nwave sonora rent ine tis o ln eget cnrin aie roneanent spats ana age ‘hl yoo nl my tn nar do ett ‘available to evaluate the degree of abrasion. ee ‘Table 62. "The Resistance of Various Geotextion Sanaa oa mae ee a | ey = Sarin elaleleye lays te lee | gome FE PST Eley afeyay eral s gt a |hLrLr,rrC—s—Ss LUV Light (ctabitizod) | se | + | oe es Ty ade eect tele |e |. occ Slee allele Cs aerate enerunna ssiscmand ompaetions (1? Pee THC Amenmentl thee Depa rps fete at igh olae homie len Vslt Resta. n or mine UV deat sinnine UY deri, ron in espns ee oa Ding hp naar west ach ‘ted leo UY saan ne del ese WY yesann Howrey ten ma met cin sts i md ol wl no Monn hg slrog ae nisin Troe tr oer ote {BOY resi ot uganda Lat eae cari he OV ‘lative imptancet he ppt tae tin pope of ont on ion te of structure is presented in Fig, 8.7 (Gieot nnd Perfetti, 1982), “Feet rapclad macy tale an “ho tpernce roars non 8 Par ewe et 08 ‘3.4, APPLICATIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS ‘na bon dzcusedsortor tho fra asl uation of a gaoayettin bis, sop on en rlnremen, rain andcontainment arbre. Theos bare on te tran venous ald appeatins whieh are subeaquenty prevent {anion nas th lative nortan ofthe se yet fovetons various ai ke apliztionsa gayle in tna for varouciengiesrng ors Pree owed bp Vesrareghavan (987) and Hen ad Ras (1990) 8.41, SEPARATION Trprneplangonynthotcs, whonusod a acoparatr, moet proventthainermising at pence he tn il ners mith ifeont proper. The prevent contention aoe ai th ntoaed baa of granular ai layer, The fl aptction of daa eaccpmrlaecomcny adopted ae: onpnved oda, paved road, aes [pa proostion of geemanibranes ‘One Ronda, Ure of osynthstis fo unpaved roads are well Shown in ig, 8.19 anton, 1988). "The shoatingeeitanccbetineentheeinorelngmatandeubellinitsthemsaximer ve teshoeee eters cine reper ooo $ pee ee veanaueatnir tg eme aah sige etasmaecpatesen este strain. 'The geosynthotcs set should not lak rfl boncath tho omban iment alter ‘onstruction Th flloving construstionsequonca ie rcommmned indent eed such pce ohn, 1987, Fi A2D): (a) Pac tho geraynetier,@) Pato il athe embark ‘ment edge) ald over the geooyethetie ends, (f) Place mora ill at tho emboanent ‘edge, () Pine ill in the antral region, () alae Uh height af the ernbarkment ad {@) Completoembankmontoonstraction ig. 820, Recomm embanhnent cote rm enqunc Arb, 680, Steep-facod Embankments, On rostrlted ote tan be advantageous to einforeo ‘the face ofthe embankments, Tis helps oreo th aonafland requires steve ofl. The pessnon of einfrcomont a the faethe emtankent silo the es of concentration sae facdembankmonts ta ntsecommended ‘over soft dapat. Ganorally cosinor ll itn tn eniskmnont ie faved Br the ‘essa of high sl to ranforcemant sae ition, nance of pare Wale pesaures Aha ‘eae of compaction. In cao ef non-availability of ebesiorlse fil govt grids may be ‘emleyed th obesivo or partly cobsive sil, natho alt renfecomant nd fora ‘os not rol oely upon the surfonfistion In uch caso the constr clion thou bod ‘and odeguate drainage provisions should be mde In onder to gt th best perfermanc of ssinforoed embankment slopes, careful ‘ght must bo given tthe maa nis Wihout tho ado fing, etic cmb ‘ment ean pot bo contracted. The mast widely sed nathod of resting fice mnt i the wrap-around method (Py, 823). OthorTcing ayutam inn ae sandbog facing ‘Support system end Textomes fing wyatt, ig 21, Wraparound ang ted fom J 2967, Refsforced Soll Walls Reinfrcd en setaining walls made Uo tensile reinore- {ng slemmnts infil thal is normally largely coesionlae. Under faournble soitions, | Sanifianteconorie advantage can bo derived. The vantages aimed iy thi technique. ‘noxno inaovenont eS sro eibity ofthe reinforced ol mage and largo bace width af etructarn, he hres ae ac regfered aall wal are: G) Ph acing, i Me eenfreemet, and (Gi) ho select HO 82), Vig 22. Ralafreent sc walemonent, the facing nite axe usualy intssoekng concrete panel, Jains provide in the A east all om the sal reinforcement rede th bending Fea eet reinared concrete cantilever wal. As the bending eo eevee lage raving inconerste which ineenees with ight Further the Fart efi gener tnlarano to ferential cota, Bay faery ub Spits roi plete and shsene of or temporary works can als be antngrous saan toc ait: Hemnfrced nl al dona 9 cee il Beaune eis upon oan the sale il and ne eifreament The cost of ll obiowey depend on Friction oo thor the wal x ahows or baw the exating ground srfice, Por i era seinfrcel wells wach ta ahort-ore wall, tong-orm walls a beret ‘Min retevonce maybe medo to John 1987) fd, CONTAINMENES AND BARRIERS ‘he nique type of gposythotics Is pomembranes Gootembranes or sl oe ine aa ner. The term ini applied when the poremrane endear mits a ures ovement. When the gromembrane is sae ine an enti na ite trmed a brvie® ‘Cenmambranes are etployed in a wie range of iil enginering works, sch #8 potabin wnt teers dtibtin eal menial and haredove sli wale ran liqd ware mmpourdimont cua wal, dam fasing hateleruro lan nee eae eae apeanta, wherein the primary fiction conte of migration of isis Hee rebel 189), Common types polymers wish are ured in the manactre Sr anes i lated jn Tablo 83. Use of gromerbrane i various engneeing ‘pplication and given in Table 84 | storingan unidentifiable or unknown variety . rire ape i ee Potvin herd PVC} ca alow diy pppoe GAPE) scent ‘used in the esnal lining systems (Shobha, 1990). ee ee {ter Goud anc Bre, 1289) relonic Fear ayia os QO OH Renan FE PVEOR oar piace Nile P80 TIVO © i se "tigi Ieper Aly eoetineThrmeewin [Paine LPR. LO LD NOPE FDPE "ye nwa lo mts ana day) ipa Fagin ley (8BPEA) Pay poe Featine ni. GhbPeA Payee Boned rincnptnioBiatonen — [oni or. on nate Payee (CF Cana (HED chet agri Ca, Ma pains Thermapioti tle Popyina Dane Nea piers skye aber mie Fess Denne DUN yen Se vn namne a Neonat tinrecn tor COD Tie ene gamer eras a i 7 Saoecamaniines Soar eee ines at ar tit warn of wae ne escenario Dipak baie cata | ant es snare fr ha prmaran rn fai tht b> West adanay sven. Ese wasn cold be onc oa ntl hd Sel woe amet deep sen fe ie ttn ee Sn pa the tain me’ he fw fs on ana etna) mam ew erm nn ac ey pi ein of JCursinwatsGnpemestn | Gantt ar edn nro tech cost tare) i terco ONE TEENS ‘Yabte 86, Typo of Waste Stored i Lamas "ated fom Renter 1965) eat Mia ast dmersie en ling natn Taser asso sae erwsae seat Dangeoe Rasen Sat Mo dngoe “Three baas typo of wasn ol, “pots Domeeti—Typieal howe hd rafuse ana gneva eid mater. Gi oti edtrial Parmanee rows, metals, wood, aes, id Chemist Oi sludge, powder compound trpraduets organi end inorewnic Chem om te lanilp which are to be etored using gomerbrones, Inenlee delay Knorr wire wed fri optanmants Breauoe of sean dansk tle ee eT ecmemibeone forall continnent deen nid: White tr fel Tine etal adeqnao cae aa to bo taken fe lechots Although someot the aes bl roan rio atv, mostf Gham ae hates, Type of ass, Janae sete with ranking danger and qannby of waste stored in Table ae “Geamermheanes a8 on apermeable bier has bron in waa i varios grote cnc nana cme act ft wale Ganerly ih Fon i laced btweon ths goomerbrene andes tones, mdr ad Fi ee iar prevosion of Un eomorabanes. The eestion of grnerrancs rer pustd onthe allowing eerie hob, 198) (i) Withstand sffien eetilerent CG) Chemical resistant 0 tho ailing tere contained Gi Stifaetorypefrmance at waroustexoperatares (G0) Good quality of een ab lw temperate (6) Cont eompottivn \Geomernbronen ae bon used neutfftenchosindvideayornconguntion wit thor Suttle depending on ndivdual project aed gelbgel detail. ‘Ponta apes of geememisne, ean be summers ew under ante, 2086) (e) Sealing aginst fai percolation = coast fiom the x88) = sver banks a chipping canals nnd locks (4 seepgo-reducing slope or screen) — vores nator storage oss reetinal parpne contin wer fertresighng a “ — trenches low the grounder val for damping stn for senatrtona porposes, tren nding = iergaion canna = stax woireand dams = roa ection below the rounder level vats, tunnels ety). "atin he mc oa tn ae etn swotermdthecareuntingeantteaure toawatar enoporUeuphtx menten ‘reduced to 8 minimum (ine). SS (As butters ngninst pollutant ener temporary fragt sora rita domes a aig tet hae cycom nna raed ok weston aint pai = tepanrr ‘asia un emerge with, sal, aes tks rods nae eed fr nrcon gine dete thence pt ations, aking won Tr thon neon the fncion af th enmerran int rent ro between to nuda and to prevent ny mixing of thee mad : .Cuarrer 9 Miscellaneous Methods 9.1. INTRODUCTION Some af the round inprovemnont sage which ar thor woe Inspect kt conditions ov te aitons aro dtcuesed inthis Chapter. “Among them te eonerpt fell viformnt a ried the gonoelinfarost and imogination of vil engineering prfeasin. Ta come areas of development the use of ‘lnforenmen bas boon dramatic and eleewhore use ae been modest. ‘Tho another metho conse is ground improvement by thermal stabiiaton The priniplos of total fete on ait ave bon well ocognisod. fn prince both hating nd colingean bocmployed fer stbliation But boone ofeconomy the eoingoatheds Ihave Become vary popu dursgecont yess ‘Som of tho simple maths kerry tenes, itz bat, pre-wettingamd ‘old linzare dionane,Inpovingrock tai and qualify fr foundationprposes hare ‘soon dealt inte Chaptor Finally a sunny of the available ground Saprovoment teshniques and their applcality fo the type fal te ype of arantures are prevented 9.2, SOIL REINFORCEMENT ‘esi princples of ail reinforcement are aleedy existing in nature and are emnonstnted by dp an plant, The aloe bai for the modern cong of ‘ni einforeemen cs in the ialintion ofthe problem of il winforsment in the form ‘fa woaksoilvialeoed ty hgh-trengh thin horizontal membranes (Westrgaand 1999), "Themodern frmefsallrenvoroment wastes pple ly Vida (1969), Based onthoWVidnts {oncopl the interaction bayean the ell and tho einfrcingharizanal members soar by {ction onerate ky genvty. Applying hiseneep, retaining walls ware bu in France in 1088, Nowadays this tesniqh evidly used in Burope ani USA. This technique [ol to boscme popula in Tn andthe constenining aloe bang done a the non vmlabilty and esto rinfrsing materials. Reinforce sit iseomewhat analogous totoinfneed eonerts, Bub dee comparican ‘etiseon the fanetions of enforcementin the two ence et valid Th mode of ection of Tinforsment in sll nat. ane of carrying developed tani atreane a in Peinfreed ‘onerote but of aninttopieredution of rermal tea ato Jone, 1985). 20 ‘Tho cupporting capeclty of et, gompreesble ground may be increased and the ‘etlemont mny be reduced through uto of tensile reibremont in pines normal tothe ‘hection of applied stress of compression vehforenmiant in Usa dieaion paral tothe ‘pple stan Tensile eifbrosent wed sil wenfreomont are wor iran Which ‘iediscuneed subsequently. Cormonly ed compression rinfereroentclrents includ ‘slums and wll formed init orng gravel, sad soi-oment nc Fineor edison In recent yearethecreticn developments aszeinted with reine al havo bon ‘extensive, Howover, ad completo uerstandingotevery aspect and woof the sbjet has rotyet boon fll dovaapod. Nonetoassan understanding a fenesenontal pings ‘en etabiehed by th erly davlopar and uaa and these havo eam sen contd ot Frthor expanded: For detail of theories, analyte and design of wll enforcement the roadoe may efor to Janos (36), Ths typo of materials and la applications porta to ground improvement aredaeorsed aubonquntl. Rigid procedures desig shoal be ‘vod and edoqunte enginoering Sedgmnont Ia needed when using earth reinforcing techniques 9.4. MATERIALS "There aro threo base matoval or matailcompacitos required inthe constrution any reinforced el trace They are solo mate (00 reinccmenh or atcha pete i tsi tee, (Other materials which ae vquired, in adtin t the aha, to caver anacated ments uch as faudaton,drsinage cunesting elements an enpp numa nd et barriers and fensing.Thee'aed tobe av_equats ntorrlatonship betwen the mato ‘toed: Based om doighcoaldoraione and eval, the nlera an sled. [SelM The shoarpropetig fal can bs improved ws theort cll any oil eould ‘bw uod to form sett reinforced steasre In long term sonontinalstrustares the ex sedi ually worded eoheionlae il oa god hosive ion although pa hesive ala have been uted with suscrs The advantages of cohsinls fll me hat thay are stable, fee draining, na avecplible to Best and rolatively woneoresive to teinfersing elements The any diradvantage iit cot. In ease of enhsive toile the main ‘vantage ls avallabiity but thee may be lager dural prblns tage with Aitotion ofthe strvctar, Asa convenient ompromiaebetween tha tachnsal bonefits rom aheronlse fila ‘hoseonomis bait frmeohesive il cohesiv-iedona llmayhe preferred. Sorctimes| he sao of waste materiale ar fil for reinforced snl atrctures i atzectiv fora a8 nvironmontalaswollas economic view poi. Mino Wests andpulvorzed fel ash ao tho ‘waster ually employes -Retnaroetsent. A varity of materia incting ats, comet, gan, ine, wood, rubber aluminium and thormoplstes eno ured asreinfrcngmatnalReiforeoments2 cnc INeRONREENT TEHNOUS may take Ue fran of strips, eid, anchors and sheot mstvsl, chain, planks, rope, ‘epetotion and combinations of thee or other material forms ‘tsi ate eibe ner elements having thse brood greater han thei thickness Stripe are formed fom aluminiam, copper, polymers aad ines fibre eifored pati {GRD} and barboos The or ef tanlse ganic or coed steel tsps ae thor pain eavth peojtions such orbs to neene he Briton bat oun the reinfreersent and the Si Silas asteip, plana formed ron timber winced coneretaorprstzeaedcocrata can bee (Grids ane eves oro also uae einforcmont. Gris reformed fom ste in ‘he form of plait o gabe welded o fom expasted metal. Gide formed using ‘elvinura are tetourd tow ogi xpiinetin Caper an ane normaly nth form ‘Stan expanded propeatry plastic pret. ‘het rinforcementmayb forms hms metal uchae galeaninostee shew, abc (toute) or oepanded metal ot mating Uo eitaria fra gi ‘loxbl linear slomonts ving on a moro pronounced prtresons a distortions which net ae abutment anchor in he illo si. Thay maybe made fom maton ke (Rhu sopos pln aie) or combinations of materials such x3 webbing td Eyes tool {and (ren oF teal an const. (Composite rinforcemants can by formed by combining differnt materials and mates orm ewh os shoete bd stip, pie and tip ar tip and anchor, doponing ‘On tho fie poblam reqitemont "Tho principal requirements of snfrsing materials are erungth, the lability Gow tendancy to eons), durability, enes of baling, high eofelant of fietion, elon Itokerenc with Ue ei ogether with low cst and ready availability 922, APPLICATIONS ‘Apication aren tho uso of east reinforcements ord vory many. dones 1085) ‘antes tera nil einfbresment ld applications, i, rigs works, dame, embank- tronts, foundation, highways, Paso Industry ltr, railway, oetpileayteme, pp Tore waterway stvstare, apd ufergrouba structure. The applications lava to [Found improvement ay ilstnted in Fig 8.1 Janes, 988), For ho ilastratins shown rpg. onthe trite Tabloftcold be ued aol oinfarements antes vantage ‘ani inition ae van i Tele 8.1 "Tho applications tea hy Jonos (1085) oul not be taken a being the only tte or tetional solution to ny problem Inptsezn, applications and echnigees a ‘Stents comtinet end the inesuction of mow anetsueton mattsialsenabl other spin {non to be eamsoved. Ax x nate of fac, sh vavety and wie range of tho areas of ‘plication for hess tdhniqus ie unimite, santero coggpanyen wom epee aon san ences (ehannoancesennin ngrece noe senses i 9. Apion tw einen pets improvement hea fede 06) Bi2 cron enowsber rN ‘Table $.1.Soms Apptention of Soll Reinfooment in Ground Improvement (Cope fom sae, TE) “ttn Hewat 1 Goptiwaberatena onde | Gopiinnfisineat ‘Soe aanmente on ‘ei Bt Roamans in en con Spy sonata faogond tet Used a plas noe fone Oh 820 paivinicoaene rane komen hea 3, Reif Bath slab onr| Suiporer genres veil i 80) [ane ete 4. Reino bat beneath inc edt oie rare 916 sy al ite ste * Setrnesorcas’ [eau SSS ee od test Scat. (943, COLUMNS FORMED INSITU Coline formadotgeavel ean, cement ine of adiiteshaveteen farmed in-wook lations ich ac so sompessioneinfroamant and neon th Destin supa and seduce selement ‘Stone Golumns. A dead decrpion of he attraction of tne clan and “othr fetus eve dncwred in Saton 52.4 of Chapa 6 Stone coun hve 0 fein iw wal ming ry Ganfn norm pple foundation stent son ohn bese [atener site lane tothe mae co rund eset th ly aor ontiveton th ordain lou ir distbate sperms equally beteen tho one ‘Slunnsendthenatie nd Atarsonolidatonaftholgromdandthercemponying tron veitution, thecounne ony ery Both lod Pista nnd anaes has {elena that ho ferzontlaheaespacy ftonecautra sould bo more then ent {oritnand th shear eens iced Uno nami nding condtins. An spinon sfetone oun heated in Fig 22, Inthin ene an banknant wea roped on 8 Tneton uri nna say sit eh pone stat prob Th eaaton thie prblom wa ebsinedty osingthoebakent pail ov eine ah wal Seppe on lone clans (Mores 308 Max, 197. ‘Sma Coline Sand Colman a Sn Comprctin ple re cue in Seton 5.8 in Chopin The equiedrltiv arity ct bonne by varying the spcing fd Uh sis ofthe competion pes. Por madarate dope wp to:18 mts method Sonoma ‘Soper ae Solt-comuent ov Sotllime Cotnmms. Several precedures are avilable for the ‘onstrytion of sikcoment or silime esamn or ple A spacial Hallo rod with coating ‘Vanes i auger ino the ground tothe deated depth an th alabing wdmatre “mltanaotsy introduced By this proceepllesupt2 600 an dlamatersan beconeteucted Cement, the order of 2 105 ofthe dey 2 weigh, ie best for wo in sary eile {In tose materials compresive lengths mae than 10 MN can be achieved. Limo is slfectveinbathexpanaiveplastiecays and insuturateclay, Inthe malls compres. ‘sive strengths of tho order of Ito 2 Nin can bo obtained. Alhoagh installation ix Comparable to thors fr intallaton of sand columos, If erlapping elie are ot ‘rusted, then a saiteamont or rile wall wil esl, Brome nd Bean (1079) have ‘ued aii clara boneath ight etractare al read embortasends to reduc eae ‘mont eecllny thom consolidation of thick dopoits feo glciatlaye, Unelak or quick Jim wae mixed with ely und ener up fo 10 m long an BD em In dametor Ware onstvucted. It hes boon zeported that ine elay mixture has substantially narod the ‘rength ofthe natural lay and the elamnetrarsforred surface londetodeapr, rose? "teata, Brown and Bowmas (1570) study has revealed hat the ineronm in eer strona ‘atin sof argani ays and alt water-lpovted elays the atrangt nea vs os ‘Thocoiblimocolumnshavo bon widely ued fr varied aplication ul, to decrease the negative akin Fstion on ples, to prevent the Intra digplasamentof sll around pls foundations fem exe, to astenne te stall of lay elope, to reduce eller earth pressure on reluining structures ae a replacement fr shet piles in oop excavations 10 proven bottom hove Gun, 1988) Deep Chemical Mixiny Method. This method has ben nee inJapansines 1078 for toating wry sof soubed alas) soils fr apport of wna font taining tte (BNR, 1989). In this metho a plant, operating fom a barape,prodacens shy coniting ‘contentions! portland exment, » sldliying material and seawater. The chemeal26 noon amoweee Tceous povsalithataialcontainingiginandan stantrinedwatersedusingadmnanr, whi ‘need ieit with th ft cobod ol Tnordertoiitatethooprstion, eight 25m danster 60 mlongeattenrsinerésd into a tablet by rotating encoenting Blades mounted near thee punted tps, Tho ‘ies crane at erat ofc nase ies to hast oil rough 20 mm Fee Tm ncheege slr well blended with hetollby thebades athe en a esa enton i yrduad, osling na rigltetod stratom afi 28 days of aan nee hats ave loey spaced and postions in two rows of fur each tho set peebi fae napprosimatly inte shape a blowvithadeasate rigidity toupport Conetraston. 9.3, THERMAL METHODS Hoosing a eoling all ean enue ved chang ints propertie. The principles ttompocnbot afocts ele have bean stdied extonivly and have become fiiy well Seknezech Although thermal stabiation appenre tobe very effective, thes soverl {Akstont desta feabren hich have totaly lnited ie we. The cot is Fae nee ot of hontng ov colng to fie talon sno way eompotitire ‘ith the cost of ter techniques. (99.4. STABILAZATION HY HEATING ‘hn general, the higher th hea input par mas of zl beng treated the great: the “fears nal inerees in emparatoremay ene strength nereare in fnexereined ce ee ny thr sles replazan betwon: the parila low of pre water dus to TRUE Sadho end ereducn in moatur content brease of ocrosnd evaporation Se Mase ie Lshovaly feasible t stabi finegrined rile by hantng, The ffs of se ee ampeatte and te socresponding posible cage in ol propertion aro tho Blowing ‘Temperatures ~109°C—Cawe ary and sighiant ineteara inthe strong of aye, long wth doer thot compeessbilty. ‘Temporatures-S00°C—Consopetinanentchangesin thastrutureofelayaresuting sn decane plot abd oituro adsorption expos "Temperatures ~ 1000%0--Caose fusion ofthe cay patil nto «void substance sch ik eke Toissepartad that heat hes changed an expansive clayinto an essentially nemexpan sive metoral Baring of lui gus fl Is booholes or injeton of hot air into 0 Sigg" lamar traits ean poduoe 3 to 26 m tameta stabiiond zones after 1 ds trcatmen about 10 dap, Sova ongineors have used this lectins exe sasoated Lowi wlls Thi tchniquo was four ob in foes el T shoul bento thatthe inetion of Haaren ert athecnl to noneatorsted soll Beles and Staneleecs (968) havo sek TRS tatlizton to Increase the strength ara to dosreae the compresabilky of open aol" technique can be favourably used only when a ste i Toeted near» Itty and inexpsive heat eure ‘sonmmiealth a Po 9.38, STARILIZATION BY COOLING detain ata nin) na Say irene ntti pion -prudagin gma kein anh ama ower ee the mp ‘Sel adn Pring pe wer me he a iv nto hema aon Gn sighs ed pay ang ater inal forest erelr0"C withthe inition esr, he seiltrength sawn dono tray me is on test item Fee fn do fri hn on es ‘Gm rie bari soap fw ol rnin whe Seidel gin tno spe querer antes agers or Saad arireaetityea eee ities ignareninemenoraetag es ‘Pula atin Senet eto ot ‘onfsernapee cranes sgt dere ae et seagrass tera ape eer SE Taal goes maureen Pig. 03, Alemaline gurantee fn ar 198 hm ei lain sinl one matt conten, sulin ranted andthe id elrigeant ie njoed dalled Si reeks ephemera smcpe noe pacer THOUS conssnotion by i proses ic vary high Hower, fr @ ml ret shrt duration {fos ts teeige gue wat econ eh i mash re poplar oo which ese primary plana @ ‘pnpatinj cranny cteltingesean einai wellltedtasingletatallatons ian loans nena prove maitonaneweingve an eit in ‘Hepat sore ef tho etgoretion nous ores ammonia foe organ aT lant eration yt ons of acoso reply mano omecte {Gamantarotfaral-onnecta esa pips pled inthegrnneend tou rwurn maria tr typeay 00 200 with sealed oer es Pes roel let cape Coed tithe rat crian fo ERS Sater otal chloro un sar with 10 9 25 aud ort, although ‘icf propa an beolontor mires hate oben he Monto thedesgn frou fvringeetsinsedansepirallyan the basin proton Gonaiysovral weak re eq fora reel renga bw alee JS ubs vented fr cpl rwsing Sepa onthe ype fcclnt wn the epee ture acon, sof ren pip and the pacing been pies “The following coments a euggestion ake rnd resin ite wal or an-lfetive implinenaton ef the fooengtaniqes Kocrne, 1986) {O Theayatemseoconcply elativaysplenndtaight forward are guite sumberwore te dopa inthe fl {io Oncete oro alla fred thooneray reer foritsantenans bcs Srstant end npienny lowe hana roid toprodueisin the rt place Sans nt cls te (yl aay aie) en bo orn a5 longs the roundwaterin hows ls laiely stony. {Won theo too trested pty stunted, oevendy, itonnbeprenetd beta nd netted apni during esi (©) Drling for insrton af ieee pips into te ei mast ba acavat because oven light dvielin wil leare an eroxen wind oa by the iste excavation ams et Shp ncetos have bes ed fo manor putpose. ry to check the ground tomperntare Before excavation by ing ced midway nto ree pipe. (049'Phe lozon oneh will generally be quite eregular in shape reteting the ‘etrogonous mare ofthe el bg vith {uit Wail the razon walls indeed tang itis cresp-aeeiive understand ate tng (2 Satanied sil expand dig oesing al conitste daring having Thiam Telimpartont in ryinning apatite 1s) eompetant epi contro shold porto the woe Ihe situation it Crea fe na pao fr mates | 94, OTHER SIMPLE METHODS ‘There are afferent simp methods of ain ieprvement whieh are in practice ‘ndoped ner varod field conition. Sus atid ste ven in he flowing seston. 94.1, SLURRY TRENCH Toner toformadeop impervious mambransinaporviousfrmatinsatrneh filed ‘vith amintureotsane grave nd anmiuid platiceeyfemed. Th rene made sing ‘2aragline cache bucket orrtary pel, Tho width of neh may ey rom 14 ‘Aviscous miata of highy peste cay and water,tormodslury, filled eles toeuppart the excavation wal. he sry is eal mace fom commercial tole ilar to liggmaid used inal walsh permanent membranokeormed by anixtar of thocame shury with sand and gravel tt dlplees tho lighter slurry term avoue-bourd structure ‘The caren gained parse contact ane anata to frm a tearont ‘membrane deper than 60m have bon constricted bythe procees (Savers, 187), 9.42. MOISTURE BARRIERS Bxpaneivo clays such as blacksstonacis and pat satursted ligilyemantedoile such a lass cen provide exelent foundation support fr Fgh seoctures provided thay fro maintained rlatvay day Than cial zones ner Foundations abo be protested {hom water This a accompliched by providing mature bast whith hoop avay Wator ‘fering theeitial zoos. Membranoe ouch as paljetstoneshostng nad phate onto inbrce ave effete far rpors. Sand or grevel blankets end trees may’ leo be ‘etlectivs moisture beer, proved they ean be mainte alow dagen afentaration, Unwaturated coaree Tigers which have low hyinls conductivity alesively prevent sn Water ranafracrove Ho layer 9.44, PREWEPTING ‘One technique fr atablizaton of expansive ule that ean Ue ftv undor Tight truturen ch a residential hse to Mod the ata prior ta sonattion. Asin nara expansive soils extenrive netsrri of estes sl rack prety, ponding presse Ie aly facilitated, Boon of prowating th water sortant wil bs eesr to be atsined sor eonatrustion, lance valimchanges willbe smalleubeequently Tlsthe wal prctioe to treat the susfoce with layer of line to dapth of 09 to 0 m aon ponding treatment provides a ving platform for construston uu an impemeable moisture Ingroe to voter subsequent desscatin ofthe preweted so 844, VOID FILLING ‘oid fling’ simple technique which could he applied fr granatar sil, I ohosionface walls the filing of oid teders the peementlity and sedacen the water [pnotration resulting inthe maintenance oz strength A ascy of aerials ae ud for wid filling, viz, portend cement, soluble eiloeto gel, oxganio monomer polymere. ino grainod mateialewschae ily ‘ned wi filing Seligmotevats with fine patie can lodge i the voids and later expand tol ce wes, [Emlofied aephaoratox nn etieated tht theemblsion beak tho sol widen {eles an impervious mas st ofthese metas ar plasod by injstion. 9.6, IMPROVING ROCK STABILITY AND QUALITY ‘Foundations onrosk ually aren osoraeal end toublfto soations a lng the root ronsonably shall tlaivly smeeathored aad sound feck condiions are Iscaeflzyluaion hve te made particular teetures imposing hay stall buildings tower chine, power plants, bigs n eoneretedamsare {obs eonatructaan it Type fomsation, kalo oF deop, dopo the reek mation (Ghaliow o deo, thntypeafproporedateuctur, el thereck quay Whereroskinexpoced foresamination the snginesr or gesagt wil hav much or confidence judg ork ‘oly then be wil for th eas of dep fountatone whore examination initherimposible, ‘ot prstcal ov lied in aren, Type erties! probleme one has to face ae 0) es {shun fonds on uneaurd ak, i rsge foundations cpatrcted in cengon wall, and) fSandations for contete, tite or arch dam wth gh seepage presar.In onde to brareome nich problems rok sonditions mut be evaluated earful with respect bth opine end deformation se affested by rock quality, eck eurfce iroglarity and [Goundwator conditions. "The netetery treatments required for unfavourable roskemans [iv lasaaredsabuequontly : (96.1. TREATMENT AND PURPOSE, "Tete ar five main categorie of ectniqus flr treating elemastos unt 1986) ()Beeavation and the removal af ct, woatored, ohh hatred o¢ other Undenvale mntviais to provide fr support om vook of adequate quality, (0 prove far ote slope, to remove portable material frm beneath das 09 Inston ith gout increase oeeteength and improve supprtcharactriton Tbr foutdtions ap luna el to dosrense pemeabity at lt water pres ‘hom, thors educag vepage and improving tho sabi of dam foundations, nee alte andor pround panini. (Gi Ros bela enh chore to reinfnc slopes and undergrount ekeavations ana te improv phi roristance for eanerao dame. Ge) Susfce rostnnte ith shoterta or gunitotereinfrstoove masses femal ork ‘locke to deter oc decompenition in slope, or eifras Ua exposed aurlars In tania nd other underground xeavations (©) Denna torolove clt-waierproenais,incadingeubhorizntal dain, glares fan dap pumped ce geaity wel for slopes simplo drain‘ for dan fourdatons, 95.3, UPLIFT PRESSURE AND SEEPAGE CONTROL, ‘Tn saa dns fundtioncoopag has two major aypecs fst low ani nd recor laos sad second uplift peenures 1 tho depth of fractured foundation rosk ‘halo con te ronoved and cr ech ara cor acho cts wl yt eae tha Frc rok ton dep thn ete emcees oe ee he provided, Inaarth dams the mar concern su porait Incuth dana mae lyin with low and yevet oir fose Uo =tlotrduingulitroarerboneathth de and ‘he, abutments, As completa cuff ie sam achieved with a eck ean ays del to itl rin sf oe Ua ope ae spsyl Bening rena ord neon erro 3 to 10m on entre. nent dunn, ealonge hole mayb dle ete ha leenton wrath inercopted vatacante dachanped balan st 863. ROCK uEINPoRCESTENT Rock Bolts and Cable Anchors. Apart from grout skomace strength ‘oni wih i eters aka wd nce, span exacavation, in tunnels, caverns and nos ai in conerte da eneatin rovide resistance tapi and siding Th later cociions may prevall hee nea frandaton ae inde with strony ers. Thay ato ed to mae high eda or upitor wall daflectin inopen or closed exeaations les spats Sete ets s cnn there econ ite eon ey ed bapa a stein ay noc ‘= nearly perpendicular to jointa ax praaticable, Ondi rroaktekrare ese oe Ci Pig 2 Gang 1972) Teron gprsemnatafocsecclslaseh ake eee Fe 04. tym cteiinny reel pt fem ans 17242 on sown TMS sand wedi, by driving and oxpanding thy snoutng with morte ot resins Blt heat “ro henatteched tether end tog agaist a matal pte to impo thes {oreo onthe masa Fully routed rock tlle, Fig- 85 (Lang 1972) provide more {ots than the enna type. Grouting ws resin eo boeoming popular beesuse of the ‘omy ntalation. ig 86 Ply rtd ob (Aged on Lang 1972. rege li em seine sired Yost meses cotvta ood, Tie eit of emt ith cep sacrament het eeiettcctginan tacit omes te mrs Hea pee ea ae ch terete Wea ie escapee SEE dinvenanioecunesre errant lay ahi niaiertgeate ees ip peasants nrcioncrcmetnees teppei caret Benita testes ie clgnaen iy ene Eocene Coron eninge anor Can ita Hem tntwmmce cree Eo annex benancsnonrmc So ea gy lin oo alec So i ch soot IO SA co ccticemnon tes sock) aa nuscptibi to altak ly moving ator Grt xan are omplajed to prevent ‘rimyededtaorain sfslao mata Gv gh nn on elapse of Stntartakefvering casey groundctor wiht oa feet which een Prevented impeded grosting Many shale ae outed to rept wonnrng upon exons Ts npure to ‘weathering sould tn mime by mang exearatios In slo action. Fa Imoumophis ck (gates and achiss) may bo deterred ds te sont _Boundostr ruling tom eskng soa poe 9.8. GROUND IMPROVEMENT—A SUMMARY. ‘Tho dicsssin ap far made orn Chapter Ito Chapt 9 ogling round mere: ‘monty bron fall undar theo ostyono, i, tev undeseabammatera entra of grouncwatr,stengthaning the geological maforils and reelaimsd matorel. The lective of ground improvemantfoshniqies are to change unfawrle conditions ino ‘hese more sutabl for the suppor of structures in shallow foivntns, ort redoe ‘dayne forces on deep foundations oa redespuvaniont thick equiement oto "ace vibration effects of vibntingyushinaie, ota rede seapngs ons and fo potict msg up rows, et. ‘Te motos for foundation sil stabilization sesaiing tothe bose of the sil provement ie lhattated in ble 81 Gitehell, 1078). Ti sormparion table incon ‘atious factors suchas principe ofthe technique, most auitabe scl condition, elective treatment depth and are, mntaiale ad oquipmont regultement,prepertie of treated ‘aternl ad advantages a ination: ofthe eeigues “Tho rolatonthipe between strate ty, panei element bearing preesar, snd the probability of suoceafl and economia! ues of foundation si aabieation are ion in Table 9.2 (Was, 1970) Basod on glee canditions and snout stom to viewed hy Hut (1585) aed preseated in Table 98, ‘Te comparion aos of Mito (1076) and Hunt (1086) coal guide ta decide a nitble technique for @particalar sol under a spose ound coudtion to atin the Feaeited property Mostafthesnathds aebete suited toimprovennentof soe eal type ‘Ua othee, This silusteatd in Fig 06 Otel, 1076 which velatonenc stabiieaton rmatho to th rang of sl pin see for which it mot applet, Although ta dicuston of vatius improvement tohriqun in dite pny at "heir te for improvemont ef ounation ea it shoul be vesined tha: ate af ther are ol uted fo expedite or fclat onmtcton ell gues Bare baoi sougenc i = —o ae : eee a =] st opr i ao | os renee Sateen wes] oo agbtiee| Sepa| mean [eo astalacte™ 3) wom] owemmne| _“ottae oc|_Sowsoey| saw] “awo] f a i re ae i laa = ‘ easter | a |! SSeS S| eat mal ea mos] wim] cone Lane oan Sewers) ee — mr secs Bees am tere nee é ee eaten SS oy Sete i Sp” “a pet lv re leant renew on] see ? Sie alee SIS Set) ale SG Sarre ms] F = ao : Petal ee Sele eae eat es Paneer oe I ea] re ememnanl ee SE naa [Se “| ames mer Toca he] ee] “Soma es] ee pe | ree | Sagem, | nee Frat | aio [G0ete| “To | whet [sachet |e | nemar_| po H H i 2 i aTapco) = SAUTE el PEGA) RR ti eee lalhat it we tull hi ! te a Hh, Wy | i W i il il i 1 | fl I th iy tn wl Lo ih, : : (| ene ee ee, ‘] li ul i . Lita | ah an ray rally iy FRAG ARR BE) |i aTable 92(Conti) det TMi Bie devel gly Falitinat fie Dati Mintel Ce ek tl eh ll ee didlo HW ey a My oo & ky bh bb a ite itp "li ik | ET Aint ok eR til ah Rath a ae bj) te buat fe el0 ‘Table 04, Ground Strengthening Techniques Samanrized ‘aie on 080) ‘ee Contd) eu en emunlea| couraaean| enseneone|ese ammrn om = emaen tpl coceswon! wn | muretuneeto =n on pmax S| oometnen|sex a meen) semstene| =i ae ‘eu. ve sun | teransien| mega omnnit|see Pe | son ‘ar You one eo. a egster| _ ensure Fon a] a em reo eu eematiney| some | serena pineal gan] _emoen|: oem = era, wu) eee eS ieeel ame me ee] ren ea) me em wo ee ceenelia mmcpeseeememale oz: oat on. oan a (nso wpeserinme meer seme Pei, omg 2 | met manmtnano | somaries | wnestri amen | eet | noma ai Te ed spony en ons (eaopepaneg mores 3028 38OOUTI 200) “ust 2) sed nog paw ammyonang suosounc 40y mono a Hos Wopeprmnog Jo SIAEANIAY 6 TAN,22 row nasa re ‘Table B4 (Conta) Sucencamgein wp iesauirtererebe | aromeiprrtnety Dynan eanpatan era spp cnety Bnet 4 fishes Ineo sa slp ition Pern Tonpney neh ores ved Patti tig Aes xing atta atten Prong Toney ui senate legit Der Hyarenaparton aac asus et Pyne cpt Ieee gate mi | Dyn ompaction one oun pcre dnt Perce et rgaiesaie [Lin aise odo aii insted Reccmemee Tomer — | congastan outing crud rath Penceaton posting There licensees sat erste ce gait alesis bhacntl dri Sit ee “atime rcv stomatitis tht atanent lb eigen madera uh Asien edith engage. tc tren! tome spe hat ae aesthetic te vet wiht tiated ign tetris Pinas suport eapay cps Dat rope aplation

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• Little Women

  

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