Thermodynamics, science of the relationship

between heat, work, temperature, and energy. In broad terms,

thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another
and from one form to another. The key concept is that heat is a form of energy
corresponding to a definite amount of mechanical work.

Definition of working substance

: a usually fluid substance that through changes of temperature, volume, and pressure is the
means of carrying out thermodynamic processes or cycles (as in a heat engine)

Pure Substance A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called pure
substance. Water, helium carbon dioxide, nitrogen are examples. It does not have to be a single
chemical element just as long as it is homogeneous throughout, like air. A mixture of phases of
two or more substance is can still a pure substance if it is homogeneous, like ice and water (solid
and liquid) or water and steam (liquid and gas).

thermodynamic system (or simply ‘system’) is a definite macroscopic region or space in the universe, in which one or
more thermodynamic processes take place.
Everything external to a thermodynamic system is called surroundings.

System and surroundings are separated by a definite border called boundary. System, surroundings and boundary
constitute the universe.

Types of Thermodynamic System:

Thermodynamic systems can be broadly classified into three types. They are:

1. Open System
2. Closed System
3. Isolated System

1. Open System:
An open system is a thermodynamic system which allows both mass and energy to flow in and out of it, across its
boundary. The image below illustrates open system.

Example of open system: Water heated in an open container – Here, heat is the energy transferred, water is the
mass transferred and container is the thermodynamic system. Both heat and water can pass in and out of the
container.

2. Closed System:
A closed system allows only energy (heat and work) to pass in and out of it. It does not allow mass transfer across its
boundary. The following image shows a closed system:

Example of closed system: Water heated in a closed vessel – Here only heat energy can pass in and out of the
vessel

3. Isolated System:
An isolated system does not interact with its surroundings. It does not allow both mass and energy transfer across its
boundary. It is more restrictive.

In reality, complete isolated systems do not exist. However, some systems behave like an isolated system for a finite
period of time. The following image illustrates an isolated system:

Read more: http://mechteacher.com/thermodynamic-system/#ixzz5wlpRLXr0

Thermodynamic Properties
Within thermodynamics, a physical property is any property that is measurable, and whose
value describes a state of a physical system. Our goal here will be to
introduce thermodynamic properties, that are used in engineering thermodynamics.
These properties will be further applied to energy systems and finally to thermal or nuclear
power plants.
Extensive and intensive properties of medium in the pressurizer.
In general, thermodynamic properties can be divided into two general classes:
 Extensive properties: An extensive property is dependent upon the amount of
mass present or upon the size or extent of a system. For example, the following
properties are extensive:
 Enthalpy
 Entropy
 Gibbs Free Energy
 Heat Capacity
 Internal Energy
 Mass
 Volume
 Intensive property: An intensive property is independent of the amount of mass
and may vary from place to place within the system at any moment. For example, the
following properties are extensive:
 Compressibility
 Density
 Specific Enthalpy
 Specific Entropy
  Specific Heat Capacity
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal Expansion
 Vapor Quality
 Specific Volume

The terms "mass" and "weight" are used interchangeably in ordinary

conversation, but the two words don't mean the same thing. The difference
between mass and weight is that mass is the amount of matter in a material,
while weight is a measure of how the force of gravity acts upon that mass.

 Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in a body. Mass is denoted

using m or M.
 Weight is the measure of the amount of force acting on a mass due to
the acceleration due to gravity. Weight usually is denoted by W. Weight is
mass multiplied by the acceleration of gravity (g).

W = m * gW=m∗gComparing Mass and Weight

For the most part, when comparing mass and weight on Earth—without
moving!—the values for mass and weight are the same. If you change your
location with respect to gravity, mass will remain unchanged, but weight will not.
For example, your body's mass is a set value, but your weight is different on the
Moon compared with on Earth.

Mass is a property of matter. The
mass of an object is the same
everywhere.
Mass can never be zero.
Mass does not change according to
location.
Mass is a scalar quantity. It has
magnitude.
Mass may be measured using an
ordinary balance.
Weight depends on the effect of gravity. Weight
increases or decreases with higher or lower gravity.
Weight can be zero if no gravity acts upon an
object, as in space.
Weight varies according to location.
Weight is a vector quantity. It has magnitude and is
directed toward the center of the Earth or other
gravity well.
Weight is measured using a spring balance.
Mass usually is measured in grams Weight often is measured in newtons, a unit of
and kilograms. force.

Volume is the measurement of the amount of space that a liquid, solid or gas
takes up in a container. Common measurements of volume include gallons, ounces
and teaspoons.

While volume is a measurement of space a given amount of a substance takes up,

mass is the measurement of how much of a substance there actually is. For instance, 1
gallon of water and 1 gallon of sulfuric acid have the same volume but not the same
mass due to differences in their molecular structure. In physics, the more complex
definition of mass is the amount of resistance a substance or object has to being
moved and the level of gravitational attraction it has with other objects.

DENSITY DEFINITION
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The symbol most commonly used for
density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho). The capital letter D is also used. Density
is an intensive property of matter, which means the size of a sample does not affect its
value. Density commonly is expressed in units of grams per milliliter and kilograms
per liter.
The equation for density is:
density = mass / volume
ρ = m/V
The reciprocal of density (V/m) is its specific volume.

DENSITY EXAMPLE
Density tends to be higher for solids than for liquids, which are in turn more dense
than gases. The density of pure water is defined to be 1 gram per milliliter.
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force. The SI unit for
specific weight is [N/m3]. The imperial unit is [lb/ft3].

Specific Weight (or force per unit volume) can be expressed as

γ = ρ ag [4]

where
γ = specific weight (N/m3], [lb/ft3]
ρ = density [kg/m3], [slugs/ft3]
ag = acceleration of gravity (9.807 [m/s2], 32.174 [ft/s2] under normal conditions)

Specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters occupied by one

kilogram of matter. It is the ratio of a material's volume to its mass, which is the
same as the reciprocal of its density. In other words, specific volume is inversely
proportional to density. Specific volume may be calculated or measured for any
state of matter, but it is most often used in calculations involving gases.

The standard unit for specific volume is cubic meters per kilogram (m3/kg),
although it may be expressed in terms of milliliters per gram (mL/g) or cubic feet
per pound (ft3/lb).

Intrinsic and Intensive

The "specific" part of specific volume means that it is expressed in terms of unit
mass. It is an intrinsic property of matter, which means it does not depend on
sample size. Similarly, specific volume is an intensive property of matter that
is unaffected by how much of a substance exists or where it was sampled.

Specific Volume Formulas

There are three common formulas used to calculate specific volume (ν):

1. ν = V / m where V is volume and m is mass

2. ν = 1 /ρ = ρ-1 where ρ is density
3. ν = RT / PM = RT / P where R is the ideal gas constant, T is temperature,
P is pressure, and M is molarity
The second equation usually is applied to liquids and solids because they are
relatively incompressible. The equation may be used when dealing with gases, but
the density of a gas (and its specific volume) may change dramatically with a
slight increase or decrease in temperature.

Specific gravity, also called relative density, ratio of the density of a

substance to that of a standard substance.

The usual standard of comparison for solids and liquids is water at 4 °C (39.2
°F), which has a density of 1.0 kg per litre (62.4 pounds per cubic
foot). Gases are commonly compared with dry air, which has a density of 1.29
grams per litre (1.29 ounces per cubic foot) under so-called standard
conditions (0 °C and a pressure of 1 standard atmosphere). For example,
liquid mercury has a density of 13.6 kg per litre; therefore, its specific gravity is
13.6. The gas carbon dioxide, which has a density of 1.976 grams per litre
under standard conditions, has a specific gravity of 1.53 (= 1.976/1.29).
Because it is the ratio of two quantities that have the same dimensions (mass
per unit volume), specific gravity has no dimension.
Buoyancy (the ability of an object to float in water or air) is intimately related to
specific gravity. If a substance has specific gravity less than that of a fluid, it
will float on that fluid: helium-filled balloons will rise in air, oil will form a slick
on water, and lead will float on mercury. The specific gravity of a substance is
characteristic; it is the same for different samples of a substance (if pure, the
same in composition, and free from cavities or inclusions) and is used to help
identify unknown substances. Specific gravity has many other applications:
gemologists use it to distinguish similar gems; chemists, to check on the
progress of reactions and the concentration of solutions; and auto mechanics,
to test battery fluid and antifreeze.

Pressure, in the physical sciences, the perpendicular force per unit area, or
the stress at a point within a confined fluid. The pressure exerted on a floor by
a 42-pound box the bottom of which has an area of 84 square inches is equal
to the force divided by the area over which it is exerted; i.e., it is one-half
pound per square inch. The weight of the atmosphere pushing down on each
unit area of Earth’s surface constitutes atmospheric pressure, which at sea
level is about 15 pounds per square inch. In SI units, pressure is measured
in pascals; one pascal equals one newton per square metre. Atmospheric
pressure is close to 100,000 pascals.

Temperature is an objective measurement of how hot or cold an object is. It can

be measured with a thermometer or a calorimeter. It is a means of determining
the internal energy contained within a given system.

Because humans easily perceive the amount of heat and cold within an area, it is
understandable that temperature is a feature of reality that we have a fairly
intuitive grasp on. Consider that many of us have our first interaction with a
thermometer in the context of medicine, when a doctor (or our parent) uses one
to discern our temperature, as part of diagnosing an illness. Indeed, temperature
is a critical concept in a wide variety of scientific disciplines, not just medicine.

Heat Versus Temperature

Temperature is different from heat, although the two concepts are linked.
Temperature is a measure of the internal energy of a system, while heat is a
measure of how energy is transferred from one system (or body) to another, or,
how temperatures in one system are raised or lowered by interaction with
another. This is roughly described by the kinetic theory, at least for gases and
fluids. The kinetic theory explains that the greater the amount of heat is absorbed
into a material, the more rapidly the atoms within that material begin to move,
and, the faster atoms move, the more the temperature increases. As atoms begin
to slow down their movement, the material becomes cooler. Things get a little
more complicated for solids, of course, but that's the basic idea.

Heat is the transfer of kinetic energy from one medium or object to another, or
from an energy source to a medium or object. Such energy transfer can occur
in three ways: radiation, conduction, and convection.
The standard unit of heat in the International System of Units (SI) is
the calorie (cal), which is the amount of energy transfer required to raise the
temperature of one gram of pure liquid water by one degree Celsius, provided
the water temperature is higher than the freezing point and lower than the
boiling point. Sometimes the kilocalorie (kcal) is specified as a unit of heat; 1
kcal = 1000 cal. (This is the so-called diet calorie.) Less often, the British
thermal unit (Btu) is used. This is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of pure liquid water by one degree Fahrenheit.

energy
[en´er-je]

power that may be translated into motion, overcoming resistance or causing a physical change; the ability
to do work. Energyassumes several forms; it may be thermal (in the form of heat), electrical, mechanical,
chemical, radiant, or kinetic. In doingwork, the energy is changed from one form to one or more other for
m(s). In these changes some of the energy is “lost” in thesense that it cannot be recaptured and used aga
in. Usually there is loss in the form of heat, which escapes or is dissipatedunused; all energy changes giv
e off a certain amount of heat.ƒ

All activities of the body require energy, and all needs are met by the consumption of food containing ener
gy in chemicalform. The human diet comprises three main sources of energy: CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS,
and FATS. Of these three,carbohydrates most readily provide the kind of energy needed to activate muscl
es. Proteins work to build and restore bodytissues. The body transforms chemical energy derived from fo
od by the process of METABOLISM, an activity that takes placein the individual cell. Molecules of the food s
ubstances providing energy pass through the cell wall. Inside the cell, chemicalreactions occur that produ
ce the new forms of energy and yield by-products such as water and waste materials

The word "work" means different things in different contexts. In science, it is a

thermodynamic concept. The SI unit for work is the joule. Physicists and
chemists, in particular, view work in relation to energy:

Work Definition
Work is the energy required to move an object against a force. In fact, one
definition of energy is the capacity to do work. There are many different kinds of
work. Examples include:

 Electrical work
 Work against gravity
 Work against a magnetic field
 Mechanical work

Key Takeaways: Work Definition in Science

 In physical science, such as physics and chemistry, work is force multiplied

by distance.
 Work occurs if there is movement in the direction of the force.
 The SI unit of work is the joule (J). This is the work expended by a force of
one newton (N) over a displacement of one meter (m)

reservoir
1. (Science: anatomy) A place or cavity for storage, for anatomical structures serving as a
storage space for fluids.
2. (Science: geography) A place where anything is kept in store; especially, a place
where water is collected and kept for use when wanted, as to supply a fountain, a canal, or
a city by means of aqueducts, or to drive a mill wheel, or the like.
3. (Science: botany) A small intercellular space, often containing esin, essential oil, or some
other secreted matter. Receiving reservoir, a principal reservoir into which an aqueduct or
rising main delivers water, and from which a distributing reservoir draws its supply.

A unit conversion expresses the same property as a different unit of measurement. For
instance, time can be expressed in minutes instead of hours, while distance can be converted
from miles to kilometers, or feet, or any other measure of length. Often measurements are given
in one set of units, such as feet, but are needed in different units, such as chains. A conversion
factor is a numeric expression that enables feet to be changed to chains as an equal exchange.
Laws of Thermodynamics
The laws of thermodynamics define the fundamental physical quantities like energy, temperature
and entropy that characterise thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium. The laws represent
how these quantities behave under various circumstances. The four laws of thermodynamics are
given below:
To learn in details about all the laws of thermodynamics visit the links given below.

Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics Second Law Of Thermodynamics

First Law Of Thermodynamics Third Law Of Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law is the basis for the measurement of temperature. It states that “two bodies which
are in thermal equilibrium with a third body are in thermal equilibrium with each other.”

Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics Examples

As an example of the zeroth law of thermodynamics,

1. consider two cups A and B with boiling water.

2. When a thermometer is placed in cup A, it gets warmed up by the water until it reads 100°C.
3. When it read 100°C, we say that the thermometer is in equilibrium with cup A.
4. Now when we move the thermometer to cup B to read the temperature, it continues to read
100°C.
5. The thermometer is also in equilibrium with cup B.
6. From keeping in mind the zeroth law of thermodynamics, we can conclude that cup A and
cup B are in equilibrium with each other.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics enables us to use thermometers to compare the temperature of
any two objects that we like.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics which is also known as the conservation of energy principle states
that “energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to
another.” This law may seem abstract but if we look at a few examples of the first law of
thermodynamics, we will get a clearer idea.

First Law Of Thermodynamics Examples

Following are a few examples:

 Fans convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.

 Plants convert the radiant energy of sunlight to chemical energy through photosynthesis. We
eat plants and convert the chemical energy into kinetic energy while we swim, walk, breathe
and when we scroll through this page.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that “Energy in the form of heat only flows from
regions of higher temperature to that of lower temperature”. Many individuals take this
statement lightly and for granted, but it has an extensive impact and consequence. This is why it
costs money to run an air conditioner. The human body obeys the second law of thermodynamics
too.

Second Law Of Thermodynamics Examples

One of the examples of the second law of thermodynamics can be sweating in a crowded room.
Assume yourself to be in a small room full of people. You are very likely to feel warm and start
sweating. Sweating is a mechanism the human body uses to cool itself. Here, the heat from your
body is transferred to sweat. As the sweat absorbs more and more heat from the body it evaporates
and transfers heat to the surrounding air, thereby, heating up the temperature of the room.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

The Third Law states, “The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of the
crystal is equal to absolute zero (0 K).” Entropy is sometimes called “waste energy,” i.e., the
energy that is unable to do work, and since there is no heat energy whatsoever at absolute zero,
there can be no waste energy.

Third Law Of Thermodynamics Examples

Let us consider steam as an example to illustrate the third law of thermodynamics step by step:
We know that steam is a gaseous state of water at higher temperatures. In this state,

1. the molecules within it move freely and have high entropy.

2. If one decreases the temperature below 100°C, the steam gets converted to water, where
the movement of molecules is restricted, decreasing the entropy of water.
3. When water is further cooled below 0°C, it gets converted to solid ice. In this state, the
movement of molecules is further restricted and the entropy of the system reduces more.
4. As the temperature of the ice further reduces, the movement of the molecules in them are
restricted more and the entropy of the substance goes on decreasing.
5. When the ice is cooled to absolute zero, ideally the entropy should be zero. But in reality, it is
impossible to cool any substance to zero.

 The zeroth law of thermodynamics. When two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, the first two systems are in
thermal equilibrium with each other. This property makes it meaningful to use
thermometers as the “third system” and to define a temperature scale.
 The first law of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation of energy. The change
in a system’s internal energy is equal to the difference between heat added to the
system from its surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings.
 The second law of thermodynamics. Heat does not flow spontaneously from a
colder region to a hotter region, or, equivalently, heat at a given temperature
cannot be converted entirely into work. Consequently, the entropy of a closed
system, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases over time toward some
maximum value. Thus, all closed systems tend toward an equilibrium state in
which entropy is at a maximum and no energy is available to do useful work. This
asymmetry between forward and backward processes gives rise to what is known
as the “arrow of time.”
 The third law of thermodynamics. The entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in
its most stable form tends to zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
This allows an absolute scale for entropy to be established that, from
a statistical point of view, determines the degree of randomness or disorder in a
system.