Patterns of Paragraph and Development

Purpose: What? Why?

Audience: Who?
Context: When? Where? How?

1. Narration
 Is telling a story of an event or experience and showing why it is important through details about the experience.

4 Basics of Narration
1. It reveals something of importance (your main point).
2. It includes all of the major events of the story (support).
3. It gives details about the major events, bringing the event or experience to life for your readers.
4. It presents the events using time order (according to when things happened).

Events in time order:

1 Winning the jackpot does not always bring happiness. A couple from Newport, Kentucky, won more than $60 million in the Powerball
lottery a few years ago and imagined that they would live out their dreams. 2 One of the first things that happened after they won
was that they separated, ending their long marriage. 3 Apparently, they had different dreams, and they could not agree on how to live
anymore. They had been happy together without the money, but now they found that they could not get along. 2 Then, two years
after winning the jackpot, the man was found dead at home. 3 Since winning, he had been arrested for drunk driving and not paying
child sup- port. His dream of moving to Australia never came about. 2 Meanwhile, the woman quit her job and bought a big new
house. A year after she moved in, a body was found in the house, belonging to a man dead from a drug over- dose. After that, she
bought another house, where she lived for three years.3 During that time, she lost contact with former friends and was involved in a
legal dispute. 2 Finally, five years from the time she and her former husband won the lottery, she too was found dead in her home,
where she had been dead for several days. This couple’s experience should be a lesson to people that money does not bring happiness.

E.g. :
Flow Chart
Timeline
Plot Diagram

2. Illustration
 uses examples to show, explain, or prove a point.

4 Basics of Illustration
1. It has a main point to illustrate.
2. It gives specific examples to show, explain, or prove the point.
3. It gives details to support the examples.
4. It uses enough examples to get the point across.

Enough examples to make the writer’s point:

1 Many e-mail warnings that people receive are urban legends—stories that people think are true but really are not. The following
three warnings spread widely, and all are untrue. 2 One popular warning was about poisonous bank ATM deposit envelopes. 3 The
story claimed that a bank customer died after licking an envelope that was coated with a deadly poi- son. It warned that customers
should not lick ATM envelopes but rather should moisten a cloth and use the cloth to wet the envelope. No one ever actually died this
way. 2 Another urban legend said that people in New Jer- sey were being mailed small packages marked “A Gift for You.” 3 Inside the
package was a poisoned sponge that could kill anyone who touched it. 2 A third urban legend was the burundanga drug warning. 3
The story claimed that a woman was filling her car at a gas station when she accepted a busi- ness card from a man who claimed to
be a house painter. As she drove away from the station, she got dizzy and pulled over to the side of the road. The dizziness was caused
by the business card, which had been coated with the drug burundanga, and the “housepainter” followed the woman and stole her
purse. There is a drug called burundanga, but it was never used in this way. Do not let every warning scare you: When you receive
such warnings, you can see if they are true by going to Urbanlegends.about.com.

E.g. :
Bubble map
 3. Description
 creates a strong impression of your topic: It shows how the topic looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels.

4 Basics of Description
1. It creates a main impression—an overall effect or image—about the topic.
2. It uses specific examples to create the impression.
3. It supports the examples with details that appeal to the senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
4. It brings a person, place, or object to life for the readers.

Examples and details bring the subject to life:

1 Late at night, the ocean near my grandmother’s house always fills me with wonder. 2 It is dark, lit only by the moon. 3 When the
moon is full, the light reflects off the water, bouncing up and shining on the waves as they start to break. When the clouds cover the
moon, the darkness is complete. The world stands still and silent for a moment. 2 Then, I hear the waves 3 coming toward me, swelling,
breaking, and bursting into surf that I cannot see. I hear them gently go back, only to start again. 2 Gulls call in the distance. 3 During
the day, their call sounds raw, but at night it softens and sounds like a plea.
2 Now that I am in touch with my senses, I am hit with a smell of salt and dampness that 3 seems to coat my lungs. 2 I stand completely
still, just experiencing the beach, as if I have become a part of the elements. The experience always calms me and takes away the
strains of everyday life.

E.g. :
Characteristics Map
Five Senses Chart

4. Process Analysis
 either explains how to do something (so that readers can do it) or how something works (so that readers understand it).

4 Basics of Process Analysis

1. It tells readers either how to do the steps of the process or how some- thing works.
2. It includes the major steps in the process.
3. It explains each step in detail.
4. It presents the steps in the order they happen (time order).

(1)= Readers told how to do something; (2)=Steps presented in the order they need to happen:
People always ask for the recipe for the simplest cookie that I make, and I am always a little embarrassed to give it to them. 1 Here is
how to make delicious cookies with almost no effort. 2 First, buy two ingredients — a roll of sugar-cookie dough from your
supermarket’s re- frigerated section and a bag of mini peanut butter cups. Cut the roll into half-inch slices, and then cut each slice in
half. Next, roll the pieces into balls. Then, grease a mini-muffin pan and put the balls in the pan. Start baking the dough according to
the directions on the sugar-cookie package. When the cookies are about three minutes from being done, take them out. Press a peanut
butter cup into the center of each ball, and return the cookies to the oven until they are golden brown. When they are cool, pop them
out of the muffin pans. These cookies are so easy to make that even little children can help. Enjoy!

E.g.:
Flow chart
Timeline
Circle Organizer

5. Classification
 sorts people or things into categories so that they can be understood.

4 Basics of Classification
1. It makes sense of a group of people or things by sorting them into use- ful categories.
2. It has a purpose for sorting.
3. It includes categories that follow a single organizing principle (for example, to sort by size, by color, by price, and so on).
4. It gives detailed examples or explanations of things that fit into each category.

1 Over the past several years, three kinds of diets have been 2 very popular in this country. 3 The first one was the low-fat diet. 4
Dieters had to limit their fat intake, so they stayed away from foods like nuts, fatty meats, ice cream, and fried foods. They could eat
lots of low-fat foods like pasta, bread, fruits, and vegetables, as well as lean meat, fish, and chicken. 3 The second kind of diet was the
low-carbohydrate plan.4 The first popular low-carb diet was the Atkins plan. Under this plan, dieters could eat all the fatty meats,
butter, cheese, and nuts they wanted. Some people were eating a whole pound of bacon for breakfast with eggs and butter. However,
they could not eat bread, pasta, or most fruits. On this plan, people lost a lot of weight quickly, but many found that they could not
stick with a diet that did not allow carbs. The South Beach diet was also a low-carb plan, but not quite as strict as the At- kins diet, at
least after the first two weeks. 3 The third diet plan, one that has been around for a long time, is Weight Watchers. 4 It requires that
dieters eat smaller portions of most foods — everything in modera- tion. Points are assigned to foods, and dieters must stay within a
certain number of points each day. High-calorie foods have a high num- ber of points, and many vegetables have no points. Americans
have spent millions on these diet plans, but the obesity rate continues to in- crease. It seems that the “right” kind of diet, one that
allows people to lose weight and keep it off, has yet to be invented.

E.g. :
Divergent and Convergent Thinking Web
Hierarchy Diagram
Multiple Meaning Map
Pie Chart

6. Definition
 explains what a term or concept means.

4 Basics of Definition
1. It tells readers what is being defined.
2. It gives a clear definition.
3. It gives examples to explain the definition.
4. It gives details about the examples that readers will understand.

1 Propaganda 2 is information that is promoted to support certain views or messages. It can come in many forms, but its purpose is
to persuade us to see things a certain way. 3 For example, the president of the United States may give televised speeches to convince
us that some policy or ac- tion he supports is right. 4 We may get mailings on the subject. People who agree with the president’s
message may speak in favor of it on talk shows or in interviews. 3 Religious organizations may spread propaganda about the
importance of certain actions (or avoiding certain actions). 4 For example, many churches sent positive messages to their members
about the religious importance of the movie The Chronicles of Narnia. Churches urged their members to see the movie and even had
their own showings, hoping the film would increase church attendance. 3 Propaganda can be good, as when a health organization
sends information about how to avoid unhealthy behavior and follow good habits, or bad, as when one political group pub- lishes false
or exaggerated information to attack another group. Because we are surrounded by propaganda, it is important that we think about
who is be- hind the message and whether we believe the information.

E.g. : Concept Definition Map

7. Comparison and Contrast

 Comparison shows the similarities among people, ideas, situations, and things
 contrast shows the differences.

4 Basics of Comparison and Contrast

1. It has subjects (usually two) that are enough alike to be usefully com- pared or contrasted.
2. It serves a purpose—to help readers either make a decision about two subjects or understand them.
3. It gives several points of comparison and/or contrast.
4. It uses one of two organizations—point-by-point or whole-to-whole.

POINT-BY-POINT WHOLE-TO-WHOLE
1. First point of comparison 1. Subject 1
Subject 1 First point of comparison Second point of
Subject 2 comparison Third point of comparison
2. Second point of comparison 2. Subject 2
Subject 1 First point of comparison Second point of
Subject 2 comparison Third point of comparison
3. Third point of comparison
Subject 1
Subject 2
Use one type of organization throughout:
1 Greenline Bank 2 suits my needs much better than 1 Worldly Bank does. 3 For one thing, there are not any hidden charges at
Greenline. For ex- ample, customers get free checking even if they keep a low balance in their accounts. Since I do not usually have
much in my checking account, this is important for me. In contrast, to get free checking at Worldly Bank, custom- ers must have a
minimum balance of $3,000. That would mean that I pay for every check I write, and I do not need that charge. 3 Another way that
Greenline Bank is better is that it offers low interest rates on loans. If I need a loan for something like a new car, for example, the
bank’s rate of interest on that would be 9 percent. Worldly Bank would charge 17.5 percent for the same loan. Over a three-year
period, the difference between 9 percent and 17.5 percent is huge. 3 Another difference between the two banks is that Greenline
Bank is a small, local bank. People know me when I walk in, and I feel that I can trust them. I also believe that giving Greenline my
business helps the local economy in some small way. In contrast, Worldly Bank is huge. The people in the local office are polite in a
businesslike way, but I do not feel as if I know them. Worldly Bank as a whole is the fourth largest bank in the country, so I know that
my little account means nothing to it. Because of these differences, I am a loyal Greenline Bank customer.

E.g.: Compare Map, Overlapping Circles, Venn Diagram

8. Cause and Effect

 A cause is what makes something happen.
 An effect is what happens as a result of something.
o A ring diagram is useful to show causes and effects of something.

4 Basics of Cause and Effect

1. The main point reflects the writer’s purpose—to explain causes, effects, or both.
2. If the purpose is to explain causes, it gives real causes, not just things that happened before. For example, the fact that you
ate a hot dog before you got the flu does not mean that the hot dog caused the flu.
3. If the purpose is to explain effects, it gives real effects, not just things that happened after. For example, getting sick was not
the effect of eat- ing the hot dog; it simply happened after you ate the hot dog.
4. It gives readers detailed examples or explanations of the causes and/or effects.

1 The next time that you get a cold, do not blame the weather; blame your hands. Although many people think that cold weather
causes colds, the weather is not the real cause. 2 Colds are caused by viruses that are transmitted primarily from the hands to the eyes
or nose. When you come in contact with someone who has a cold or with something that the per- son with the cold has touched, 3
you often pick up germs on your hands.4 For example, when a cashier with a cold gives you change, the coins may carry the cold germ.
2 When you later rub your eyes or your nose, you 3 pass the germ on to yourself. Elementary schools and day-care centers are breeding
grounds for colds 2 because children are in close contact with one another in confined spaces. They touch the same desks, computer
keyboards, and lunch tables. 3 The children can then infect their family members at home. Colds are more common in the winter
only2 because during the cold weather, windows are closed and less fresh air circulates. There are only two known ways to cut down
on getting colds: Never come into contact with anyone or anything, or wash your hands with warm water and soap, often. What is
your choice?

E.g. :
Flow Chart
Cause and Effect Chart

9. Argument
  takes a position on an issue and gives detailed reasons that de- fend or support it. You use argument to persuade someone
to see things your way and/or to take an action. Being able to argue well is important in every area of your life.

4 Basics of Argument
1. It takes a strong and definite position.
2. It gives good reasons and evidence to defend the position.
3. It considers opposing positions.
4. It has energy from start to finish.

Argument has energy from start to finish:

1 Rap singers should change what they talk about. 2 One reason that they should change is that they talk about women in a
disrespectful way. Rap singers should stop calling women “hos” and other negative terms. Most women resent being called these
terms, and calling women names encour- ages men to treat them badly. Rap songs also make violence toward women seem manly
and reasonable. 2 Another reason to change topics is that the lyrics promote violence, crime, and drugs in general. When young people
are shooting each other in cities around the country, something is wrong, and no one should be making it seem glamorous, courageous,
or manly. That is what rap lyrics do. 3 Some people say that rap songs are just music, not causes of anything but enjoyment. But I
disagree: Many young people listen carefully to rap lyrics and are affected by the words. 2 The most important reason that rap singers
should change topics is that they have a chance to make things better rather than glorifying violence. Rap singers could be a strong
force for positive change. They could help our cities and our country. Rap singers can sing about whatever they like: Why can’t they
sing for the good of all?

E.g. :
Discussion Map
Persuasion Map
Fact and Opinion Chart
Pro and Con Chart

LESSON 7

Organization
 Organization means a paragraph is well-developed. If all sentences clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then your
paragraph is complete. If there are not enough sentences or enough information to prove your thesis, then the paragraph is
incomplete. Usually three supporting sentences, in addition to a topic sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a
paragraph to be complete. The concluding sentence or last sentence of the paragraph should summarize your main idea by
reinforcing your topic sentence.

Topic Sentence
 The main idea of each paragraph is stated in a topic sentence that shows how the idea relates to the thesis or overall focus
of the paper. Generally, the topic sentence is the first sentence of a paragraph. All subsequent points made in the paragraphs
should support the topic sentence.

Supporting Details
 Supporting details elaborate upon and prove the topic sentence. Supporting details should be drawn from variety of sources
based on research, experiences, etc. plus the writer’s own analysis. Using a combination of different supports is the most
common and effective way to strengthen a paragraph. The following are common ways to provide supporting details:
o Expert opinion
o Facts and statistic
o Personal Experiences
o Others’ Experiences
o Research Studies
o Brief Stories
o Journal Entries
o Personal Analysis
o Interviews
o Metaphors
Concluding Sentence
  Each paragraph should end with a final statement that ties together the ideas brought up in the paragraph and emphasizes
the main idea one last time. If the assignment is longer, it should transition to the ideas of the next paragraph.

Example:
TS
Maintaininga healthy lifestyle requires eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise. SD1A nutritious diet includes eating a
variety of foods from each of the four food groups: meat, dairy, fruits and vegetable, and grains. SD2Regular exercise is also an essential
part of keeping a healthy lifestyle. SD3Most experts recommend exercising at least thirty minutes a day, six days a week. CSThesetwo
aspects, eating a healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis will maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Idea Map
 Topic Sentence
 Detail
 Detail
 Detail
 Concluding Sentence
Example:
 Maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise.
 A nutritious diet includes eating a variety of foods from each of the four food groups: meat, dairy, fruits and vegetable, and
grains.
 Regular exercise is also an essential part of keeping a healthy lifestyle.
 Most experts recommend exercising at least thirty minutes a day, six days a week.
 These two aspects, eating a healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis will maintain a healthy lifestyle.

Topic Sentence First:

A focus group discussion is a small group discussion, usually consisting of about seven to ten people who are brought together to
discuss a subject of interest to the researcher. Focus groups are commonly used today in business and politics; that flashy slogan you
heard for a political campaign or a new toothpaste was almost certainly tested in a focus group to gauge people’s reactions. Social
researchers may use a focus group to help design questions or instruments for quantitative research or to study the interactions
among group members on a particular subject. In most cases, researchers ask predetermined questions, but the discussion is
unstructured. Focus groups are a relatively cheap method of research and can be completed quickly. They also allow for the flexible
discussions and answers that are desirable in quantitative research. -Kunz, THINK Marriages & Families, p.36
Topic Sentence Last

In the developing world 1.1 billion people still lack access to safe drinking water, 2.6 billion do not have access to adequate sanitation
services, and more than 1.6 million deaths each year are traced to waterborne diseases (mostly in children under five). All too often
in developing countries, water is costly and inaccessible to the poorest in society, while the wealthy have it piped into their homes. In
addition, because of the infrastructure that is used to control water, whole seas are being lost, rivers are running dry, millions of
people have been displaced to make room for reservoirs, groundwater aquifers are being pumped down, and disputes over water
have raised tensions from local to international levels. Fresh water is a limiting resource in many parts of the world and is certain to
become even more so as the 21stcentury unfolds. -Wright and Boorse, Environmental Science, p.247
Topic Sentence in Middle

In colonial days, huge flocks of snowy egrets inhabited the coastal wetlands and marshes of the southeasternUnited States. In the
1800s, when fashion dictated fancy hats adorned with feathers, egrets and other birds were hunted for their plumage. By the late
1800s, egrets were almost extinct. In 1886, the newly formed National Audubon Society began a press campaign to shame ‘feather
wearers’ and end the practice. The campaign caught on, and gradually, attitudes changed: new laws followed. Government policies
that protect animals from overharvesting are essential to keep species from the brink of extinction. Even when cultural standards
change due to the efforts of individual groups (such as the National Audubon Society), laws and policy measures must follow to ensure
that endangered populations remain protected. Since the 1800s, several important laws have been passed to protect a wide variety
of species. -Wright and Boorse, Environmental Science: Toward a Sustainable Future, p.150
Topic Sentence First and Last

The National Cancer Institute (NCI) has taken a brute-force approach to screening species for cancer-suppressing chemicals. NCI
scientists receive frozen samples of organisms from around the world, chop them up, and separate them into a number of extracts,
each probably containing hundreds of components. These extracts are tested against up to 60 different types of cancer cells for their
efficacy in stopping or slowing growth of the cancer. Promising extracts are then further analyzed to determine their chemical nature,
and chemicals in the extract are tested singly to find the effective compound. This approach is often referred to as the ‘‘grind ‘emand
find ‘em’’ strategy. -Belk and Maier, Biology, p.334

LESSON 8
COHERENCE AND COHESION

Coherence
 The property of unity in a written text that stems from the relationship between its underlying ideas, and from the logical
organisation and development of these ideas.
 It is a quality of a piece of text that makes it meaningful in the minds of the readers. When the text begins to make sense on
the whole, it is said to be coherent. If the readers can follow and understand a text easily, it obviously has coherence. Rather
than the text appearing linked together perfectly, it is the overall impression of the text that appears to be smooth and clear.
 Inference is very important in achieving coherence, because sometimes in a text the reader may need to have a prior
knowledge about the subject.

Cohesion
 The property of flow and connection in a written text that stems from the linguistic links among its surface elements.
 It is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning. In short,
the links that stick different sentences and make the text meaningful can be thought of as a cohesion in the text. Establishing
connections between sentences, sections, and even paragraphs using synonym, adverbials, conjunctions, etc. is what brings
cohesion in a text.

COHERENCE COHESION
means the connection of ideas at the idea level. means the connection of ideas at the sentence level

refers to how easy it is to understand the writing. refers to connectivity in a text

More subjective More objective

A text is coherent if it makes sense A text is cohesive if its elements are linked together.

Achieving Coherence:

(Weak)
For me, the worst thing about waiting tables is the uniform. All the waitresses had to wear this ugly brown striped jumper. The shirts
were polyester. Sometimes someone you know comes in. Now I have a job in an office.

(Strong)
For me, the worst thing about waiting tables was the uniform. At the last place I worked, all the waitresses had to wear an ugly brown
striped jumper. Underneath it we had to wear an even uglier polyester shirt. Sometimes someone I knew would come in and I’d feel
embarrassed by my outfit. Now I have a job in an office, where I can wear my own clothes.
Achieving Cohesion
 Transitional devices
 Lexical Cohesion
 Referencing
 Substitution
 Conjunction
 Ellipsis

Transitional Devices

LESSON 9

Lexical Cohesion
 is an important factor in contributing to the overall cohesion of your writing.
 Comes about when the nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in a text go together and relate to each other in terms of
repetition, synonymy, metonymy, and collocation.

Repetition
 "It is the repetition of a lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonymy of some kind, in the context of reference; that is, where
the two occurrences have the same referent" (Halliday and Hasan, 1976)
 E.g. Julia Castello is facing a difficult situation at Western Technologies Corporation. She has difficulty functioning in the
executive team.
 It can be argued that all children in Australia have the right to be educated in their mother tongue. Many children in the
past have spent months or years in school without understanding lessons.

Synonymy
 This is created by the selection of a lexical item that is in some way synonymous with the preceding one
  E.g. What people want from the government is frankness. They should explain everything to the public

Hyponymy
 is a relationship between two words, in which the meaning of one of the words include the meaning of the other.
 E.g. A flamingo lives in water. This bird is pink

Metonymy
 This result from the selection of a lexical item that is in some sense in part-whole relationship with a preceding item.
 E.g. I live in a yard house. The house is full of trees.

Anatomy
 Cohesion comes about by the selection of an item which is opposite in meaning to a preceding lexical item.
 E.g. Ali received a letter from the bank yesterday. He will send answer the next day.
 I usually wear dark colours. I don't look nice in light colours.

General Nouns
 In this type of cohesion, two items have the same referent.
 E.g. Military actions against Iraq was not successful. The moves were illegal

Collocation
 Tendency of certain lexical items to co-occur.
 It refers to the way english words are associated with each other
 It establish unity of text or discourse.

LESSON 10
LANGUAGE USE

1. Use clear and concise sentences. On average, a sentence is 18 words long.

Note that this does not require every sentence to be composed of exactly 18 words.
 Image is a very important factor in politics because once the reputation of a person is smeared by accusations, the people’s
perception of the person is forever tainted and it may cause him to lose credibility and trust even when the truth behind
allegations is not yet verified.
 Image is a very important factor in politics. Once the reputation of a person is smeared by accusations, the people’s
perception of the person is forever tainted. The person may lose his credibility and trust, even when the allegations are not
yet verified.

2. Avoid redundancies, wordiness, clichés, and highfalutin language.

 Although offspring are taught not to obtain free gifts from the strangers, at the present moment many still do.
 Although children are told not to take gifts from strangers, many still do.

3. Avoid excessive use of ‘there’ and ‘it’ structures. These sentences can be revised by dropping the ‘there’ and ‘it’ phrase
and transforming the sentences appropriately.
 There are many people walking on this street during Sundays. It is important to keep valuables close to you.
 Many people walk on this street during Sundays. Keeping your valuables close to you is important.

4. Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate and condense lengthy phrases into fewer words.
 Shafts that control the brake during urgent situations are built inside MRT trains to keep the passengers free from harm.
 Emergency levers are installed in every MRT train for the safety of the passengers.

5. Be consistent with your pronoun’s point of view.

 We should accept that fate is simply an illusion; you must not leave our decisions to something that does not exist.
 We should accept that fate is simply an illusion; we must not leave our decisions to something that does not exist.
6. Avoid sexist language. This issue can be addressed by using articles (a, an, the), pluralizing the pronoun, using his or her
instead of his, or writing through a second person point of view, or using gender neutral nouns (e.g. chairperson instead
of chairman). Make sure not to overuse the his/her technique as it breaks up the flow of your composition.
 Every employee should submit his credentials.
 All employees should submit their credentials.

7. Use appropriate level of formality. The more formal the texts use academic tone while the less formal ones usually use a
personal or colloquial tone.
 Yes, diskettes are like things of the past, but they’re still totally cool.
 Diskettes may be outdated, but they are still fascinating.