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Mud Architecture and the Prospects of Its Sustainability

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 Mud Architecture and the Prospects of Its Sustainability
By: Dr. Ayman Al Suliman 1* , Lena Suliman 2

1. Al Zaytoonah University, Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Architecture -11733 Amman – Jordan
2. Architect - an independent researcher – Dubai-U.A.E

*Emails of the corresponding author: a.suliman57@gmail.com

Abstract:

It is universally agreed upon that architecture is considered to be the most significant

attribute of the humans’ material culture. Habitation, as such, indicates the human life patterns and
the level of the communities’ urbanization. Humans have always carried along thoughts related to
stability and place attachment, stemming from their vital needs, in specific, and contributing to the
cultural and humanitarian development process in general. As a result, humans constantly rearranged
their surrounding spatial and living spaces, and then worked on adding frames and structures to these
spaces; which embodied throughout the different eras in the form of housing and monumental
architecture.

This architecture was always a direct result of the humanitarian efforts and an expression of
the natural environment in which it arose; this environment that was the main source of the
materials that were used in architecture and urbanism in different climatic zones in the world. The
nature in Europe and tropical regions, for example, provided humans with wood, which they were
able to utilize in building homes, sewing clothes, and using raw materials needed in living and
surviving. Various types of soft ground and alluvial soil used to provide humans in the Orient (Eastern)
civilizations in general, and in the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa in specific, with
housing, pots and writing boards. Mud was the most widespread material and the closer to
Neanderthals. It grabbed those early humans’ attention, leading them to use it as a raw material in
building up their homes. There is no doubt that earth-soil is the natural environment and the material
that has embraced the first man. It provided humans with all the essentials of food and shelter. It was
also the source of strength and confidence, giving those early humans the feeling of great relief and
comfort.
Today, we are in need of modern architecture that is suitable for our time, reality, civilization,
modernism, and climate. Hence is the return to studying and recording all styles and technologies,
most important and famous of which being the earth architecture on which our construction
methods were established since the dawn of history, and whose technologies continue to be used
until this day, although they are restricted to very poor areas. It is possible to say that returning to
mud and reviving its historical style, making it the prevailing method of building where appropriate, is
a matter of absolute importance.

Keywords: Environment, Mud Architecture, Habitation, Material, Formation.

Introduction:

As a result, humans throughout history tended to take a shelter in this natural environment’s
cavities through hard times. From this presence, attachment and interaction, the idea of using mud
soil material as a building material had emerged. It was when the first humans stretched their hands
to the soil and started using mud, that they registered a significant milestone in the history of
mankind in the handling, composition, manufacturing and the creation of this material in the early
human societies; it was practically the first human step towards creativity, innovation and
industrialization.

All historical sources indicate that mud was the first material man used in construction, in
addition to other raw materials like stone, wood, reeds, papyrus and palm leaves (Figure 1).
Architecture was the most important tool for the organization of society, as it arranged the
interaction process of place-space between human, animal and plant. As a result, the primitive
urbanism and the first residential communities were formed in the plains bordering the banks of
major rivers like Euphrates, Tigris and the Nile, as well as in the foothills of the warm mountains
(Zagros, Sin jar), and in all warm humid plains in different parts of the world. This strong spatial
interaction resulted in the fast advancement and development of societies.

There also seems to be a spiritual dimension linking human to mud, being the main
component of his creation. This mostly contributed to the adoption of this material as a key
component in human architecture. It was the big and vital role that the mud plays in creating
compatibility and harmony between man and his environment, which resulted in the continuity of
mud architecture across different eras.

The human connection with the soil and earth and his long attachment to it, created a strong
spiritual equation, and pushed him to use mud in construction, building comfortable and safe shelters
throughout the historical eras. He began growing a feeling of belonging to the place and to earth;
where it later translated from the concept of housing to the concept of habitat and homeland.

Figure 1: Models on natural resources exploitation in building from different regions of the world.

Mud-building emerged from the ground when the human society was at its outset. Mud buildings
emanated from fields and oases, much like trees, with forms and forests forming. Mud villages emerged and
sprawled into towns and cities, all built with this free material granted to mankind throughout the globe.

The development of construction extended over thousands of years, from the stone -age, in the form
of wooden shacks stuck into river and lake sides. This system was called PA Lafitte, and its structures were
connected to land by a portable wooden bridge.

In areas where rocks were available, stone structures, called Megalith were erected, looking like
huge burial sites referred to as Dolmens, in the form of obelisks, sometimes called Menhir, or in the form of
stretches of land surrounded by stone monuments, called Cromlech. The remains of these structures can still
be seen in Western Europe. The only structural features of these stone structures are their solidness and
permanence.
 The structures discovered in Al-Muraibet or in Wadi Al-Nutuf in Palestine, dating to the modern
stone-age represented the beginning of the art of construction, which became evident later on in Egyptian
architecture, established since the dawn of history on engineering foundations that took into consideration
the ratios of openings and dimensions, the standard style, in addition to solidness and permanence,
rendering Egypt's structural archaeological sites among the oldest organized construction and most solid.
This is evident in the construction of the pyramids and temples, like Amun's grand temple in Al -Karnack and
Abu Simbel, and others.

The lack of stones in Mesopotamia compelled construction to use roasted or sun -dried silt, using
rocks extracted from the northern highlands to construct the foundations.

Mesopotamia also lacks forests, and wood was not always available for construction work. Hence,
construction resorted to the discovery of mud arches and domes instead of horizontal wooden roofs. Due to
flooding, it was imperative to construct buildings in Mesopotamia on manmade elevations, and high-rise
structures, such as the Tower of Babylon were built from bamboo and reed-reinforced silt. This way, mud
structures managed to resist the elements until this day, as seen in Ur and Babylon.

In eastern Syria, structures relied on mud as well. This can be seen clearly in Tall Al -Hariri, where a
small mud-model was found (Figure 2) explaining the shape of houses in the third millennium BC.

In Persia, structures were built from mud and rocks. Buildings were covered with wood, and the
main hall was the outstanding architectural feature. It was square, with a roof carried by slim columns with
carved crowns in the shape of two oxen. The column's body was carved with channels, and stood on a
foundation. The whole formation resembled Greek columns.

Figure 2: Model of a house in the third millennium BC. Middle Euphrates Basin.

Studying the history of human architecture over the ages, it is possible to emphasize that mud -
building was the prevalent form of building throughout history and in all continents. It appeared for the first
time, and its early features were developed in the civilizations of the east, according to scientific evidence,
including archaeological excavations, historical anecdotes and scenes, and anthropological studies. It
prevailed throughout the old world, and continues to form the most widespread environmen tal form of
building and the least costly, as well as the easiest in the world. It forms the backbone of human heritage.

In this context, United Nations' statistics indicate that one third of the world population continue to
live in houses built with mud, or in which mud is a major component (bricks, for example).

Mud-building presents itself as one of the most important solutions for the housing problem and sustainable
development in our contemporary world, and one of the most important application ele ments connecting
the architectural heritage with contemporary life. It is also one of the best means to solve the housing
problem and mitigate the effects and repercussions of manufacturing building materials.

Hence, it is possible to re-emphasize the danger of the poor attention given to this widespread style
of architecture in the region and the world, in spite of its aesthetic value and artistic potentials that are
capable of being passed down to new generations, that are interactive, and that can be i mplemented in our
communities, especially the rural ones. It is necessary here to remind people of the need to attend to the
mud-building heritage and its genuine artistic heritage, with all its diversity, beauty, and familiarity. The
need to attend to it increase due to the weak resistance of the mud structure to climatic elements and
influences which threaten it with extinction, depriving humanity of an outstanding part of its architectural
heritage and common sensory memory.

Since thousands of years, man has built his houses, temples, and palaces from earth and mud. The
Great Wall of China was constructed almost exclusively from mud and raw earth. In the 7 th century BC, mud
was used to build the Tower of Babylon, to a height of 90 meters, forming the first high-rise structure built
by man. Mud was also widely used in the civilizations of Mesopotamia, Pharaohs' Egypt, and the Islamic,
Roman, Indian, Native American, and Mexican civilizations.

We also notice this in the continued use of mud-building in Yemen, whose buildings are
characterized by multi-level heights. In England and Germany, we see a number of rural houses, stations,
schools, and town houses built with mud. One third of the world population lives in mud -houses. This
material, however, has fallen into oblivion, and was lost in most areas in Europe over the past 60 years.

Building with mud is implemented using different methods, including "direct formation," which is
used in areas like Africa, Yemen, and France. Another common method is "mud blocks," and a third is the
"mold-hammered earth (PISE)," used in Denmark, Morocco, and Peru. In Syria, the same method is used to
construct farm houses only. Architect Jan Detter says: "The main motive for studying mud architecture did
not come as a result of a passionate nostalgia to the past, but because of what we suffer from in terms of
high energy prices." Furthermore, the objective behind mud construction is to utilize traditional building
and stop man from being eradicated from his natural environment.

Mud-Building in Arab Countries:

The Arab countries still maintain evidence of the first historical cities which were totally built from
natural earth. From this part of the world, the basic and vital idea behind the concept of cities whi ch are still
blended, since its birth, with the mud-building technology and art emanated. Over the ages, generations
carried this skill, which developed to build different models of buildings, including civil, religious, and military
structures, modest and luxurious alike.

Perhaps among the well-known examples in this respect is the spectacular Arab cities built with mud, such as
Shibam and Sa'dah in Yemen, Marakesh in Morocco, Adrar in Algeria, Ghadames in Libya, and Aleppo in Syria,
as well as others (Figures 3 and 4). Perhaps some Saudi cities such as Ha'il, Najran Region, Al-Huffuf, Al-
Dir'iyah, and Al-Riyadh represent another indication of that. Until two or three decades ago, building in
these cities was mud-based.

Figure 3: Mud Buildings in the Peripheral of Aleppo Figure 4: Renovation of Traditional Houses in Al-Ain City
in the United Arab Emirates

In spite of the large development in mud-building and its steady prosperity in Arab countries as a result of
experience gained over generations in dealing with this material, and its optimum use which responds to all
cultural, social, economic, and political needs of nations, and takes into account the environmental and
climatic conditions of each region or country. However, since the 1950s, mud-building in the Arab countries
started to disappear at various levels, as was the case in the developed world, as a natural result of many
and numerous changes the world witnessed over the past few decades in the political, economic, social, and
cultural aspects. The sweeping global revolution in the fields of communication and transportation
contributed to the rapid movement and continued intertwining of cultures and technologies among different
peoples. As is known in sociology, the vanquished imitates and admires the victor. (Figure 5).

As was mentioned by Ibn Khaldun in his Muqaddimah (Introduction), this led to the adoption of numerous
modern building materials and their different technologies in many Arab countries, although they did not
enjoy sufficient time or study to find out how suitable they are for the economic and social conditions of the
region's peoples, and their effectiveness in the Arab countries' environmental conditions. The introduction
of many modern building materials and systems manufactured in the international market led to an
imbalance in the old traditional system, bringing it to an end in the construction sector.

In this research, we shall address two models of mud-building in two different areas of the Arab world, in
addition to numerous recent experiments in various areas of the world, comparing them and identifying
negative and positive points and implementation methods, and optimum benefits from the global
experience and enriching it in order to revive this architectural system.
 Figure 5: Mud Houses in Various Arab Countries (Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen, and Algeria)

1. Building with Mud in the Arab World

1-1 Mud-Building Architecture in Yemen

Mud-building architecture in Hadhramaut in general, and the city of Shibam, a world heritage city, in
particular, is considered to have produced the first skyscrapers in the Arabian Peninsula. These buildings go
back 600 years, and continue to survive, with some of them towering to 10 levels. These mud buildings are
given utmost attention by their inhabitants, who maintain them regularly. The city of Sayun has a number of
heritage palaces, including the Sayun Palace, built over 400 years ago as a center for the Kathiri state, which
was turned into a history museum, with a number of artifacts representing various historical periods in
Hadhramaut. The city of Tarim is famous for its history and scholars, and includes Al -Rinad Palace, an
architectural wonder of a fort built on the remains of an old fortress dating to the pre -Christ period.
Successive states took the Tarim fortress as their center of government since before Islam, and Sultan
Abdullah Bin Rashed Al-Qahtani renovated the fortress in the year 600 of Hijrah. Renovation of the structure
continued since then.

In (1931), the ruler of Tarim ordered parts of the fortress to be demolished and rebuilt to the state
we see today, but no excavations were carried out since then to verify the exact date the fortress was built.

Another important structure is Al-Mihdar Mosque, designed and built by Abu Bakr Ben Shihab, one
of the most prominent mud-building architects of Yemen. This mosque is famous for its minaret, towering
more than 30 meters high, representing a milestone in the city. The palaces of 'Ishah and Al-Minisourah also
represent architectural wonders in the city of Tarim and Wadi Du'an, which is considered an open museum
of earth-architecture. Within the same region, the cities of Al-Hijrain and Masna'at Basirah are the peak of a
group of old terraced buildings at the foot of the valley that can only be accessed by foot following winding
steps. Khailat Bakshan also boasts a number of palaces, including the modern Bakshan palace, famous for its
unique colors, representing a special feature in the surrounding mud houses. Part of this palace was turned
into a hotel which attracts visitors to the Wadi Du'an, known for its famous honey. Of special attraction is
the village of Haid Al-Jazil, built entirely with mud on the edge of a mountain cliff, surrounded by the wadi
from all sides (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Al-Mihdar Mosque. The tallest Mud Minaret in the World. Du'an Directorate in Hadhramaut

The other form of Yemeni mud architecture is Dar Al-Hijr, which represents a combination of mud
and stone architecture. This palace was built on the remains of an ancient Sheban palace by Imam Yahya
Ben Hamid Eddin, after it was occupied by a series of Yemeni kings. The palace is located in Wadi Hajr, a
suburb of the Yemeni capital of Sana'a. The wadi is green year round, and the name of the palace derives
from the unique rock on which it was constructed, in the middle of the valley. The palace was built towards
the end of the eighteenth century, when Imam Al-Mansour Ali Ben Al-Abbas ordered his minister Ali Ben
Saleh Al-Amari, a famous poet and designer, to build him a summer palace. The palace was built on the
remains of an old Sheban palace known as Zhu Seidan, as attested by many stone engravings. The palace
was completed towards the beginning of the twentieth century by Imam Yahya Ben Hamid Eddin. It is
known as the palace of wonders, which start with a 700 years' old tree at the main entrance. An internal
courtyard branches into a number of annexes, including a reception area called Al -Shizherwan, which is a
separate structure with a summer courtyard overlooking the valley. Every area of the palace is utilized for
storage and for water coolers in pottery containers. Small openings in the walls were built from which rifles
were fired. The structure reflects a sense of security awareness, with seven conical, strategically -placed
watch towers built on the surrounding mountains. Internal doors are made of thick material, with openings
for firing and sniping. The ingenuous design, however, is most evident in the rich external facade and wall
designs, and the spectacular different views of the valley from the numerous windows.

The terraced seven levels of the palace are beautifully coordinated with the natural formation of
the rock it is built on, projecting a delicate sense of design adding to the beauty of nature. (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Front and Side Facades of the Palace

1-2 Mud Architecture in Syria

A strange sensation overtakes you the minute you arrive in Idlib governorate in northern Syria,
transporting you from the 21st century to the 17th or 18 century. Cement buildings disappear, together
with the clamor and pollution of modern civilization, to be replaced by a feeling of serenity that comes with
the images of the past and the accomplishments of our forefathers. Here, there are no piles or concrete
blocks, but mud and hay structures that grew from the ground. Idlib governorate contains a deep
architectural and civilizational heritage, with deep-rooted social, economic, and technical dimensions, that
is evident in the structures which blend with nature and the environment, yet retain their form and
essence.

Mud is used in building structures because it is basically composed of crystallized Aluminum

silicate, which becomes viscous when water is added to it. Its color is based on the compounds present in
it, and ranges from white to dark brown. Mud is among the best heat insulators in nature, and the version
called clay contains 46% Aluminum silicate, 39.5% of Aluminum trioxide, in addition to 14% water. In other
words, it is a complicated compound of Silicon, Aluminum, and Hydrogen. What makes mud attractive for
human use is that man is familiar with its characteristics. Statistics show that over one billion people
around the world use mud for building, due to its insulation qualities and ease of use and formation. (Figure
8).

Figure 8: Mud domes in Adlib countryside.

1-3 Al-Qurnah Village

Engineer Hassan Fathy was afforded a rare opportunity when the Department of Archaeology
requested him in 1946 to build a whole village west of the city of Al -Uqsur, to house the residents of the
village of Al-Qurnah in the western mountain of the richest region in Egyptian archaeological sites, and
which contains the burial sites of Egyptian kings, queens, and notables, as well as the treasures of ancient
Egyptian civilizations. The people of Al-Qurnah had become experts in looting, smuggling, and selling
archaeological artifacts, sometimes melting gold pieces for easy trading. Officials resorted to transferring
the population of Al-Qurnah to protect the archeological sites, and decided that the most suitable and least
expensive solution was Hassan Fathy's mud architecture. Fathy decided to promote his ideas and
architectural concepts in this project, and took his builders to Al -Qurna, where he met with the residents,
studied their needs, and convinced them to discard their dreams of looting treasures. (Figure 9). Soon,
public buildings started to appear: the mosque, theater, market, product exhibitions, schools, a communal
livestock barn, and other facilities. Residential units also started to appear, but obstacles start ed to appear
as well. The architect declared that he was unable to complete his project. Residents of the village refused
to move to the new village away from their livestock, and down to a humid location compared to their
village on the mountain. The political situation changed in 1952 and the new authorities in power were
reluctant to force them to move.

Figure 9: The eastern façade of Al-Qurnah village in Egypt

The new Al-Qurnah remained an unfinished symphony and a deserted village for over 30 years, until
the population explosion forced many people to move in, though many of its features changed. In 1983, the
theater was renovated.

Architectural mistakes, unlike medical errors, are forever evident to the beholder. Al -Qurnah
remained empty for dozens of years and more of a destination for tourists and students of architecture,
packaged with trips to the archaeological sites. Hassan Fathy ended up defending his concept in his book:
Al-Qurnah: A Tale of Two Villages. (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Ceilings, Mosque Dome, Residential Facades, and the Domes System.
1-4 Shaikh Hilal Village, Hama Governorate, Syria

It never occurred to the residents of Shaikh Hilal village in Syria, whose population is about one
thousand, that their village would become a rare touristic destination, and that their inability to cultivate
their land due to the lack of rainfall, would reveal a unique touristic opportunity of their own making. A
local civil society organization, together with the Swiss International Cooperation organization (DDC),
turned the large number of mud dome houses, built by the village people many years before and kept in
addition to their more modern cement houses, into a resort-type village. The old houses were renovated
and together were used as a desert /rural resort which attracts European and local visitors who wish to
spend a few days in this type of environment.

With the establishment of a national highway linking the region with other Syrian cities, more
tourists flocked to Shaikh Hilal village to spend some time in the mud domes. The village is about 270
kilometers from the Syrian capital Damascus.

The project, dedicated as an environmental tourism endeavor, benefited from the experience of
Al-Qantara project in Morocco, which was visited by the local committee of Shaikh Hilal, assisted by a
French society. It comprises 106 mud domes properly renovated to provide all the necessary facilities.
Eventually, all 348 domes of the village will be renovated for use by tourists. The proj ect is unique in that
the owners of the domes share their food with the tourists, who enjoy the local cuisine in a small garden
attached to each dome. (Figure 11).

Tourists can also enjoy the local handicrafts, including wood

and straw products, typical embroidery, as well as local music and
dancing in the evenings. The best time to visit Shaikh Hilal is between
March and May, when the landscape is green and blooming with
flowers. The area also boasts a 2000 year old palace and temple, Al -
Bal'as nature reserve 30 kilometers away, to see the wild terebinth and
pistachio trees, Ibn Wardan palace with its unique red-roof tiles, and Al-
Rasafah area and its palaces.

Figure 11: Shaikh Hilal Village Domes.

Future plans for the village include building a multi-purpose hall

using mud, and organizing camping trips for tourists in the region, as
well as renovating the remaining domes and landscaping the site. A
number of national and foreign organizations have expressed interest
in participating in these future plans, including the Agha Khan
Foundation, and organizations from Switzerland, France, Germany, and
Denmark.

In general, mud as a natural raw material is readily available in most

areas, and people have mastered its use and simple technicalities,
knowing its natural qualities and characteristics.
1-5 Fujian Tulou Earthen Structures

The earthen buildings in the Chinese province of Fujian, sometimes referred to as the "miracle of the
South China mountains" attract many scientists and local and foreign visitors, with their charm and
uniqueness. Described by a UNESCO official as "a charming and unique mountain architectural style," these
earthen structures, found in the Fujian province and west of the Nanjing province, comprise a round, high,
and closed earthen wall, and a large tiled roof. Once you pass through the only door to the round structure,
you will discover that the interior is a different world, composed of wood pillars. The residential units are
connected together, with the dark tiled roof looking like a planetarium. The difference between the external
and internal structures is spectacular, with the outside earthen wall thick and heavy, and the internal
structure light and made of wood. While the external wall represents a fortified fortress, the internal
environment is pleasant. The reasons behind building these structures remained a mystery for local and
foreign scientists, who believed that migrants from the Ka Jia region built them for defensive purposes.
Defense is a major area of concern for all societies, so why build round structures in this part of China
specifically? One noteworthy point is that round structures dev eloped from square and rectangular
structures, which already existed in that province. (Figure 12).

Compared with square structures, round structures enjoy seven qualities:

1. Rooms built in the corners of square structures tend to be dark and badly ventilated, and are close
to wooden stairs, making them prone to noise and discomfort. This type of rooms does not exist in
round structures.
2. Compared with square structures, it is easier to distribute rooms in round structures among family
members, since there are no clear differences among rooms.
3. The internal courtyard area in a round structure is larger than that of a square structure when their
circumference is similar.
4. Round structures use less building materials than square ones.
5. Wood material standards in round buildings are uniform.
6. Astrologers believe that round buildings are more capable of repelling evil influences.
Scientifically, the resistance of round buildings to cold winds is higher than that of square buildings.
7. In resisting earthquake effects, round structures tolerate the horizontal earthquake force in a
harmonious manner, and hence they are more capable of resisting earthquakes.

Earthen structures in the Fujian province are numerous, and are divided into three types according to
their different shapes and forms. They are the five -Phoenix buildings, square buildings, and round
buildings. Round buildings are the most famous ones.

Figure 12: Earthen buildings in the Fujian province.

 A quick overview shows that these architectural models in Arab countries depended to a large extent on
local materials available in local markets. Many Arab countries, however, were abruptly transferred from a
regional economy based on the exchange of benefits, with complete economic and administrative
independence, to an industrial global economy based on an extensive distribution of public products by the
multinational industrial corporations, which put an end to helpless local craftsmen.

The Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy 1 confronted this vicious attack, taking these problems into
consideration, presenting a middle path based on vernacular technology, for which he dreamed to establish
an international institute. He took practical steps in this field and wrote a memorandum on the objectives of
this institute and its educational programs. He presented his idea to Umm Al -Qura University in Mecca,
suggesting that the main center of the institute be there, where educational and scientific means are
available, while the Cairo branch of the institute contributes to providing experts, trainers, and artisans. He
proposed the organizational structures for the two sites in Mecca and Cairo, and used his extensive contacts
to establish relations between the institute and a number of institutes and scientific institutions in England,
USA, Pakistan, and Iran. These efforts, however, were not to succeed.

In this context, Dr. Abd Al-Baqi Ibrahim2 says: Hassan Fathy believes that developing or poor societies
have no choice but to use vernacular technologies in construction, which depend on local materials and
skills, while fulfilling all the human living requirements, functionally and climatically, using self means,
without being western technology dependent. Thus, Hassan Fathy has his futuristic outlook, realized by very
few people who see the future of the world in the light of severe shortage in traditional energy sources. This
led to allocating a lot of funds to searching for alternative sources of energy, such as solar energy, or the
environmental compliance with the characteristics of the location and local building materials. He sees the
need for reliance on the technology that is compliant with the structure. If we look deeper in our
contemporary Arab building styles, we see that it is western technology-compliant, because western
technology is considered contemporary. Fathy sees a great danger in this trend, since this implies reliance
on the west economically and culturally, which deprives the Arab society of its identity, and deprives the
Arab architecture of its identity by extension.

Six general principles influenced Hassan Fathy as an architect:

- His belief in the supremacy of human principles of architecture.

- The importance of the systems that can be implemented globally.
- The use of suitable technologies.
- The need for cooperative ways in building, with social approaches.
- The main role of traditions and habits.
- Re-instilling the national heritage through building. 3

In any case, Fathy undertook a number of practical attempts since the 1940s to modernize mud
building, and participated in a number of specialized scientific research committees in the field of rural
housing. He had special interests in research and studies on local materials, traditional construction
methods, and the potential for using them at present, after subjecting them to engineering standards and
observing environmental conditions. He was also interested in climatic research in architecture and
planning, and authored a famous book titled: "Natural Energy and Traditional Architecture."4 However, his

1
Architect Hassan Fathy was born in Alexandria in 1900, and died in 1989.
2
Ibrahim, Abd Al-Baqi, Arab Architects: Hassan Fathy, Center for Planning and Architectural Studies, Mans hiat Al-
Bakry, Heliopolis (undated).
3
Reidan, Dana: Mud Houses. Environment and Development Magazine (Beirut), Vol. III, Issue 12 (May/June 1998)
page 30.
4
Fathy, H. Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture. University of Tokyo and the University of Chicago Press.
Chicago 1985
book "Architecture for the Poor" )5 (was more famous and enjoyed more extensive distribution, and
represented a manual of his thoughts and theories regarding mud architecture, as well as his experience in
the village of Al-Qurnah.

Some of his ideas were implemented through Dar Al-Islam project in the north of the state of New
Mexico in the US, which was designed on top of a hill on 42 hectares overlooking the village of Abiquiu.
Fathy's master plan, which was to be implemented over 10 years, was composed of a village for about 150
families, with a mosque, a school, a hostel, and a clinic. Fathy visited the site in 1980 with two Nubean
builders to teach local artisans methods of constructing arches and domes from sun -dried mud bricks
without the need for wooden molds. Parts of the project, incl uding the mosque and the school, were
actually built.6 (Figure 13).

Hassan Fathy was awarded a number of international architectural awards, having written about
principles and trends that appeared more than 30 years after his time. More importantly, he implemented
this in design and construction.

Figure 13: Mosque at the Dar Al-Islam project in Abiquiu, New Mexico, USA, designed by the late architect
Hassan Fathy. He appears in the picture explaining the design to some American architects in 1981.

When prominent architects discovered that Fathy had advocated these principles and trends before
them in the 1930s and 1940s, they delved into his writings. 7 A number of international schools were
established recognizing his pioneering and leadership role. His works were quoted by politicians and leaders
as works that honor the continuity of traditions, habits, and heritage. 8

Most international architectural magazines published about Fathy, and his name became a household
phenomenon among architects for a period of time in all countries, except in the Arab countries where he
was born, and for which he dedicated his architectural thought. In spite of the appreciation Fathy enjoyed in
international circles and the honors and awards of appreciation he received, making him a prominent figure
in the contemporary history of Arabic architecture, his name, nevertheless, is rarely mentioned in
architectural curriculum and classrooms of Arab universities and institutes of higher education. Most Arab
architects hardly know his name, due to the very little that was written about him in Arabic.

Fathy, H. Architecture for the Poor. An Experiment in Rural Egypt. University of Chicago Press. Chicago 1973
6
Dillon, D. A mosque for Abiquiu. Progressive Architecture. James J. Hoverman Publisher. June 1983. (pp 90-92.).
7
Al-Ghafri, Ahmad. Hassan Fatfy: The Pioneering Architect and Harsh Critic. Arab Engineer Journal (Damascus),
Issue 97 (1990), page 6.
8
Ra'fat, Ali. The Role of Hassan Fathy in Developing Global Architecture, Cairo, Undated.
 In spite of his international reputation, Hassan Fathy's name was hardly mentioned in Arab circles.
Some projects of mud architecture have been initiated by Fathy's students and supporters, but are
incomparable with such efforts in western countries.

Mud-Building in Western Countries

Historical evidence of mud architecture in Europe is old, but has not reached its levels in the Arab
and Muslim countries, which were the cradle of many old civilizations. The concept of cities started in
Europe with the influence of the Romans about 2000 years ago when they established the capital of their
empire's western provinces in Lyon, currently the second largest French city, using mud as the basic building
material in 75% of rural residential construction. In this region, there are outstanding models of palaces
built from mud over the past 200 years, currently occupied by bourgeois classes, as well as public buildings
such as schools, hospitals and others, some of which are five levels high. Jean Dethier 9 believes that at least
15% of rural construction in France uses mud, and there are numerous examples of these mud buildings in
the vicinity of Lyon, Reims, Grenoble, Toulouse, Rennes, Avignon, and Chartres near the French capital Paris.

Traditional mud-building in and around Lyon had a prominent role in the emergence of the first
pioneer in modern mud architecture, namely, engineer Francois Cointeraux, 10 whose work and studies in
modernizing mud-building had a deep influence outside Europe and into Germany, Italy, and Denmark
starting in 1790. His work promoted interest even in USA in 1806 and in Australia in 1823. In the footsteps
of Francois Cointeraux, a group of European architects and engineers established the International Center
for Research and Application of Earth Architecture (CRATerre Group) in 1979 in the city of Grenoble. The
real start of this group can be traced back to 1973 during the global oil crisis, when a group of students from
the Grenoble School of Architecture carried out some experiments in search of simple and cheap building
materials and energy technologies with suitable efficiency to be used in low-income housing projects. (Figure
14).

Figure 14: Architectural plans and images of the

(L’Isle d’Abeau) housing project built in south France
in 1984.

9
Dethier, J. Earth Architecture. Saudi-French M eetings on Earth Architecture. Tuwaig Palace, Diplomatic Quarter, Riyadh. M arch
1988. (pp. 1-13.).
10
Architect Francois Cointeraux was born in Lyon in 1740.
 These efforts continued until 1976 when the Grenoble School of Architecture started to offer a
special course in mud-building. A mud lab was then established in 1977 to provide specialized training in
mud-building, promoting this method not only in developing countries but in Europe as well. In 1981, the
group organized a large exhibition of mud architecture at the Georges Pompidou Center in Paris for the
purpose of introducing this technology and encouraging its future use. The exhibition toured a number of
countries and was accompanied by publishing the book "Down to Earth" 11 which was translated into more
than seven languages. A number of urban projects emerged from the efforts of this outstanding group, and
mud-structures were built in projects like "I’Isle d’Abeau" in 1984, composed of 63 housing units in buildings
3 - 5 levels each, 12 in the area between the cities of Lyon and Grenoble. The CRATerre Group also
contributed with the Grenoble School of Architecture to creating a two-year graduate (Master's) course in
mud-building, which addresses the theoretical and application sides of earth-architecture. (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Architectural plans of I’ Isle d’ Abeau housing project.

Nevertheless, mud was used in western countries at different levels. For example, mud -building
traditions are considered an old building system in Britain.13 Cob buildings prevailed in the region from
Cornwall to Hampshire, while most buildings using this system are found in Devon in the southwest of
England.14 The use of sundried brick, called clay lump, prevailed in the eastern region of England, particularly
in Norfolk. Although building using compressed earth is considered a prevailing tradition in the Rennes
Valley in France, this method was only introduced in England after 1790, and was used at a smaller scale in
the southern parts of England. 15

After World War I, there were numerous attempts to use earth for building, perhaps most
prominent of which was a housing project by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in the town of
Amesbury in Wiltshire in 1920, where 35 houses were built, five of which were supervised and implemented

11
Dethier, J. Down to Earth. Centre of Georges Pompidou, Paris, 1981. English edition published by Thames & Hudson Ltd. London,
1982.
12
Dethier, J. Back to Earth. The Architectural Review. Vol.CLXXXVIII, No. 1123. September 1990. (pp 80-83.).
13
Ashurst, Jone & Nicola. Practical Building Conservation. Gower Technical Press Ltd. England 1988.
14
Davey, N. A History of Building M aterials. Phoenix House Ltd. London 1961.
15
Williams-Ellis, C. and Eastwick-Field, J.& E. Building in Cob, Pise and Stabilized Earth. Country Life Ltd., London 1947.
by staff from the scientific and industrial research section. In a study 16 to evaluate these houses carried out
by the faculty of architecture at Cambridge University in 1973, there was a reference indicating that the
buildings were in good shape, with the exception of minor details. The study reached the conclusion that
the experiment was a success, and the lessons learned from it provide a solid ground for reconsidering
building earth houses. In 1950, the British Building Research Station constructed an experimental building
from cement-stabilized soil blocks at its center in Garston. A researcher by the name of Dr. Webb 17
developed in 1983 a special press which he called "Brepak" to manufacture stabilized soil build ing blocks.

In the mid-1990s, the Plymouth School of Architecture cooperated with a local mud-building
organization in Devon to develop curricula and organize seminars in an attempt to revive mud -building
traditions in the region and encourage the use of mud in modern buildings. 18 A center for earth architecture
was also established in Plymouth University for the research and applications of mud -building in Britain.

In the United States, which is closely connected to west Europe in this field, Spanish co lonialists
brought with them, upon their arrival in the sixteenth century, the prevailing European technologies in mud -
building, introducing them to prevailing building traditions. 19 Mud-building in the south-western states
(Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California) is considered a common local building method. In
New Mexico, about 15% of local building is done using sun-dried mud bricks (Adobe), and most of the rest of
building methods use Adobe-style bricks with mud-colored
rendering over wood frames.20 Santa Fe, the capital city of
New Mexico still contains a large number of modern
buildings that were constructed with mud. Municipal
authorities there issued a law requiring the preservation of
mud structures, and requiring other buildings to exhibit a
mud appearance, in order to preserve the city's unique
identity and character. 21 (Figure 16). The oil crisis of 1973
enhanced calls for energy preservation in buildings. Ruth
Eaton22 mentioned that the construction industry consumes
between 25 and 30% of the national expenditure on energy
in most industrial countries. Developments in the
construction industry since 1973 show that a number of
buildings were developed with 95% self-dependence in
energy. These "solaradobe" buildings are among the
important areas of experimentation in future architecture. 23

Figure 16: Internal and external views of a luxury villa built

from mud in 1980 by architect William Lumpkins in New
Mexico. (Source: Dethier, Jane. Down to Earth. Thames
and Hudson Ltd. London 1982. P 186.)

16
Vale, Brenda. A Review of the M inistry of Agriculture's Earth Houses, Working Paper 17. Department of Architecture, University
of Cambridge, 1973.
17
Webb, D.J.T. Stabilised Soil Building Blocks. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Arts, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K. 1988.
18
Watson, L. Earth as a British Building M aterial. Architectural Design Vol 67 No.1/2 Jan/Feb 1997. (pp87-90)
Sinha, S. Down to Earth Buildings. Architectural Design Vol 67 No.1/2 Jan/Feb 1997. (pp 91-93.)
19
M cHenry, P.G. Adobe and rammed earth buildings. A Wiley -Interscience Publication, New York. 1984.
20
M ulligan, H. Back to the Land. Building Design, February 6, 1987. (pp14-15.).
21
Gleye, P. Santa Fe Without Adobe: Lessons For The Identity Of Place. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. Autumn
1994. (pp181-196.)
22
Eaton, Ruth. M ud: an examination of earth architecture. Architectural Review, Vol.1016. October 1981.
23
Carlson, Eric. International Foundation for Earth Construction: 1987 - Year of Shelter for the Homeless. Solar Earthbuilder
International, Issue No. 48. New M exico, 1986.
 Developments in mud-building in the United States followed a different method from that in France and
other western European countries, concentrating on US specificities, without addressing developing
countries' issues. Hence, US developers achieved limited success in developing countries due to the
complicated and costly methods they were used to and tried to implement. 24

Like other building materials, mud has its pros and cons. In many areas, it has been completely
discarded and its future use remains dubious. On the other hand, there are those who believe that earth-
architecture has a large potential in certain areas and under specific climatic and environmental conditions.
The more realistic group calls for utilizing its potentially positive features and work on developing its
negative sides, since it is not fair to compare it with modern building materials such as concrete, which
enjoyed heavy research and development, and to develop its use in rural and low -income housing under
suitable climatic conditions.

3-1 Characteristics of Mud as a Building Material

Mud has numerous positive features which have been realized over its long history of use:

- The material is available in most construction sites, and is considered the only free building material
available. This indicates that the ideal investment in this available material threatens the large deep-
rooted industrial projects which produce modern building materials and depletes natural resources,
spreading pollution and resulting in the loss of the environmental balance.
- The simple nature of the preparation and construction processes using this material, which only
requires simple equipment and tools, and does not require specialized technical knowhow. Hence, it
is possible to employ unskilled labor, reducing unemployment and investing human resources in the
construction sector. This simplicity encourages the concept of self -construction of housing as was
the case in the past, and as is the case currently in New Mexico.
- Numerous methods of earth-building, which provides the investor or project owner an opportunity
to select the optimum method of construction through a study of the earth quality, available labor,
and building technologies, which contributes to the formation of an independent construction
character that blends and integrates with nature.
- Large savings in transportation. Earth, which is the building material, is available at the construction
site, unlike modern building materials such as cement blocks or concrete, which require costly
transportation, especially in countries which do not have a transportation infrastructure, as is the
case in developing countries.
- Saving in energy consumption through the use of simple equipment in formation and solar energy in
drying, in addition to the natural qualities of the material as a heat and cold insulator. Numerous
studies have shown that earth buildings are cool in summer and warm in winter.25
- Other engineering features such as sound insulation and fire resistance, which provides complete
privacy and safety.
- Ease of recycling elements and reducing them to their original status, thus avoiding the
accumulation of rubble resulting from construction and demolition, as is the case in many other
building materials. The recycling process in the case of mud takes place naturally through rain, wind,
and others, and does not entail poisonous gases or chemicals that pollute the environment.

24
Al-Jadeed, M ansour A. Building with Earth: Traditional Architecture & New Technology with Special Reference to Saudi Arabia.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales, Cardiff, 1994.
25
El-Fadil, A. Thermal Performance of Earth Dwellings in Hot Dry Climates with Special Reference to Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis, Welsh
School of Architecture, University of Wales, Cardiff, 1993.
Al-Ajlan, S. Thermal M ass and Stabilised Soil Blocks for Achieving Energy-saving in the Hot, Arid Climates of Ar-Riyadh Region,
Saudi Arabia. Ph.D. Thesis, School of Engineering, University of Reading, Reading, 1994.
 Some of the above characteristics are significant for Arab and developing countries, while others are
significant for western and industrial countries. All countries share many of these characteristics. (Table 1)

Level of Significance for Countries

Arab and Developing Western and
Countries Industrial Countries
Main Features of

Significant
High
e
Significanc
Medium
e
Significanc
Low

Significant
Very
e
Significanc
Medium
e
Significanc
Low
Earth-Building

Low cost and availability of  

Mud
Reduce pollution and  
environmental depletion
Ease of construction using  
mud
Reduce unemployment  
among unskilled labor
Numerous ways of mud  
construction
Saving in transportation  
Saving in energy  
consumption
Engineering characteristics of  
mud
Ease of recycling mud  
products
 Table No. 1
Main Characteristics of Building with Mud, and the Relative Importance for Arab and
Developing Countries on One Side, and Western and Industrialized Countries on the Other

2- 3 Defects of Mud as a Building Material

In spite of its numerous features mentioned earlier, mud continues to be unacceptable officially
in many countries of the world. This is mainly due to its defects that cannot be ignored, in addition to
the lack of accurate information about mud and its products, and the ideal method of using them.
Nevertheless, the main defects can be summarized as follows:

 Poor resistance to the negative effects of water from rain and streams, and water rising from the
floors and foundations through the capillary effect. Water penetration of mud buildings is considered
one of the main reasons that lead to their damage, and probably even rapid disintegration, especially
the roofs, which absorb water, and their weight increases, causing increased loads on the structural
elements supporting them to a large extent, resulting in their eventual fall. Furthermore, the
evaporation of the salt-saturated water from the mud results in those salts being deposited on the
surface of the material and contributes to their decomposition and weakness with time. )26 (
 The relative weakness of mud in supporting loads, rendering it inappropriate for supporting heavy
roofs, in addition to its very poor resistance to loads of tensi on, which limits its use in earthquake-
prone areas, and also reduces the use of its products in structures that require resistance to bending
moments, such as bridges and roofs. For this reason, we find that the use of mud in old building
architecture was restricted to building walls, arches, and roof technologies which rely on pressure,
such as domes and basements.
 The large volume changes in mud products, especially those which contain a high percentage of silt,
causing cracks when exposed to consecutive cycles of different climatic conditions, such as humidity,
dryness, and so on, which renders whitening of these roofs impractical as a result of cracks and the
poor connection between the mud surface and the whitening material. This phenomenon can be seen
clearly in the mud course building system.
 Mud surfaces are prone to erosion to a large extent as a result of various environmental effects, such
as rain, sand-carrying wind, or erosion as a result of use by inhabitants or users, which contributes to
reducing the strength of this material and requires continued repair and maintenance. This is well-
known about mud structures, especially in countries with heavy rainfall, where owners re -plaster and
white-wash them after every rain season.

Hill, D.V. Salt Erosion and Adobe Architecture. Solar Earthbuilder International, Issue No. 46, Adobe News Inc., Albuquerque,
New M exico, 1986.
Technical Services Division, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Preservation of Historic Adobe Building, Adobe Today's Earthbuilder
International, Issue No. 44, Adobe News Inc., Albuquerque, New M exico, 1986
  Poor connection between mud and other materials like wood, causing connections in windows and
doors to be a tough process that requires special architectural details.
 Mud being prone to hosting insects and rodents as a result of the cracks, as well as its good heat and
cold characteristics that encourage rodents and insects to use it as habitat. The detrimental effects of
this are well-known, causing buildings to disintegrate and affecting residents' health.

As is evident in most of these negatives sides, there is a large potential to ignore them in view of the
technical abilities available at present, and in view of the developments this material witnessed over the
past few years. The real problem, however, that requires some time to solve is the perception of
inferiority towards this material, connecting it
to poverty, ignorance, and underdevelopment
by many people, forming an illusory barrier
between this material and decision makers on
one hand, and users on the other.

There are many old and new ways of building

using mud, and anyone viewing mud-building
around the world can count over 15 widespread
ways of construction using it (Figure 17).

Figure 17: Mud-Building methods in various

areas around the world.

These methods range between full use of mud in all elements of the structure, as in the case of
excavation for the full project inside the earth, evident in some settlements in North Africa, and the use of
mud bricks in the construction of the whole structure, including walls and roofs using domes and arches as in
Egypt. In between these two methods, there is a whole spectrum of methods and technologies of mud -
building, which use this material alone or integrated with other materials in building walls in various areas of
the world.

The concept of mud walls depends, in general, on selecting the right soil, which is mixed with the
right quantity of water and formed in a coordinated manner, using the right construction method, yielding a
solid and strong structure. The necessary cohesion of the soil mixture is obtained either by the natural
evaporation of the water from the mixture, as is the case in the adobe bricks, which is dried in the sun
before being used for building, or the mud mixture drying in situ directly in the wall as is the case in the Cob
method. This cohesion may also be obtained by external pressure of a wet mixture of soil in special molds,
as in the case of ‘Rammed Earth’ and most types of ‘Stabilized Earth Blocks’ )Figure 18(.

)A( (B)

)C( )D(

(E) (F)
 Figure 18: Main mud-building methods: A. Blocks, as in Hadhramout in Yemen. B. Cob, as in 'Asir
in Saudi Arabia. C. Rammed earth as in Morocco. D. Stabilized earth blocks as in a number of
modern projects. E. Use of modern equipment in the production of blocks in commercial
quantities as in America. F. Use of manual ramming tools as in the production of stabilized blocks
in Mali.

The above methods are considered the main mud-building methods from around the world
in general, and in Arab and western countries in particular. These methods enjoy a great deal of
interest for development purposes due to their widespread use and to their characteristics. These
methods can be briefly described as follows:

4-1 Construction with Mud Blocks (Adobe):

This method of mud-building is found in the Arab world in Egypt, Iraq, the Levant, Yemen, and Najd
and Al-Ihsa' in Saudi Arabia. In the west, it is found in the southern and south -western United States
(California, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona), as well as the eastern parts of England, particularly in the
middle and south Norfolk.

In the past, blocks were prepared by mixing earth, which, in most cases, carried a large ratio of clay,
with water and chopped straw or other plant fibers. These were mixed w ell by treading, using ox or cattle.
Bottomless wooden block molds are then used, with measurements and numbers of cavities varying from
one area to another. The mold is placed on the ground, filed with the mud mixture, and rammed by hand to
ensure that all gaps are filled and a homogeneous mass is obtained. The mold is then removed, leaving the
formed mud mass on the ground, which is left for a few days to dry. The mold is cleaned from mud residues
using earth or a wooden tool, to prevent mud from sticking to its sides when repeating the process. The
process is repeated in close lines of blocks separated by narrow gaps and left to dry in the sun, turning the
blocks on their sides to facilitate the flow of air currents and therefore complete dryness bef ore using the
blocks in construction.

This method continues to be the prevailing method in block-formation in most countries around the
world which adopt this type of building. The process has been automated in some countries of the world,
particularly in the United States, in the mixing and formation processes, in order to produce mud blocks in
commercial quantities, due to the increasing demand for this type of construction, especially in New Mexico
where some specialized producers reside.

4-2 Clay Course Building (Cob):

This type of mud-building is common in the Arab world, in parts of Yemen, such as Sa'dah, in Ha'el and
'Asir in Saudi Arabia, and in different parts of the Arab world, particularly in building surrounding walls,
fortresses, and fortifications. Cob building is common in western countries in England, in the area extending
from Cornwall to Hampshire, while the majority of this type of building is found in Devon in the south
western part of England.

Mud-building resembles, to a large extent, the mud-block (cob) building in the method by which the
mud material is mixed and prepared, noting that the chopped hay is added in larger quantities in the latter
method to avoid cracking resulted from the drying of the silt, normally available in large quantities in the soil
used to prepare the cob mud. The importance of mud fermented with hay lies in the fact that this material
is responsible for the cohesion among the soil components. This method of building requires a level of
plasticity and cohesion to be used. The importance of fermenting mud with hay lies in the dissolution of
some cellulose materials from the hay, which provides better resistance to the rain water effect.

Mud in this method is prepared by forming it from the mix into spherical pieces so that the worker can
manipulate it by hand and hand it to the builder who lays the pieces in courses 30 centimeters high. The
builder then refines and forms the mud balls by hand to form a continuous laye r along the wall, which is left
to dry before starting on the next course. 27 In spite of the widespread use of this mud-building method in
the past and the strong buildings it produces, it has not been developed at present.

4-3 Rammed Earth Building:

This mud-building method is common in the Arab world, in the Maghreb countries including Tunisia
and Algeria, and to a larger extent in Morocco. This method is rarely used in the Arab Mashriq countries,
while it is quite common in western countries. In France, the rammed earth is considered a common
tradition in the Rhine Valley in Germany, in Spain, and on a smaller scale in the southern parts of England.

Compared to the other mud-building method, this one is characterized by the fact that the quantity
of water added to the soil is small (less than 10%), which gives the soil the wetness and plasticity that
contribute well to its compaction. The wet soil is then placed in molds similar to those used for concrete.
These molds are fixed on the basis of the walls to be constructed. The soil is rammed and compacted
sufficiently in these molds, using special wooden pieces, as in the case of developing countries, or using
simple tools, as in the case of developed countries.

When the molds are filled with rammed earth, they are dismantled and moved horizontally until a
complete continuous layer is formed of the rammed earth along the wall. The molds are then removed
vertically to form another layer, and so on until the roof level is reached.

4-4 Building with Stabilized Earth Blocks:

The stabilized earth blocks method is considered the post-World War II version of the rammed earth
method. This method consolidates the cob system and the rammed earth system. This is considered the
latest mud-building method, and hence its use in the Arab countries is still limited to some private projects in
Egypt, Morocco, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia. It is more widely spread in western countries, particularly in USA
and France.

In this method, an appropriate type of soil is mixed when dry with some stabilizing materials such as
cement, bitumen, gypsum, or others to increase its strength and resistance to water. The earth is then
wetted using the same method as the rammed earth, and rammed in molds or special presses, after wh ich
the blocks are taken to be dried and treated before using it in building. The blocks are then used along the
same method as block building using mixed soil. A number of machines and presses that are easy to use
were developed for use in preparing, mixing, and compacting soil.

This mud-building method is considered the most widely spread at present, due to its numerous
positive features, perhaps most prominent of which is its ease of use and the availability of the appropriate
technology.

27
Al-Jadid, Mansour Ibn Abd Al-Aziz. Genuine Architectural Patterns in the Southern Part of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. Research approved for publishing the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies Journal (Kuwait).
Reference was earlier made to the numerous characteristics of mud, which motivated many people
concerned to call for using this material. At present, and in spite of many efforts exerted in this respect by
individuals and centers, hopes have not been fulfilled for this material to enjoy development and use.

Three main double-axes for developing this material may be referred to here, namely, the scientific-legal,
the publicity-cultural, and the economic-environmental. A number of recommendations are listed under
each of these important axes. Following is a summary of the main ones:

5-1 Recommendations of the Scientific and legal Axis:

- The need to coordinate rather than duplicate efforts by benefiting from existing research and application
centers which give great importance to this material. It is possible, in this context, to benefit from the
internet.
- Assessment of the practical field experiments where mud was used in a modern way in building, for the
purpose of deriving lessons and avoiding defects.
- Exert efforts towards developing the durability of mud, and to search for effective and economic
methods for surface protection to resist the effects of water and sand-saturated wind.
- Benefit from the available information at present in addressing the healthy e lements in mud buildings
and study their effects.
- Study the relations between mud and other building materials, including wood, water insulation
materials, tiles, whitening materials, paints, and others, whereby connection points represent an area
that requires research and study in order to guarantee good and integrated performance of mud
buildings.
- Take into consideration the requirements of necessary engineering systems, including electro -
mechanical fittings, and study means of installing and maintaining them in mud-buildings in a manner
that guarantees preserving these buildings and extending its virtual life.
- Financing specialized studies in developing this material by official parties and the private sector in order
to encourage researchers to highlight some of the mud's characteristics in an accurate scientific manner,
such as resistance to fire and sound insulation, and addressing some of the negative aspects, such as
poor resistance to earthquakes and others which vary from one country to another.
- Official encouragement and protection of modern mud-building methods which proved their merit,
quality, and suitability for the environment on one hand and the requirements of users on the other,
adopting them in appropriate government projects.
- Serious work in developing standards for mud-building, and serious efforts to spread them by all means,
as well as convincing decision-makers of the need to include them in standards and specifications
documents of all countries.

5-2 Recommendations Related to the Publicity Cultural Axis

- Promote awareness among people in general of the numerous characteristics of this material, spreading
information about it and holding exhibits, lectures, seminars, and discussions, as well as other methods
which contribute to the acceptance by people of the use of this material in building and encouraging its
use.
- Highlight modern architectural projects built with mud in advanced countries in order to alleviate
misconceptions in the minds of many people in developing countries, such as connecting this material
with poverty, sickness, and underdevelopment.
- Good design of mud buildings, which benefits from the capabilities of this material and senses the
environmental and climatic limitations surrounding it, and the proper implementat ion in order to
produce buildings which represent a tangible model that can be publicized through available media
outlets, in order to convince the skeptics and undecided.
- Include mud-construction courses in engineering and architecture faculties in Arab u niversities to
provide students with some technical information about this material and its characteristics, and some
simple and possible methods for developing it.
- Attend to renovating mud-structures that have an architectural value according to the original materials
used in them, benefiting from previous renovation work of similar buildings, in order to avoid mistakes
and preserve the independent architectural identity of each region.

5-3 Recommendations Related to the Economic and Environmental Axis

- Highlight the economic aspects of mud-building at all levels thorough specialized studies, including the
initial cost of construction, operating costs including energy consumption, maintenance, and others,
comparing these with structures constructed using other materials, in addition to other methods that
contribute to adopting this material as a solution to the housing problem from which many developing
countries suffer.
- Focus on the environmental dimension of mud-building, especially industrial countries, highlighting the
environmental sides of this material, whether regarding matters of production and the use of suitable
technology which reduces pollution, or regarding non-hazardous or environmentally detrimental waste
resulting from using this material in building, and taking the necessary means to highlight this side.
- Mud is considered among the oldest materials used and developed by man through a number of
different building technologies, according to information available and in compatibility with the
surrounding environmental conditions. This material is characterized by many features, though it also
has a few defects, which requires a comprehensive scientific and impartial study, far from emotions and
skepticism, in order to develop it through recommendations provided by this and other studies.

The opportunity is currently considered favorable to draw attention to this material in many Arab
countries in which many architects and engineers realized, before others, that through the haphazard use of
modern technology, they have lost a large part of their connection to their culture and environment, and
henceforth their identity which distinguishes them from others. This made these designers long for the past
and try to recapture it through often some unstudied and improvised attempts of reverting to the use of
mud. Such attempts may prove detrimental though meant to improve.

Nevertheless, these attempts require rationalization in order to attend to the core of the issue rather
than its face value, particularly in the Arab region which lacks the ability to keep pace with developments in
this material, especially that most of what was written on it is in English and French.

From the above, we can identify the characteristics of mud-building according to the following:

Using mud in building once again allows the achievement of the following positive sides:

1. Being a natural material available in most areas, mud made people rely on its use through simple
technologies, knowing fully well the physical benefits of their habitat. Mud structures are healthy in
that they are cool in summer and warm in winter.
2. The need to search for natural materials increases every day, at a time when we notice how
expensive new manufactured materials are. Mud is cheap as an alternative construction material.
3. Mud is among the best materials environmentally. It does not pollute the environment in
processing, implementation, or renovation, or in case or demolishing the structure or rebuilding it,
or even in cases of discarding it and leaving it to disintegrate.
4. Mud retains heat, coolness, and humidity, which contributes to improving the climate. It is possible,
through the addition of cohesive materials in studied ratios, to achieve the necessary durability and
insulation in building.
 5. Mud saves the energy necessary in processing. It requires 1% only of the energy needed for
concrete which, when produced, requires oxygen and energy and produces hazardous materials.
6. It was noticed through experience that opaque external thick walls achieve the highest levels of
delay in heat conductivity, and that 40 centimeters thick mud walls delay heat by 15 hours. In
return, we see that cement block walls which are 20 centimeters thick delay heat by only 5 hours
and 6 minutes only.
7. Compacted mud with no fibrous materials has a specific weight of 1800 kilograms (kgs) per cubic
meter. By adding 40 kgs of straw to each cubic meters, its specific weight becomes 1400 kg/m3, and
by adding 60 kgs of straw, it becomes 1000 kg/m3, and by adding 80 kgs of straw, it becomes 600
kg/m3 only. For comparison purposes, the specific weight of concrete 33 is 2500 kg/m3.
8. The stress tolerance of a wind-dried mud unit which includes 24% fine clay, 34% soil molecules, and
33% sand, is 35 kg/cm3.
9. From experience in the countryside of Damascus and from comparing a mud building with a
concrete one, an economic saving of 36% over the concrete building was achieved.
10. This cheap and readily available material is capable of providing a direct and rapid result.
11. This type of construction can be a liberator from the confines of centralization, bureaucracy, and
monopoly.
12. Adopting the mud construction system rebuilds the close relationship between man and building,
represented in volumes, shapes, and heritage emanating from man and his human dimension which
is mostly ignored by followers of what is called the global style.

Among the most prominent architects in earth-building are Alan Mason and Jan Hans. Together they built
about 2900 residential units in Morocco in 1968.

The Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy is considered one of few architects who established their own
school which is connected to the earth and to culture. Among his works is the "New Al -Qurnah" village, built
from mud, responding to the hot desert environme nt. He was called "the architect of the poor." He is
quoted to have said: "When man builds in cooperation with his neighbors a brilliant process of exchange of
effort and experience takes place." He emphasizes: "Doubtlessly, one man cannot build his o wn house
alone, but 10 men can, if they cooperate, build 10 houses. With time, the village will prosper and survive.
This is how Al-Qurnah was built, and after it the Paris village, and so on."

We need a great deal of effort and hard work to convince poor community members to review their
heritage to find solutions to many problems they suffer from. It is important that political, economic, and
social leaderships, in addition to governments, institutions, and individuals who wish to help, extend the
necessary encouragement.

Today, we are in need of modern architecture that is suitable for our time, reality, civilization,
modernism, and climate. Hence is the return to studying and recording all styles and technologies, most
important and famous of which being the earth architecture on which our construction methods were
established since the dawn of history, and whose technologies continue to be used until this day, although
they are restricted to very poor areas. It is possible to say that returning to mud and reviving its historical
style, making it the prevailing method of building where appropriate, is a matte r of absolute importance.
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